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THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
NEW YORK • BOSTON * CHICAGO • DALLAS
ATLANTA * SAN FRANCISCO
MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED
LONDON ' BOMBAY • CALCUTTA » MADRAS
MELBOURNE
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
OP CANADA, LIMITED
TORONTO
The Races
of Europe
CARLETON STEVENS COON
Assistant Professor of Anthropology
HARVARD UNIVERSITY
New Tork
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
•
7939
COPYRIGHT, 1939,
BY -THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED NO PART OF THIS BOOK MAY BE
REPRODUCED IN ANY FORM WITHOUT PERMISSION IN WRITING
FROM THE PUBLISHER, EXCEPT BY A REVIEWER WHO WISHES
TO QUOTE BRIEF PASSAGES IN CONNECTION WITH A REVIEW
WRITTEN FOR INCLUSION IN MAGAZINE OR NEWSPAPER
Published, April, 1939.
SET UP AND ELECTROTYPED BY T. MOREY 6t SON
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
To
PROFESSOR WILLIAM Z. RIPLEY,
Author of the earlier and classic
RACES OF EUROPE,
at whose suggestion the present work was begun
and in whose honor it is named.
INTRODUCTION
The present book is offered to the College audience as a text in a specific
branch of physical anthropology. In it an attempt is made to trace the
racial history of the white division of Homo sapiens from its Pleistocene
beginnings to the present. Although six chapters are specifically devoted
to a study of skeletal material by consecutive cultural periods, the main
emphasis is placed upon the racial identification and classification of
living white peoples. If there is one consistent theme in this book, it is
that physical anthropology cannot be divorced from cultural and his-
torical associations, and that there is no such thing as "pure" biology,
at least in reference to human beings.
In writing a book of this character it has been necessary to employ a
number of technical terms; the reader will find these defined in the glos-
sary. Statistical tables have been purposely omitted from the text, but
since many of the conclusions and identifications made in the chapters
of skeletal history are novel, it has seemed advisable to document them
by means of tabular material. For this reason the fifty-three columns of
basic cranial means have been included as Appendix I.
References to all sources from which material, anthropometric or other-
wise, has been drawn are given in footnotes in the sections in which
specific data are mentioned. Although over four thousand titles have been
consulted in the preparation of this volume, the author makes no pre-
tense to have covered the entire literature of the subject. A number of
unimportant references have been purposely omitted, and many others
which are important have without doubt been overlooked. Except for
materials used with special permission in advance of publication, no
reference is made to data appearing later than July, 1938.
Two collateral phases of physical anthropology have, for adequate
reasons, been completely avoided: the study of blood groups and the
question of racial intelligence or racial psychology. The science of blood
groups has, by 1 938, developed a prodigious bibliography of its own, and
will soon be treated in a special survey by Professor Wm. Boyd of Boston
University. So far as specialists in this field have yet determined, there is
no genetic linkage between blood group types and anthropometric
phenomena. The subject of racial intelligence has, on the other hand,
not progressed far enough to merit inclusion in a general work of racial
history; it has furthermore provided too ready a field for political exploita-
tion to be treated or interpreted as a side issue with scientific detachment.
INTRODUCTION
Races, in the present volume, are studied without implication of inferiority
or superiority.
In the financing of the work, in the collection of data, and in the prepa-
ration of the manuscript, many persons have participated. The initial
work of collection and preparation was financed, for two years, by gener-
ous grants from the Milton Fund and John G. Clark Bequest of Harvard
University. Further financing which permitted its completion was pro-
vided by my father, Mr. John Lewis Coon, by The Macmillan Company,
and by Mr. Lloyd Cabot Briggs. For the original suggestion that I be
chosen to write the book, for his support in obtaining the original research
funds, and for his continual advice and encouragement, I am deeply
indebted to my teacher, Professor Earnest A. Hooton, who initiated me
to physical anthropology and to whom I wish to render here an expression
of homage and appreciation not only as my personal mentor but also as
the spiritual father of American physical anthropology.
Of the many assistants who helped with the tedious labor of translating,
abstracting, calculating, plotting, checking, and typing, four deserve
especial credit: Mrs. Mary Ruby Gardner, Miss Anna Szugzda, Mr.
Eugene C. Worman, and Mr. Jens Yde. Mr. Elmer Rising, who pre-
pared all of the maps, charts, and line drawings, made the task of illus-
tration easy with his experience and cooperation. Mr. Frederick P.
Orchard and Miss Marion Lambert assisted in the preparation of the
photographic illustrations.
Miss Constance Ashenden, Librarian of the Peabody Museum of
Harvard University, under whose direction every article in the scientific
periodicals included in the library has been separately catalogued by
author, subject, and country, placed at my disposal her great knowledge
of the bibliography of anthropology, as well as her time and patience.
To her and to Mr. Francis Gould, her assistant, I owe an especial debt
of gratitude.
The following persons have permitted me to make use of unpublished
anthropometric materials: Dr. Gordon T. Bowles, Mr. C. Wesley Duper-
tuis, Mr. Robert W. Ehrich, Dr. Henry Field, Mr. James Gaul, Mr.
Herbert R. Glodt, Dr. Earnest A. Hooton, Dr. Byron O. Hughes, Dr.
Frederick P. Hulse, Dr. W. Marion Krogman, Mr. Homer H. Kidder,
Mr. Martin Luther, Dr. Theodore W. McCown, Dr. Geoffrey M. Morant,
Dr. Carl C. Seltzer, Dr. William Shanklin, Professor Boris N. Vishnevsky,
Mrs. Ruth Sawtelle Wallis, Professor Franz Weidenreich. Each of these
persons will be further accredited in reference to the specific material used.
It is hoped that a cursory mention of their data in this volume will stim-
ulate interest in their detailed monographs which will follow. Needless
to say, none of them is to be held responsible for any erroneous or un-
INTRODUCTION ix
warranted interpretations which I may have placed on their materials.
I wish also to thank in this place those persons and institutions which
have permitted me to reproduce photographs and paintings. Individual
Credit will be given in each instance. The majority of the photographs
used in this book, however, were taken by the author, with the generous
assistance of many people. These include especially Miss Marion Black-
well, director of the International Institute in Boston, and her assistant
Miss Olga St. Ivanyi; Mr. Arthur Megerdichian; Mr. Phillip Way and
Mr. Merico Petrolati, of the Ludlow Manufacturing Company, Ludlow,
Mass. ; Mr. Bror Tamm, Mr. H. W. Johnson, and the owners of the ship-
building firm of George Lawley and Son; Mr. Ian Drysdale of the A. C,
Lawrence Leather Company of Peabody, Mass.; Mr. Michel Abourjaily,
of Boston; M. Dumas, of the Dumas Bookshop, Boston; Mr. Heinrich
Wolff, manager of Gundlachs Hofbrauhaus in Boston; Father Jan Kozit-
sky; Mr. John Brunswick and the officers of the Czechoslovakian Club
of Boston; Mr. James Stragunas; and numerous others, including all
whose photographs appear in the plates illustrating racial types.
For specific advice and assistance, I have especial reason to be grateful
to the following: Professor Glover Allen, for advice concerning fauna;
Dr. Gordon T. Bowles, for the preparation of Map 16, and for information
concerning the peoples of Iran, Afghanistan, and India; Professor Kirk
Bryan, for information concerning Pleistocene and post-Pleistocene cli-
mate; Professor V. Gordon Childe, for reading the manuscript of Chapters
II through VII, and for suggesting many important changes; Dr. Vladi-
mir J. Fewkes, for preparing Maps 2 and 3, and for much advice upon
the European archaeology of the Neolithic, Bronze, and Iron Ages, and
for data and advice on the subject of Slavic history; Dr. H. O'Neill
Mencken, for advice concerning the archaeology of the Iron Age, and of
the British Isles in particular; to Mr. Gabriel Lasker, for aid in preparing
the glossary; Dr. J. R. de la H. Marett, for ideas and stimulation on
the subject of human evolution; Professor William M. McGovern, for
permitting me to read the manuscript of his "Early Empires of Central
Asia," and for advice on the subject of Central Asiatic history; Dr. Hal-
lam L. Movius, for assistance in the preparation of Map 1 and Figure 16,
as well as in the writing of Chapters II and III; Dr. Robert W. Pfeiffer,
for data on early Jewish history; Professor J. Dyneley Prince, for expert
opinion on the question of Sumerian linguistics; Professor George Sarton,
for advice on the handling of references; Mr. Vilhjalmur Stefansson and
Mr. Charles Harding, for advice and data on the subject of the Norse-
men; Mr. Lauriston Ward, Mr. James Gaul, and Mr. D. W. Lockard,
for supervision and assistance on the subject of Near Eastern archaeology;
Professor Harry Wolfson, for an elucidation of Jewish history and assist-
INTRODUCTION
ance in preparing the sections on the Jews. To this list must be added the
names of Professor M. F. Ashley- Montagu, Professor W. M. Krogman,
and Dr. H. L. Shapiro, who read the book in galley proof and are re-
sponsible for many necessary changes, deletions, and additions.
As the reader will readily perceive, the experts listed above, most of
whom are already renowned as illustrious scholars, have had no small
part to play in the preparation of this volume. To them singly and
collectively I owe a debt which it will be impossible for me to repay,
and to them I offer my apologies if I have betrayed their generosity and
their competence.
To Their Majesties the Kings of Yemen and Albania, and to His
Highness the Sultan of Mukalla, I also wish to express my gratitude for
permission and assistance in the collection of data which are here pre-
sented for the first time.
Finally, to the officers and staff of The Macmillan Company, I am deeply
indebted for their generosity, cooperation, and forbearance.
C. S. G.
SUDBURY, MASSACHUSETTS,
February, 1939.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORICAL STUDY
OF THE WHITE RACE
PAGES
(1) STATEMENT OF AIMS AND PROPOSALS 1-3
(2) THEORY AND PRINCIPLES OF THE CONCEPT Race . . . 3-12
(3) MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES OF OSTEOLOGY .... 12-15
CHAPTER II. PLEISTOCENE WHITE MEN
(1) INTRODUCING Homo Sapiens 16-18
(2) PLEISTOCENE CLIMATE . • 19-20
(3) Sapiens MEN OF THE MIDDLE PLEISTOCENE 20-23
(4) NoN~Sapiens PLEISTOCENE FOSSIL MEN 23-25
(5) THE NEANDERTHALOID HYBRIDS OF PALESTINE . . . 25-28
(6) UPPER PALAEOLITHIC MAN IN EUROPE, THE EVIDENCE AS A
WHOLE 28-33
(7) CHRONOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DIFFERENTIATION OF
THE EUROPEAN AURIGNACIAN GROUP 33-39
(8) UPPER PALAEOLITHIC HUNTERS OF NORTH AFRICA . . 39-44
(9) AURIGNACIAN MAN IN EAST AFRICA 44-46
(10) THE MAGDALENIANS 46-49
(11) UPPER PALAEOLITHIC MAN IN CHINA 49-50
(12) SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 50-51
CHAPTER III. THE MESOLITHIC PERIOD
(1) THE HISTORICAL SETTING 56-57
(2) MESOLITHIC MAN IN AFRICA 57-61
(3) THE NATUFIANS OF PALESTINE 61-62
(4) THE MlDDEN-DWELLERS OF THE TAGUS 63~64
(5) MESOLITHIC MAN IN FRANCE 64-66
(6) THE OFNET HEAD BURIALS 66-68
(7) MESOLITHIC MAN IN THE CRIMEA 68-69
(8) PALAEOLITHIC SURVIVALS IN THE NORTHWEST .... 69-76
(9) SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 76-77
CHAPTER IV. THE NEOLITHIC INVASIONS
(1) INTRODUCTION 78-82
(2) THE NEOLITHIC AND THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE . . . 82-86
xi
xii CONTENTS
PAGES
(3) IRAN AND IRAQ 86-91
(4) CIVILIZED MEN IN EGYPT 91-98
(5) NEOLITHIC NORTH AFRICA 98-99
(6) THE NEOLITHIC IN SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 99-100
(7) THE EASTERN SOURCE AREAS: SOUTH, CENTRAL, AND
NORTH 101-104
(8) THE DANUBIAN CULTURE BEARERS 104-107
(9) THE CORDED OR BATTLE-AXE PEOPLE 107-109
(10) THE NEOLITHIC IN THE BRITISH ISLES 109-113
(11) WESTERN EUROPE AND THE ALPINE RACE 113-120
(12) NEOLITHIC SCANDINAVIA 120-125
(13) NEOLITHIC INHABITANTS OF THE NORTHERN FORESTS . . 125-126
(14) CONCLUSIONS 126-130
CHAPTER V. THE BRONZE AGE
(1) INTRODUCTION 131-135
(2) THE BRONZE AGE IN WESTERN ASIA 135-140
(3) THE MINOANS 140-142
(4) THE GREEKS 142-146
(5) COPPER AND BRONZE IN THE WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN . 146-152
(6) BASQUES, PHOENICIANS, AND ETRUSCANS 152-154
(7) • THE COPPER AGE IN EUROPE NORTH OF THE MEDITER-
RANEAN LANDS: DANUBIAN MOVEMENTS AND BELL
BEAKERS 154-157
(8) THE BRONZE AGE IN BRITAIN 157-162
(9) THE BRONZE AGE IN CENTRAL EUROPE 162-166
(10) THE BRONZE AGE IN THE NORTH 166-168
(11) THE BRONZE AGE ON THE EASTERN PLAINS .... 168-170
(12) THE FINAL BRONZE AGE AND CREMATION 170-171
(13) SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 171-173
CHAPTER VI. THE IRON AGE
(1) RACE, LANGUAGE, AND EUROPEAN PEOPLES .... 174-182
(2) THE. ILLYRIANS 182-186
(3) THE KELTS 186-193
(4) THE ROMANS 193-195
(5) THE SCYTHIANS 195-201
(6) THE GERMANIC PEOPLES ... 201-216
(7) THE SLAVS 216-220
(8) CONCLUSIONS 220-222
CONTENTS
CHAPTER VII, THE IRON AGE, PART II
(Speakers of Uralic and Altaic) PAOES
(1) THE FINNO-UGRIANS 223-226
(2) THE TURKS AND MONGOLS 226-236
(3) SPEAKERS OF URALIC AND ALTAIC, AND OLD WORLD
RACIAL ORIGINS 236-240
CHAPTER VIII. INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF THE
LIVING
(1) MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES 241-245
(2) THE USE OF STATISTICS IN PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY . . 245-251
(3) DISTRIBUTION OF BODILY CHARACTERS:
(a) STATURE AND BODILY FORM 251-256
(4) DISTRIBUTION OF BODILY CHARACTERS:
(b) HEAD FORM, HEAD SIZE, AND OTHER METRICAL
CHARACTERS OF THE HEAD AND FACE . . . 256-268
(5) DISTRIBUTION OF BODILY CHARACTERS:
(c) PIGMENTATION, THE PILOUS SYSTEM, AND MOR-
PHOLOGY OF THE SOFT PARTS 269*279
(6) RACIAL CLASSIFICATION WITHIN THE WHITE FAMILY . . 279-296
CHAPTER IX. THE NORTH
(1) INTRODUCTION 297-298
(2) THE LAPPS 298-306
(3) THE SAMOYEDS 306-307
(4) SCANDINAVIA; NORWAY 307-323
(5) ICELAND 323-326
(6) SWEDEN 326-332
(7) DENMARK 332-337
(8) THE FINNO-UGRIANS, INTRODUCTION 337-342
(9) RACIAL CHARACTERS OF THE EASTERN FINNS .... 342-351
(10) THE BALTIC FINNS: Livs AND ESTHS 351-355
(11) THE BALTIC FINNS: FINLAND . ". 355-359
(12) THE BALTIC-SPEAKING PEOPLES 360-368
(13) CONCLUSIONS 368-369
CHAPTER X. THE BRITISH ISLES
(1) RESUME OF SKELETAL HISTORY 370-376
(2) IRELAND 376-384
(3) GREAT BRITAIN, GENERAL SURVEY 384-398
(4) THE BRITISH ISLES, SUMMARY 398-399
CONTENTS
CHAPTER XI. THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD
PAGES
(1) INTRODUCTION 400-401
(2) THE MEDITERRANEAN RAGE IN ARABIA 401-411
(3) IRAQ AND THE COASTAL REGIONS OF THE PERSIAN GULF . 41 1-415
(4) THE IRANO- AFGHAN RAGE; IRAN AND AFGHANISTAN . . 415-422
(5) THE TURKS AS MEDITERRANEANS 422-425
(6) THE VEDDOID PERIPHERY, HADHRAMAUT TO BALUCHISTAN 425-431
(7) PALESTINE, JEWISH ORIGINS, AND THE EASTERN JEWS . . 432-444
(8) THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE IN EAST AFRICA .... 444-458
(9) THE MODERN EGYPTIANS 458-462
(10) NORTH AFRICA, INTRODUCTION 462-468
(11) THE EASTERN ARABO-BERBERS, LIBYA AND THE OASES . 468-471
(12) THE TUAREG 471-474
(13) EASTERN BARBARY, ALGERIA, AND TUNISIA .... 474-479
(14) WESTERN BARBARY; MOROCCO AND THE CANARY ISLANDS 480-489
(15) THE IBERIAN PENINSULA 489-498
(16) THE WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN ISLANDS 498-501
(17) THE BASQUES 501-504
(18) THE GYPSIES 504-507
(19) CONCLUSIONS 507-509
CHAPTER XII. THE CENTRAL ZONE, A STUDY
IN REEMERGENCE
(1) INTRODUCTION 510-511
(2) FRANCE 511-522
(3) BELGIUM 522-529
(4) THE NETHERLANDS AND FRISIA 529-535
(5) GERMANY 535-547
(6) SWITZERLAND AND AUSTRIA 547-554
(7) ITALY 554-559
(8) THE LIVING SLAVS:
(a) CZECHS AND WENDS 559-563
(9) THE LIVING SLAVS:
(b) POLAND AND RUSSIA 563-576
(10) TURKS, TATARS, AND MONGOLS OF EUROPEAN RUSSIA. . 576-584
(11) THE MAGYARS 584-586
(12) THE LIVING SLAVS:
(c) SERBS, CROATS, AND SLOVENES 587-595
(13) ALBANIA AND THE DINARIC RACE 595-604
(14) THE GREEKS 604-609
CONTENTS
(15) BULGARIA 609-612
(16) RUMANIA AND THE VLAGHS 612-617
(17) THE OSMANLI TURKS 617-622
(18) NEAR EASTERN BRACK YCEPHALS; SYRIA, ARMENIA, AND
THE CAUCASUS 622-634
(19) TURKESTAN AND THE TAJIKS 634-638
(20) THE BRACHYCEPHALIZED JEWS: ASIA AND CENTRAL EUROPE 638-646
(21) CONCLUSIONS 646-648
CHAPTER XIII. CONCLUSION
(1) COMMENTS AND REFLECTIONS 649-650
(2) THE WHITE RACE AND THE NEW WORLD 650-652
APPENDICES
I. MEANS OF PRINCIPAL CRANIAL SERIES USED IN CHAP-
TERS II-VII 655-665
II. GLOSSARY .... . . . .... 666-683
III. LIST OF SERIALS AND THEIR ABBREVIATIONS .... 684-691
IV. LIST OF BOOKS 692-700
INDEXES' 701-739
LIST OF MAPS
PAGES
1. MESOLITHIC GEOGRAPHY OF N. W. EUROPE 71
2. NEOLITHIC MOVEMENTS AND CHRONOLOGY 80-81
3. BRONZE AGE MOVEMENTS AND CHRONOLOGY .... 132-133
4. IRON AGE RAGES OF EUROPE, BEFORE HUNS AND TURKS . 176-177
5. STATURE 252-253
6. CEPHALIC INDEX 258-259
7. HEAD SIZE 262-263
8. PIGMENTATION OF HAIR AND EYES 270-271
9. RACIAL DISTRIBUTION 294-295
10. THE DISTRIBUTION OF URALIG AND ALTAIC SPEECH ON
EUROPEAN SOIL 338
11. COUNTY DIVISIONS IN FINLAND 355
12. THE DISTRIBUTION OF IRANIAN LANGUAGES 416
13. LINGUISTIC MAP OF THE EAST AFRICAN HAMITIC AREA . 446
14. LANGUAGES OF EAST-CENTRAL EUROPE AND THE BALKANS . 561
15. TRIBAL DIVISIONS IN NORTHERN ALBANIA 596
16. PEOPLES OF THE CAUCASUS 631
Chapter I
INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORICAL STUDY
OF THE WHITE RACE
(1) STATEMENT OF AIMS AND PROPOSALS
The present book is a textbook designed for the use of college students
who have had or are taking a preliminary course in anthropology. Enough
of it is, however, written in a non-technical way, so that students of allied
disciplines may use it for reference. The subject matter to be studied con-
sists of the body of statistical material collected by the world's physical an-
thropologists which concern the somatic character of peoples belonging to
the white race. This material may be divided into (A), skeletons; and (B),
metrical data and observations on the living.
By the use of this material we propose to follow the history of the white
race from its Pleistocene1 beginnings to the present, and to provide a classi-
fication of sub-races which will be fully in accord with the facts as we now
know them. We submit the thesis that man, as a domestic animal, is
extremely variable; and that he has subjected himself, in his wanderings,
to all of the environments of the earth, and hence is subject to environ-
mental modification in a way unequalled by any other species. We further
suggest that man, through his development of human cultures, has modi-
fied his bodily form by his own devices.
During the Pleistocene period there were several species of primates
which had attained some degree of human culture, by the acquisition of
stone implements, of fire, and of speech. In the present post-glacial or
interglacial period, in conformity with the general reduction in faunal
varieties, man has been reduced to a single species, unique in a single
genus. During the Pleistocene one species, at least, had developed in the
manner of a foetalized terrestrial ape, and it is that species which carries
today the main stem of Homo sapiens. Other species, including the fossil
men of Java, of Peking, and Homo wander thalensis, had developed at the
same time into a heavier, hypermasculine endocrine form, with a luxuri-
ance of jaws, teeth, and bony crests.
We propose to demonstrate that these non-foetalized species did not
wholly die out, but that at least one of them was absorbed into the main
1 The term Pleistocene is used here to signify the time span which, in Europe, began
with the advance of the first Quatenary glaciation and which ended with the retreat of
Wurai II.
1
THE RACES OF EUROPE
human stem, at some time during the Middle, or the initial part of the Late,
Pleistocene. From this amalgamation was produced the large, rugged,
and relatively un-foetalized group of Upper Palaeolithic men in Europe,
North Africa, and northern Asia. This type of man passed over Bering
Straits in early post-glacial times, if not earlier, to provide the basic ge-
netic stock from which the American Indian developed, in combination
with later arrivals. From a branch of this hyperborean group there evolved,
in northern Asia, the ancestral strain of the entire specialized mongoloid
family.
We suggest that the ancestors of the whites in their major form developed
during pluvial periods of the Pleistocene in parts of what is now the arid
zone reaching from the Sahara to northern India; that in post-glacial times
many were forced out of these homes by desiccation, and that some of
them originated agriculture and animal husbandry in northeastern Africa
and southwestern Asia. From these centers agricultural pioneers followed
post-glacial zones of climate into Europe, gradually encroaching upon
the lands formerly glaciated. In most of the regions which they occupied
they greatly outnumbered the descendants of the hunters and fishers
whose ancestors had clung on since glacial times, and many of whom had
followed the retreating ice toward its last melting nuclei.
The occupation of all arable lands, and those suitable for grazing, was
not completed in a century, or in a millennium; the process was a gradual
one, and the withdrawal of the earlier inhabitants into environmentally
protected fastnesses equally gradual. The entry of food-producers from
Asia and Africa did not take a single route or involve a single people; it
was a complex sequence of migrations through several ports of entry.
The various strains of food-producers mixed with the food-gatherers
whom they encountered, and with each other, until, in our own time,
not a single group of complete food-gatherers has remained in white man's
territory.
The food-producers seem to have been variants on one central racial
theme, the basic Mediterranean. This basic Mediterranean stock varied
in many respects, especially in stature and in pigmentation, but in its
essential qualities, which segregated it from non- whites, it was remarkably
uniform. We do not know that the survivors of the food-gatherers whom
the Mediterranean food-producers absorbed were white in soft-part
morphology, and there is some evidence that some had begun to evolve
in a mongoloid, others perhaps in a negroid, direction. Such variations
may be seen within the present composite white racial amalgam.
At any rate, the main conclusion of this study will be that the present
races of Europe are derived from a blend of (A) , food-producing peoples from Asia
and Africa, of basically Mediterranean racial form, with (j5), the descendants of
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
inter glacial and glacial food-gatherers, produced in turn by a blending of basic
Homo sapiens, related to the remote ancestor of the Mediterraneans, with some «o«-
sapiens species of general Neanderthaloid form. The actions and interactions of
environment, selection, migration, and human culture upon the various entities within
this amalgam, have produced the white race in its present complexity.
In view of these circumstances, the exact classification of living whites
into sub-races, such as Nordics, Alpines, Binaries, and so on, need not be
made at this point, but can await (A) the historical study of the white
race which will follow in Chapters II to VII; and (B) the survey of the
living as a whole which will be made in Chapter VIII. In Chapters IX
to XII, inclusive, we will make a more detailed regional survey of the
living peoples of Europe to supplement the preceding sections.
(2) THEORY AND PRINCIPLES OF THE CONCEPT RACE
Before proceeding to a detailed historical survey or to technical mat-
ters, it seems advisable to state at greater length than in the preceding
section some of the principles which we believe to govern the formation of
human races. First of all the question arises, "What is a race?" and the
problem of this definition must be squarely faced. In the course of the
present study the author has developed a definite point of view on this
subject, which may be expressed as follows: The concept race is a general
one, and any attempt to chain it down to a more specific meaning repre-
sents a too rigid attempt at taxonomy. The use, under strict definition,
of such convenient words as sub-race, stock, variety, local type, etc., im-
plies a Linnaean classification of categories which is foreign to the facts
of human biological differentiation.
One may, in a group of animals such as man, definitely name and
classify the major group to which all individuals belong. All living va-
rieties of human beings are mutually fertile, and there is no other animal
with which man may be crossed. Although the fertility test is not neces-
sarily a diagnostic, Homo sapiens in the living sense comprises, without ques-
tion, a species, even if in the formation of the living human group more
than one related species, now extinct in the pure form, was absorbed.2
So much for the larger group. Within this larger group there are many
variations of superficially great importance. There are pygmy men whose
mean stature is less than 150 cm. There are giant-like men whose mean
stature is over 180 cm. At the same time there are black men and white
men; men with kinky hair, men with straight hair; men with beards and
without; and so on. Their variation is much greater than that found
among wolves, or among tigers, or among any one species of mice. Yet
it is not as great as the variation found among dogs, who again form a
2 See Chapter II, section 5.
THE RACES OF EUROPE
single species, and who in turn may include a blend of two — wolf and
jackal.
Here again, we must repeat, man is a domestic animal, and as such is
subject to the laws which govern animals in domestication. Being less de-
pendent in a direct sense upon a given environment than a wild animal,
he is much more variable; having become numerous as a result of this
partial emancipation, he has spread into many environments, so that
what influences these environments have had upon him have been ex-
tremely varied. At the same time the laws which govern his mating are
different from those which govern the conjunction of wild animals. Fur-
thermore there has been some degree of selection in this mating, but less
than the selection which has so profoundly differentiated the dog.
All of the principles mentioned above have produced, as their effect, a
prodigious differentiation within the human species, and one which must
at times have proceeded with startling rapidity. At the same time there
has taken place an almost equally great mixing and blending of peoples,
under circumstances that could hardly occur among wild animals. For
example, the mixture between whites and negroes has most frequently in-
volved white men and negro women, and only occasionally the reverse.
Within the ranks of mixture, there has often been a selection on the basis
of differential social values attached to different combinations of charac-
ters. As a result of all these factors, one must not suppose that a racial
classification of man into a simple and orderly scheme can be easy.
We have already recognized the concept species in regard to man. There
is one other concept, wholly theoretical for practical reasons, which may
be recognized with equal definition. That is the pure strain, the result of
generations of inbreeding and selection of recessive characters. In man,
the pure strain is impossible to create unless our social system radically
changes. In rats, guinea pigs, and fruit flies, it has been created. From
rats, guinea pigs, and fruit flies, biologists slowly and painstakingly dis-
cover the laws which govern inheritance. They almost unanimously favor
the Mendelian form, and there can be little doubt that Mendelism also
applies to man. But man is a genetically complex animal, and we do not,
apparently, measure characters which are Mendelian units. If we were
to measure the right things, we would theoretically find that Mendel's Law
is always applicable. The principle of inheritance through blending, by
A + B
which is derived the formula , depends upon a multiplicity of com-
pensating Mendelian characters. That these are not always multiple, or
that they do not always compensate, is shown by certain instances in
which blending has not resulted from mixture.
For example, the height of the cranial vault and the heights of the face
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
and nose often fail to respond in the expected manner. Negro-white
hybrids in the United States have long faces and noses,8 and so do Ethio-
pians.4 Pitcairn Islanders have more convex noses than do either English
or Tahitians.5 Other instances have been found in which human inherit-
ance has failed to assume the character of a blend. These serve merely
as examples. Mixture alone, however, cannot create and perpetuate a
new racial form, although it can produce new combinations. Mixture
when combined with selection, to emphasize the new and eliminate the
old, can, however, produce a decisive change.6
In view of the complexity of the human species, as a result of its cultural
peculiarities which have separated it from the rest of the animal world, it
is not easy to define the word "race." Since man is the oldest domestic
animal, his variation and selection have operated over an immensely
longer span of time than those of the other species for whose present forms
he is responsible. Any attempt to classify him by a rigid scheme is im-
mensely difficult, and the scheme must be elastic if it is to work at all.
Hence the term "race" must also be elastic. We may recognize, if we
like, certain major races of the Old World such as the Khoi-San (Bush-
man-Hottentot), the Pygmy, the Australoid, the Negro, the Mongoloid,
and the White. Within each of these major racial groups there are, or
have been, smaller entities which may deserve the designation of race in a
lesser sense. These smaller entities consist, for the most part, of groups
of people reasonably isolated, and developing into local physical enclaves
by the three processes, usually linked, of amalgamation, selection, and en-
vironmental (in the total sense, including cultural) response. At what border-
line point such an entity becomes a major race, it is not always possible
to say.
Let us consider these three forces — amalgamation, selection, and environ-
mental response. We have already mentioned the first, which is more com-
monly called race mixture. We have already observed that while blending
seems to be the usual result, in some criteria there is evidence of simple
Mendelism or the heaping of dominants or recessives. Amalgamation,
furthermore, can produce a differential dominance based on age grading;
for example, the dominance of hair blondism in infancy, coupled with the
darkening of the hair in adolescence and adult life, link blondism with
infantile characters. The same is not true of eye blondism, which grows
slightly more pronounced with age. At the same time mongoloid morpho-
logical characters are more pronounced in infantile hybrids than in the
8 Hooton, E. A., HAS, vol. X, part II, 1932, pp. 42-107.
4 Unpublished data in author's possession.
6 Shapiro, H. L., The Heritage of the Bounty, pp. 229-233.
6 Baur, Fischer, and Lenz, Human Heredity, p. 176.
THE RACES OF EUROPE
adults; the reverse is true of most distinctively white features in combina-
tion with those of either negroids or mongoloids. This differential age
dominance is, except in the case of blondism, an heritable endocrine
function connected with the relative degree of infantilism associated with
each of the major racial groups.
Selection is a difficult force to study in man, at least in a scientific sense.
But it is without question one of great importance. Sexual selection prob-
ably has and always has had a certain application, which may be seen in
the current standards of beauty in different countries. The standards of
one group may be shifted through the cultural medium to another. But
since in any population other than an industrial, civilized one there are few
bachelors and few spinsters, sexual selection must have worked slowly in
most cases, at least in the sense of an eliminative rather than a segregative
principle. Warfare, again, kills off a selected group of males, while celibacy
connected with the assumption of religious offices may render genetically
ineffective a selected population element.
The most important selection is probably that consequent on changes
of environment, by which the selective factor may perhaps be a physio-
logical economy in response to new types of mineral deficiency. This type
of selection may have been of profound importance in the evolution of
man as a species, as well as of different races.7 Small, foetalized, relatively
weak races may be more efficient and hence more suitable for survival in
certain environments than larger, more muscular, and less infantile ones.
Small, foetalized, and relatively defenseless mammals develop elaborate
social devices by which the solidarity of the group compensates for the
deficiency in individual aggressiveness; man on the whole is a social animal
comparable in this respect to the Cebus monkey. The type of environ-
mental selection postulated by Marett may have been of profound im-
portance in the evolution of man as a species, as well as of different races.
Another form of selection is intimately concerned with the complexity
of the social structure. When a population is stratified into social horizons,
this cultural differentiation is often the result of the conjunction of two or
more social and hence ethnic groups, from two or more geographical
sources. It takes time for cultures to blend and for people who practice
these cultures to mix, and if there exists, at the same time, the idea that
one group is superordinate and the other subordinate in social values, the
social mechanism will often function in such a way as to perpetuate this
cleavage. Thus the mixing process will be retarded, and at the same time
a difference in the reproductive rates of the two Facially identified social
horizons may arise.
As a rule, at least in modern times, the group which is considered sub-
7 Marett, J. R. de la H., Race, Sex, and Environment.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1
ordinate will reproduce with greater fecundity than will the superior class.
In this way the upper class will gradually disappear, or else social mobility
will gradually replace the upper from the ranks of the lower, and the social
distinction will remain, but without racial significance. Thus a differential
reproductive rate has, in effect, a selective value, and one population may
quietly replace another. Whether or not the replacement is complete, the
relative numerical importance of the two genetic strains will have been
altered.
Extreme differences in skin color, in body odor, and in face form are
more active deterrents to such mobility than are differences important to
the anthropologist but not to the public, such as the cephalic index and
other measures of head form. Differences of the first class prevent the
American Negro from complete absorption into the ranks of the white, for
his diagnostic racial characters, unless the negroid factor in the individual
inheritance is dilute, are easily noticeable. On the other hand differences
in head form are not usually noticed, and a brachycephalic white popula-
tion may replace a dolichocephalic one by means of social mobility.
So far we have been considering selection within a geographically im-
mobile group, or rather, selection at the geographical point under con-
sideration. But there is still another type of selection which is very im-
portant, and that is mobile selection, operating at the point of emigration,
the source of population supply. We shall see, in our survey of prehistoric
European racial movements,8 that the Danubian agriculturalists of the
Early Neolithic brought a food-producing economy into central Europe
from the East. They perpetuated in the new European setting a physical
type which was later supplanted in their original home. Several centuries
later the Corded people, in the same way, came from southern Russia —
but there we first find them intermingled with other peoples, and the cul-
tural factors which we think of as distinctively Corded are included in a
larger cultural equipment. The Corded people, therefore, who left south-
ern Russia and moved westward into central and northwestern Europe,
were a selected group of people, choseii from a larger and more hetero-
geneous human storehouse. This situation clearly involves the principle
that people who migrate from an old home to a new do not represent, in most cases,
the total or typical physical form of the home land, provided that the new home is
different from the old; but they represent a special group selected on the basis of their
suitability and opportunity for migrating. This principle can be clearly seen
in the study of modern migrating peoples.
The Poles who came to the United States during the nineteenth cen-
tury, and the early decades of the twentieth, did not represent a cross-
section of the Polish population,9 but a taller, blonder, longer-headed
s Chapter IV. * Rosinski, B., PAn, voL 8, 1934, pp. 42-44.
THE RACES OF EUROPE
group than the Poles as a whole. In other words, there was a definite
selection of a special physical type which influenced some Poles to come to
America and others to stay at home. Dr. Shapiro has found that the Japa-
nese who migrated to the Hawaiian Islands are significantly different in
many metrical and morphological characters from their own relatives
who remained at home.10 This was determined not by a study of repre-
sentative samples, but by the actual measurement of relatives, in Hawaii
and Japan.
In the same sense, the Americans of colonial British ancestry are not
like Englishmen in the larger sense of the word. The English who went
to America in the Colonial period were a definitely selected group —
selected on the basis of religion, social and economic position, and geo-
graphical distribution. Once in America, under new conditions, com-
parative isolation, and the intensive cross-breeding of relatively few family
lines, this differentiation was accentuated. Once the arable lands of New
England and New York State had been cleared and cultivated, the farmers
who moved westward into the fertile Ohio Valley, and on successively to
Indiana, Illinois, and Iowa, were not typical examples of the total popula-
tion of which they were drawn. The selection of the mountain men of the
Rockies, and of the early cattle rangers of the Plains was even more no-
ticeable.
So far we have been considering selection in migration in reference to
the new country settled by the immigrants, but this selection, when the
migration occurs in any numbers, has an equally important racial effect
upon the old country. The depopulation of Ireland and Sweden through
emigration to America must have affected the racial constitutions of these
countries, just as the mass exodus of several hundreds of thousands of
Germanic tribesmen in the Volkerwanderung period must also have af-
fected northern Germany and Scandinavia.
A lesser selection in scope, but equally important in principle and in
effect, is the selection of urban populations from rural sources. Numerous
European studies have made it clear that the young men and women
who leave their villages to seek a new manner of living in the cities are
racially atypical of the village populations as a whole, and that the drain-
age of these people from the fecund rural districts into the relatively in-
fertile cities has a selective value in the determination of the physical
nature of the rural population.11
Selective differences in emigration and immigration exist in the cul-
tural as well as in the racial sense. The Corded invaders who moved
westward into Europe did not carry all the trappings of Asiatic and south
10 Shapiro, H. L., SM, vol. 45, 1937, pp. 109-118; also, Migration and Environment.
u Rryn and Schreiner, Somatologie der Nonveger, pp. 342-344, will serve as an example.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Russian culture with them; they took only those objects which they would
find useful in their new environment, and easy to replace from local ma-
terials. In the same way the early American plainsman and trapper did
not fill his knapsack with lace sleeves, wine glasses, and silver shoe buckles,
but carried only such clothing, weapons, and other equipment which he
knew would be of service to him. Later on, after he had settled the new country,
the more luxurious trappings of the old culture could follow, provided that he had
maintained contact with his original home.
This last principle again applies to race as much as to culture. The
settlers who come to a new country later, after the ground has been ex-
plored, are often drawn from a different segment of the original society,
and may represent a different racial entity, with different cultural associ-
ations and aptitudes from that of the pioneers.
Having dealt with amalgamation and selection, there remains the prin-
ciple of environmental response. That human evolution has been going on ever
since the initial acquisition of the distinctive human traits, such as speech,
the use of fire, and the making of tools, cannot be denied. Man did not
stop evolving once he became a man. We have seen that Pleistocene man,
of whatever type, was more primitive in some respects than modern civi-
lized man. The reduction of face size, and especially of the masticatory
apparatus, is, for example, one of the most marked and most widespread
active human evolutionary trends.12
There are other responses, however, which are not necessarily evolu-
tionary, but which must be considered direct reactions to environmental
change, in a broad sense. Changes in type and complexity of civilization,
acting presumably through nutritional agencies, may serve as environ-
mental stimuli and produce somatic effects. These responses, as observed
in modern times, take the form of sweeping trends. The increase in stature
which has affected northern and western Europe and much of the New
World so profoundly within the last century is just such a trend. That it is
a true mass response and not merely a selective process is shown by Bowles's
studies of three generations of Harvard freshmen, taking only actual ge-
netic lines of grandfathers, fathers, and sons.18 That it is culturally moti-
vated, whatever the mechanism, cannot be denied, for it is found only in
countries which have been modernized progressively and thoroughly dur-
ing this period.
The most striking modern stature increase must be that of the English
colonists in Queensland, for which there is ample evidence but no avail-
able scientific data. The Queenslanders have shot up to an immense
height, uniformly and with few exceptions, and have acquired a lanky,
u Aahlcy-Montagu, M. F., QRB, vol. 10, 1935, pp. 32-59.
" Bowles, Gordon T., New Types of Old Americans at Harvard.
10 THE RACES OF EUROPE
leptosome bodily habitus. Since the Queenslanders are essentially pio-
neers, living largely off the soil, this must be due to direct environmental
stimulation in the geographical sense.
Stature increases may be matched with equally marked decreases. Dur-
ing the Dark Ages, from the time of colonization to the sixteenth century,
the Icelanders, originally as tall as their Norwegian ancestors, shrank in
stature to the size of southern Italians.14 Climatologists now tell us that
this shrinking accompanied a lowering of mean annual temperature, and
an increased dampness.16 Icelandic history adds that it was a period of
near starvation. The Greenlanders, who suffered even more from this
climatic change, became even smaller than the Icelanders before their
extinction.16 Yet the Icelanders who survived this depression grew rapidly
once it was over, until at present they comprise one of the tallest groups in
Europe. The population of Iceland has not been materially added to by
migration since the initial settlement.
One of the best examples of environmentally conditioned physical
stunting is to be seen in the misery area of the Limousin hills in central
France.17 Here isolation, poverty, and the dependence on the produce of
an infertile granitic soil seem without reasonable doubt to have been the
contributing causes. Mineral deficiency, in the sense in which Marett uses
it, may be invoked, as well as malnutrition. Another example of environ-
mental conditioning may be seen in the common level of short stature, for
the most part below 160 cm,, which extends in a circumpolar zone around
the world.
If environment can so demonstrably affect stature, and act with such
rapidity (the New Englanders have grown 7 cm. in 100 years), then it is
more than likely that it can affect other racial criteria, including head
form. The excessive brachycephalization which swept over central Eu-
rope in the Middle Ages, affecting especially southern Germany and
Bohemia, followed the same pattern as the stature change. Both pro-
ceeded as orderly increases at fixed rates of speed. Selection may have
been a large contributing cause, through infiltration and differential birth
rates. Simple Mendelian dominance of brachycephaly, which has never
been demonstrated, may not be eliminated, but it cannot have been the
only factor involved. But even if we grant infiltration and differential
selection. and direct Mendelism, it is difficult to account for the rise in
cephalic index in the south German and Alpine region over any level
14 Seltzer, G. C,, unpublished MS. in Peabody Museum. Author's permission.
"Brooks, C. E. P., QRMS, vol. 47, 1921, pp. 173-190.
*8Hansen, Fr. C. C., MOG, vol. 67, 1924, pp. 291-547.
"Ripley, W. Z., Races of Europe, pp. 168-171, after Collignon, R., MSAP, ser. 3,
vol. 1, 1894, pp. 3-79.
Collignon, R., AG, vol. 5, 1896, pp. 156-166.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION 11
which it had attained in antiquity, historic or prehistoric, unless we place
this change at least partly on the basis of a response to environmental
stimuli. The food-gatherers of west-central Europe seem to have re-
sponded to an earlier and equally extensive brachycephalization during
the Mesolithic, a period of profound climatic change; and the parallel
modification, millennia later, among civilized food-producers, may, for
reasons as yet unknown, have followed a parallel mechanism of change.
All of this leads us back eventually to where we started, when we began
to consider the meaning of the word race. A race is, in view of this discus-
sion, a group of people who possess the majority of their physical charac-
teristics in common. A pure race, if the term need be used, is one in which
the several contributing elements have become so completely blended that
correlations fail to reveal their original combinations.18 At the same time
the processes of selection and of response to environmental influences have
given the resultant blend a distinctive character.
The longer such a human entity remains isolated, the more distinctive
it may become in the racial sense. It may expand numerically, divide, and
become a major human stock, while others once much more numerous
may become almost extinct, or fully so through absorption. But the most
important fact about a race is that it is an entity, however ill defined, which
is never static, but always in process of change.
If, as above, we define race as a group of people reasonably unified in the
physical sense and living in one place, difficulties at once arise. How are
we to draw the borderline between that place and the next? Where does
one race leave off and the next begin? There are those who assert that a
race is merely an artificially assumed point on the smooth and glassy sur-
face of a geographical continuum,19 for what may be the concentration
point for an extreme condition in one criterion will be an intermediate
point in others. This assertion is, to a certain extent, true. If we view the
panorama of living races on a two dimensional map, we can but agree that
a race in this sense is merely a reasonably homogeneous group of people
who occupy a given arbitrary point upon a terrestrial continuum. In
regions of geographical smoothness one condition blends broadly and
gently into another; in regions cut up by geographical barriers, such as
deserts or mountains, the contrasts are sharper and the transitions more
rapid.
As long as we confine our glance to the surface, we will continue to be
faced with this dilemma. But a solution comes with the application of a
third dimension, that of history. By means of an historical reconstruction,
with numerically adequate and competently documented skeletal material,
» Scheldt, W., ZFMA, vol. 27, pp. 94-116.
19 1 am indebted for this concept to Dr. George Woodbury.
12 THE RACES OF EUROPE
it should be possible to determine what has happened in most regions
occupied by the white race; why present conditions obtain; and what is
a suitable classification of existing races, built upon the dual basis of the
past and present.
This classification must, of course, meet existing conditions and not
be an expression of history alone, or of national ideals. By means of such
a classification we may hope to answer the continuum objection, and show
which spots on the map do actually represent centers of racial dissemination
and which have functioned more characteristically as zones of inter-
mediacy and blending, in accordance with principles which are now be-
ginning to be understood.20
But we must remember, at the same time, that zones of intermediacy
and blending may change their function without warning and assume the
r61e of feeders of racial material to other regions. The interplay of these
functions, in accordance with the principles already detailed in this chap-
ter, has produced the racial complexity which characterizes most of the
earth, and especially those portions occupied by the more active and vigor-
ous and numerous branches of man, the Negroids, the Mongoloids, and
the Whites.
(3) MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES OF OSTEOLOGY**
The materials used in the racial study of European man divide them-
selves naturally into two classes: (A) skeletal material, including crania,
long bones, and other bones such as vertebrae, pelves, tarsals, etc.; and
(B) measurements and observations taken on the living. Both are subject
to statistical treatment; and both must be employed if we are to succeed
in our attempt to trace the racial history of white humanity. In the next
six chapters, we will deal almost exclusively with material of the first cate-
gory.
Museums both public and private, in almost every European country
as well as in America, contain thousands of crania and long bones which
represent the osseous remains of individuals of every race. Many of these,
without doubt the majority, are those of persons of white racial origin.
For the purposes of the present study, these skeletal remains assume vastly
different values, depending upon a number of circumstances. In the first
place, only those which have been measured, described, and published
were of any use to the present author, since it has not been possible for
»Ketter, F., ZFRK, vol. 3, 1936, pp. 40-46.
21 For an exhaustive study of this subject the reader is referred to the standard text
in physical anthropology, Rudolf Martin's Lekrbuch der Anthropologie, 3 vols., second
edition. The present section is intended merely as a brief statement concerning
some of the fundamental uses of osteometric techniques, as well as of the sources and
numbers of materials, employed in the present study.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION 13
him to travel from museum to museum measuring and observing the
unpublished material. The majority of collections are still unpublished,
and hence the majority of data is as useless as if they were still in the
ground. To make such a measuring trip would probably take the best
years of one investigator's lifetime.
The first consideration is, then, whether or not the material has been
published. The second is, whether or not it is properly documented as to
sex, provenience, and cultural association. A number of older cranial
series has been published without regard to sex, which makes measures
of variability of slight value, and jeopardizes the use of means. Others in-
clude skulls from different localities, vaguely labelled and catalogued,
which should never have been put together. Still others, and these are
many, were unearthed at a time when the archaeologists had not yet so
perfected their techniques that the cultural and chronological associations
of these remains could be determined. Still others were brought into
museums by amateurs who paid no attention to archaeology.
In many cases it is possible to review the published documents as to
archaeological settings, and to revise them in the light of present knowl-
edge, especially when illustrations are given identifying the grave furniture
and types of sepulchre. Therefore the number of crania and other bones
which may be realigned so as to fit into geographical, cultural, and chrono-
logical pigeon-holes is not as small as it might be if this material were
gathered without recourse to this salvaging process. The realignment
mentioned above is the principle upon which the following six chapters
have been constructed. It has involved abstracting single skulls and small
series of crania, with or without accompanying long bones, and combining
the data so abstracted into statistical series based on an identity of place,
time, and cultural milieu. In some cases earlier investigators had already
effected this process of compiling and combining in a suitable way, so
that much of the labor involved could be omitted.
The materials upon which Chapters II to VII are based consist, there-
fore, of a number of series of crania, in some cases accompanied by other
bones, each series representing a cultural, chronological, and geographical
entity, the existence of which seems fully justified in the light of our pres-
ent knowledge of archaeology and of history. Published materials which
cannot be reasonably documented in all of the respects mentioned have
been ignored, or used with caution.
The crania which meet these requirements and which represent an-
cestral strains of the white race are numerous enough to permit a reason-
able reconstruction of the racial history of the white peoples; but they are
not numerous enough to permit us to be sure that our reconstruction is
the only possible one in every place and instance. We therefore present
14 THE RACES OF EUROPE
with some confidence the main thesis of our reconstruction, but we are
not confident that it is correct in every period, in every region, and in every
cultural unit.
The entire Palaeolithic period in Europe, for example, is represented by
no more than one hundred published and documented skulls, while the
Mesolithic is represented by a no greater number. Certain Neolithic
samples, especially in Egypt, consist of several hundreds of crania, and the
same is true in the Bronze and Iron Ages. No craniological series yet
published exceeds one thousand adult specimens of a single sex, although
several closely approach that figure.
Skeletal material of human and near-human primates, from the Lower
and Middle Palaeolithic cultural levels, is derived from chance finds of
unburied fossil bones. In Europe, Neanderthal man first buried his dead
in such a way that entire skeletons would be preserved for anthropologists
of the future. At various points in human history cremation appeared, to
confuse and dismay the racial historian; the chief vogue of this science-
inhibiting custom began during the late Bronze Age in Europe, and lasted
well into the Iron Age.
In our era another force has arisen to prevent the use of skeletal ma-
terial; this is the practice of burying bodies in Christian and Moslem
cemeteries, both of which are inviolate on religious grounds. Even where
they are not inviolate, the absence of grave furniture in the tombs of
these followers of revealed religion makes looting by archaeologists un-
profitable. The only skeletal collections of any abundance in post-
Christian times are those derived from mediaeval charnel houses or crypts,
especially in South Germany and Austria, and in certain English cathe-
drals.
From the statistical standpoint our skeletal materials stand in a border-
line position. A few series are large enough to permit the exercise of all
of the statistical constants of the modern biometric school; most, however,
are so restricted in numbers that a simple calculation of mqans, a simple
determination of variability and homogeneity, and an informal compari-
son and discussion are the only techniques which seem justified.22 Too
great a mechanization would render such series inflexible and destroy
much of their interpretive value. To make up for their statistical weakness,
their use as context material for cultural and chronological horizons pro-
vides a certain strengthening. A series, however small, tells us what is
present, but does not tell us what is additionally present, or what is absent.
The extent to which small series may be employed in an interpretative
sense must depend upon the circumstances.
22 For a more detailed discussion of the use of statistics in racial studies, see Chap-
ter VIII, section 2.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION 15
The number of criteria measured upon the crania used in this survey
range from one — almost always the cranial index — to the five thousand of
von Torok. In combining and reseriating these series I have made no fast
rule as to what criteria to admit and what to exclude, but have employed
what seemed to be a reasonable number, with especial emphasis upon
those which find parallels on the living. For example, I have usually ac-
cepted the three principal dimensions of the cranial vault — glabello-
occipital length, maximum biparietal breadth, and basion-bregma height;
the usual circumferences and arcs of the cranial vault; the minimum and
maximum frontal and bizygomatic diameters; the interorbital and bi-
orbital diameters, and the height and width of the orbits; the height and
breadth of the osseous nose, the diameters of the palate, and of the fora-
men magnum; the heights of the face from nasion to men ton, and nasion
to alveon; the principal dimensions of tfce mandible, such as the mental
height, the breadth of the ascending ramus, and the bicondylar and bi-
gonial diameters. In the rest of the skeleton, I have used almost exclu-
sively the maximum lengths of the principal long bones, such as the femur,
tibia, fibula, humerus, radius, and ulna, and then almost entirely for the
sole purpose of reckoning stature, by means of the Pearson formulae.23
In other words, I have used what I could find in such a way as to de-
rive the maximum useful information from it; I have not concerned my-
self with techniques or routines which had little bearing on my problem.
On the whole I have worried little about technical discrepancies due to
differences in measuring methodology; where possible I have followed the
techniques approved by Morant, and where possible I have made allow-
ances for such differences as I could readily detect. I do not feel, however,
that technical discrepancies in the craniological materials are important
enough to make any perceptible difference in my conclusions, either de-
tailed or general. The treatment of the material has been done in such a
broad manner that such minutiae are of little importance. Craniology is
a more accurate science than is the anthropometry of the living; when
we come to the later chapters we may concern ourselves with the question
of technique, but for the moment it is relatively unimportant.
23 See Martin, Lehrbuch der Anthropologie, second edition, vol. 2, pp. 1020-1021.
Chapter II
PLEISTOCENE WHITE MEN
(1) INTRODUCING HOMO SAPIENS
Man as we know him from the study of modern races is descended
from one or more species of a single genus, segregated out of a group of
related Old World primate genera which had physically, and hence cul-
turally, taken the first definite steps in a human direction. Members of
a number of these genera found that they could cut with the sharp, glassy
edge which is formed when flint is fractured, learned the use of fire, and
discussed these and other matters with their fellows by means of speech.
But all of them, including those destined to take part in the formation of
the modern species Homo sapiens, remained, like less human primates and
other animals, dependent on the natural occurrences of foodstuffs for
their continued existence.
Man alone, of these parallel forms, succeeded in breaking loose from
the natural limitations of food and climate, and he did this in a number
of different ways. One of these was the invention of warm clothing which
would permit him to hunt in comfort the numerous arctic and temperate
mammals, whose flesh was richer in fats than the meat of his tropical
prey; but this was not immediately a greater advantage than the develop-
ment of a furry coat among the animals which he hunted. Another was the
discovery of the principles of reproduction in animals and plants, and the
knowledge of how to control this reproduction. This second step, which
Childe calls the first revolution, produced of course agriculture and ani-
mal husbandry, and out of this dual economy have developed the civi-
lizations of the ancient and modern worlds.
These two primary steps, which were in no sense consecutive, although
the first was undoubtedly the earlier, and which had no necessary relation-
ship one to the other, brought about different effects of far-reaching con-
sequence. The first of them permitted the utilization by man of lands
which could not otherwise have supported primate life, and also the
ability to pass through the arctic barrier from the Old World into Amer-
ica; the second, the intense use of more favored regions, suited for farming
and pasture, and the increase in population made possible by the conse-
quent abundance of foodstuffs. These two steps, then, permitted the
human species to multiply greatly, and to occupy all of the principal inter-
connecting areas of the earth, not covered by glaciers or waterless deserts,
16
PLEISTOCENE WHITE MEN 17
and not separated from the mainlands of the two hemispheres by wide
expanses of sea.
Long before either of these two steps had been taken, most of the re-
lated primate genera and species, which had participated in the earlier
discovery and utilization of speech, flint, and fire, had dropped out of
the contest. Perhaps the last to disappear was Homo neanderthalensis, who
became extinct as such in Europe, if not elsewhere, at the time of the last
glaciation.
Homo sapiens, then, as we now know him, remained alone to deal with
the results of the increasing control over nature which he himself had con-
jured. But all branches of the species did not participate in these results,
while tho'se which have participated have not shared them equally. In
the far peripheries of the southern hemisphere, to which man in the
earliest stages of culture could retire without encountering great cold,
naked hunters and gatherers, such as the African Bushmen, the Tasm'a-
nians, the Australians, and the Vedda, have been able to survive in isola-
tion until recent years. While only one, the Tasmanian, is extinct in the
unmixed form,1 the others promise soon to follow. Thus our species is
repeating within its own ranks the selective process of elimination which
effaced, in earlier times, its non-human competitors.
There is, actually, no real difference between these two cycles of ex-
tinction. In the first, although separate species were involved, we now
know that at least one of those which disappeared was not pruned off
the stem completely; for, as in the second cycle, its disappearance was
consummated by absorption coincident with cultural changes, permit-
ting the submerged genetic strain to survive in solution. Human ge-
netic strains, however ancient and however primitive, are very hard if
not impossible to eradicate completely, for the simple reason that
all human racial stocks are mutually fertile, and men of all races are
human.
Nevertheless these racial stocks possess, under varying conditions, very
different rates of procreative value. It is a constant phenomenon of
human history that a small group of people in a restricted area will,
through some stimulus which is probably both environmental and cul-
tural, increase rapidly, expand its boundaries, and inundate new seg-
ments of the earth's surface with its progeny. For example, the numerical
size of the white race has, since the time of the industrial revolution, in-
creased vastly. The countries in which the new regime was initiated grew
much more rapidly in population than did those yet to acquire these cul-
tural innovations. In this manner, emigrants from Europe spread out
1 A few mixed survivors live on the islands between Australia and Tasmania, and in
reservations on the Australian mainland.
18 THE RACES OF EUROPE
into other continents, previously occupied by less economical 2 popula-
tions, until they and their descendants had filled most of the available
space suited to their powers of utilization. After this, their rate of increase
fell. New conditions and new stimuli, provided that they are favorable,
produce great increases in a species. Unfavorable ones produce absorption
and extinction.
This phenomenon is not confined to human beings, but is a basic prin-
ciple of biology, by which has been accomplished the spread of all plant
and animal forms. Man, whose ancestors were a handful of precocious
and biologically successful primates, has multiplied until his numbers are
now reckoned in billions. The present numerical proportions of races
and of nationalities has no reference to the former numbers of previously
existing groups of people, to the importance of these various groups in the
history of human racial development, nor furthermore, to their relative
numerical values in the future. In the subsequent pages outlining the
racial history of the white segment of mankind, this principle must not
be forgotten.
This history is, on the basis of present knowledge, entirely confined to
Pleistocene and Recent geological time. It is with the earlier of these two
segments of the Genozoic 3 that the present chapter is concerned. In it,
as in subsequent chapters, some attempt will be made to place the skeletal
remains studied in their proper chronological horizons. With the Pleisto-
cene specimens, this dating must be done primarily by geological means.
Since the primary diffusion of a zoological species is almost instanta-
neous, palaeontologists base their dating of geological horizons on the
initial appearance of fossil genera and species. By this means they have
divided the Pleistocene period into lower, middle, and upper levels.4
Glacial geologists, limited to the relatively small portion of the earth's
surface which was covered by one or more of the Pleistocene ice sheets,
divide it by reference to the four or five successive glacial advances. Un-
glaciated regions were subjected, during the Pleistocene, to alternations
of wet and dry climate, probably correlated with the vacillations of the
ice. The pluvial and interpluvial periods so determined form a third
means of dating Pleistocene remains. At the moment, a complete har-
mony between these three systems has not been achieved. Hence the
relative dating of fossil human beings found in various parts of the world
is not, as yet, wholly possible. For that reason we must proceed with
reserve and caution.
2 In the sense of maximum utilization of the soil. No qualitative inference is intended.
3 The division between Pleistocene and Recent is here maintained purely for the
sake of clarity. The possibility that we are now living in a Pleistocene interglacial is
not, by the use of this terminology, implicitly denied.
* Hopwood, A. T., PGA, vol. 46, 1935, pp. 1, 46-60.
PLEISTOCENE WHITE MEN 19
(2) PLEISTOCENE CLIMATE
It is not easy to overemphasize the importance of climate in human
history, particularly in the earliest times when man was merely a numer-
ically unimportant parasite in the total fauna. With changes in climate,
he was forced to migrate with the animals and plants on which he lived,
and at the hunting and gathering of which he was adept. The only
alternative was to stay on and adapt his culture to a new food supply,
which would need new implements and new methods. On the whole,
it was easier to move, even if some of the oscillations were, like those in
recent times, rather rapid.
The ponderous ebb and flow of the glaciers caused climatic changes
which affected the entire world. With the gathering of vast quantities of
ice near the poles, zones of climate shrank inward, converging on the
equator. At times of maximum glaciation, wide belts of land bordering
the glaciers became treeless, frozen tundras, like the northern rims of
Siberia and North America today. During the last glaciation, such a zone
included the whole of Europe north of the Alps and Pyrenees, and much
of Siberia. Below this stretched temperate forests, with zones of willow
and birch, of pine, and of hardwood, and beyond these, temperate, grassy
plains, watered by cyclonic rain belts. Still farther away, near the equator,
stood tropical forests. The present deserts had shrunk to narrow patches
between the grasslands or had disappeared.
As the glaciers retreated, the zones of tundra followed, constantly
shrinking as the ice cap thinned. The forest encroached on the tundra
belt, and the grasslands likewise moved inward; at the same time the
tropical forest shrank, and the land in between two belts of grassland
became desert. What had once been the optimum home for food gather-
ing man now became bare and sterile, and remained virtually unoccupied
until the rise of pastoral nomadism, with ass and camel, once more made
it habitable.
The centers of Pleistocene glaciation were not located exactly on the
poles. In the northern hemisphere, the center was in the north Atlantic,
with land nuclei in Scandinavia, northern Britain, and Greenland, so
that northwestern Europe and northeastern America were covered, while
territories of higher latitudes, in eastern Europe and Siberia, and in
western North America, were left bare. In Europe, the ice covered, at
its maximum, all of the British Isles but the southwestern tip of Great
Britain; most of Belgium, Holland, northern Germany, the Baltic States,
and Finland, as well, of course, as Scandinavia. Secondary centers of
glaciation, based on altitude rather than latitude, lay in the Alps, Pyre-
nees, and Caucasus, in the Himalayas and Pamirs, in the mountain skele-
ton of Siberia, and in the Atlas mountains of North Africa.
20 THE RACES OF EUROPE
These ice caps, and the surrounding zones of cold, acted as barriers to
the naked hunters of the Early and Middle Pleistocene. In Europe, no
sure instance has been established of a Lower or Middle Palaeolithic find
in a glacial context; before the first Wurm glaciation, human beings and
related primates gave the ice a wide berth.
During the entire span of the Pleistocene up to the fourth or Wurm
glaciation, bands of human beings, probably including both sapiens and
non-sapiens forms, shifted slowly from continent to continent with the
changes of climate. During the fourth glaciation, the parts of Europe
and Asia immediately south of the ice sheet, and in the tundra belt, were
for the first time, under such conditions, inhabited. This was by Neander-
thal man, who lived in caves, warmed himself over fires, and could,
judging by his tool kit, dress skins, although, in default of needles, he was
probably a poor tailor. The European branch of this species was a mar-
ginal, primitive form, and barely survived the 'fourth ice. During the
Laufen interglacial, Neanderthal was replaced in Europe by pure and
mixed sapiens men coming from the east in several waves. With the last
major ice advance, Wurm II, sapiens man stayed on, for by now he had
developed the knowledge and skill to make warm clothing, as numerous
skin-working tools and fine bone needles attest.
In the meanwhile, other sapiens men must have lived in more favorable
climates, as much on vegetable food as on meat. Some of these developed
the microlithic cultural technique, which involved striking off small
blades for composite instruments, and this spread to Europe north of the
Pyrenees only after the retreat of the last ice. These sapiens men were,
as we shall see, quite different from those in the North. The post-glacial
movements of human groups completely changed the racial complexion
of much of the habitable earth.
(3) SAPIENS MEN OF THE MIDDLE PLEISTOCENE
The first appearance of fully or incipiently sapiens men in the Old
World can now be definitely placed in the Middle Pleistocene, in Europe
the time of the second, or great, interglacial. The specimen which has
made this allocation possible is Swanscombe man, consisting of a parietal
and the occipital bone of one individual from a glacially sealed Middle
Acheulean deposit on the second terrace of the Thames Valley in England.6
These fragments are said to resemble the cranial vault of Piltdown, which
is also probably sapiens in the same sense, and may be of no greater antiq-
uity.6
8 Swanscombe Committee of the RAIf JRAI, vol. 68, 1938, pp. 17-98.
See especially Morant, G. M., ibid., pp. 67-96.
8 It is becoming increasingly unlikely that the Piltdown mandible is a part of the same
specimen as the vault fragments.
PLEISTOCENE WHITE MEN 21
Other remains comparable to those from Swanscombe, and also asso-
ciated with the Acheulean cultural horizon, have been found in various
sites in western and southern Europe, but have so far failed to receive full
scientific recognition. The best known of these is the famous Galley Hill
skeleton, found in the second or hundred-foot terrace of the Thames
Valley. Others include the Moulin Quignon mandible, the Clichy skele-
ton, and the Olmo skullcap. Of these, the most nearly complete,7 and the
strongest claimant for authenticity, is the Galley Hill skeleton, unearthed
in 1888.8 Although the skeleton was removed from near the bottom of an
undisturbed gravel layer, by persons fully aware of the importance of its
position, most modern writers of 'the pre- Swanscombe era have refused
to accept its authenticity, although the chances of its being later than the
gravel from which it was taken were at most extremely slight. In view of
the Swanscombe evidence the Galley Hill specimen may now be granted
the recognition which it has long merited.
The Galley Hill man was of short stature, about 160 cm. His long bones,
which include a humerus as well as a femur and tibia, although robust,
were not heavy. The length of the tibia is 77 per cent of that of the femur,
and this proportion is modern and European, unlike those of many of the
later peoples of the Upper Palaeolithic and Neolithic. From the muscu-
lar markings on their surfaces, it is apparent that he was a man of con-
siderable bodily strength, but at the same time of fairly light build. The
section profiles of the long bones, the positions of the condyles, and the
facets, all bear witness to a life in open country, and to the habit of squat-
ting.
The skull, which is reminiscent in a general way of some living varieties
of European man, is extremely dolichocephalic, with a cranial index of
69; although warped by earth pressure, it has not changed its basic form.
The length of the vault is very long, 204 mm. as reconstructed by Keith,
and the breadth correspondingly narrow. The vault height, known only
from the auricular projection since the Ipasal portion of the skull is missing,
is on the low side of medium. This skull has an extremely protuberant
occiput with the greatest length well to the bottom; a well-developed
frontal region, and a moderately sloping forehead. At the same time the
forehead is very broad, making the parietal walls nearly parallel. The
browridges are of moderately strong development. The face, unfor-
tunately, is missing in Galley Hill as in all similar specimens. Yet the
temporal segment of the right zygomatic arch remains, and this, although
thin, shows that the arch as a whole was well curved.
Fortunately, more than half of the mandible has been preserved, and
7 The Clichy skeleton may be more complete, but has not been satisfactorily published.
8 Keith, Sir A., The Antiquity of Man, pp. 178-193.
22 THE RACES OF EUROPE
its conformation makes it certain that there was no prognathism. The
body of this mandible is rather narrow and of only moderate symphysial
height; the chin of medium prominence judged by modern standards.
The ascending ramus is wide, and the sigmoid notch shallow. The teeth,
while fully human, retain some primitive features in the development of
the pulp cavities, in the length-breadth proportions of the molars, and in
their relative size, for the third molar is the largest.
Besides these dental peculiarities and the absence of a marked sigmoid
notch, the skull itself possesses certain primitive features. It is thick, and
the browridges, although no greater than in many modern examples,
form a continuous ridge. The mastoids are small, and the area of tem-
poral muscle attachment large.
Galley Hill man was, without reasonable doubt, an extremely gen-
eralized form of ancestral white man. His skull and body bones preserve
just that degree of generalization needed to make him the logical ancestor
of the Mediterranean race and of all the sub-races related to it.
Although more specimens of this type have so far been found in Europe
than elsewhere, it is not possible to suppose that the Galley Hill type of
man evolved on European soil. He must have been a transient in Europe,
coming in with the retreat of one glacier, and going out again with the
advance of the next. When his descendants next appear in Europe, it will
be from some other source to which their ancestors had retreated.
Outside of Europe, the earliest known human anatomical specimen
is the Kanam mandible from East Africa. This was attributed by its
finder, Leakey,9 to the Lower Pleistocene, which would probably make it
older than any of the other known fossil men of Africa, Asia, or of Europe.
The Kanam mandible is definitely human; it possesses a chin and its
teeth are essentially human in form, although primitive in a number of
ways,10 like those of Galley Hill. It is impossible to determine with any
accuracy the racial type represented by this fragment of jaw; especially
since, if it possesses the age attributed to it, races in the modern sense
cannot have developed very far. However, it could, like Galley Hill, have
belonged without difficulty to a generalized ancestral white man, since
it lacks prognathism and is modern in shape and size.
Younger than the Kanam mandible, and apparently belonging to the
Middle Pleistocene, are four fragmentary skull caps found, likewise by
Leakey, in East Africa at the site of Kanjera. These, like the Kanam jaw,
have been subjected to the investigation of a British Committee which is
not satisfied as to the exact location from which they came. However, as
Hopwood has pointed out, the fossils from both the Kanam and Kanjera
• Leakey, L. S. B., The Fossil Races of Kenya.
"Adloff, P., ZFRK, vol. 3, 1936, pp. 10-26.
PLEISTOCENE WHITE MEN 23
deposits belong to the periods which Leakey stated; namely, the Lower
and Middle Pleistocene.
Despite the uncertainty of this situation, in view of their great impor-
tance, and the fact that their alleged age has not been disproved, it would be
unwise to ignore these East African specimens in a theoretical reconstruc-
tion of the history of Homo sapiens. It is much more reasonable to give them
full consideration and to label the sequence of reconstruction as tentative.
These four fragmentary skull caps found at Kanjera are in such poor
condition that it is impossible to give accurate measurements or other
details which would fully define the types which they represent. Yet
enough pieces have been preserved to make a general estimate. Kanjera
man was extremely dolichocephalic, with cranial indices under 70; the
skull walls, although thick in three out of four cases, are not covered with
heavy muscular markings, as in the case of non-sapiens types of fossil man.
The foreheads are prominent; the frontal lobes of the brain well de-
veloped, as in any modern group; the whole occipital region is extremely
protruding, and the occipital lobes strongly developed and very sym-
metrical. This fact, along with other features of the brain deduced from a
study of the endocranial casts,11 leads one to the conclusion that these
specimens belonged to a very long-headed form of Homo sapiens, very
similar to Galley Hill, and like the latter could without difficulty have been
ancestral to at least one part of the present white racial stock. One small
piece of malar bone is all that remains of the faces of these four individuals.
This fragment includes a well-developed canine fossa, which again is cer-
tain proof of its human character. A small piece of femur with a strongly
developed pilaster is also fully human, but cannot serve to designate any
single racial group.
(4) NON-SAPIENS PLEISTOCENE FOSSIL MEN
Not demonstrably older than the Pleistocene fossil men discussed in the
last section are the remains of an increasingly large number of non-sapiens
specimens from all three continents of the Old World.12 These include
two separate genera, Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus, and four species of
Homo — soloensis, heidelbergensis, neanderthalensis, and rhodesiensis. The exact
relationships between these groups is in dispute, but it is apparent that
they may be grouped in at least two evolutionary levels, with Pithecan-
thropus and Sinanthropus in the lower bracket. Despite their allocation to
separate genera, these two are, in many respects, very much alike. Fur-
thermore Rhodesiensis and Soloensis resemble each other, and together
» Elliot-Smith, Sir G., The Stone Age Races of Kenya, Appendix B.
11 The extensive literature on these fossil groups need not be cited here. Except in the
case of Neanderthal, they have little bearing on the subject of this book.
24 THE RACES OF EUROPE
are not very different from the numerous and variable Neanderthaloid
group.
These fossils, whatever their internal classification, may be considered a
separate class of highly evolved, humanoid primates. Within this class
there are differences of evolutionary status, and differences in type of
specialization. As a whole, however, they differ from both early and
Fio. 1. NEANDERTHAL MAN IN MODERN DRESS.
MacGregor's restoration of La Chapelle aux Saints, provided with hat, hair, and
clothing by the artist. Although we do not know that the reconstruction of the soft
parts is accurate, nevertheless the facial features were probably essentially human. This
picture serves to illustrate the fact that our impressions of racial differences between
groups of mankind are often largely influenced by modes of hair dressing, the presence
or absence of a beard and clothing.
modern sapiens man in the possession of a flattened, gorilloid skull vault,
with a strong supraorbital torus, an extremely sloping forehead associated
with a low vault height, and a strongly girded brain case, in which, in the
more primitive species, the maximum cranial length passes from glabella
to an occipital torus, while the maximum breadth lies between the mastoid
crests. Even in the more evolved species in which the brain size equals or
exceeds that of modern men, the same gorilloid structure to a large extent
persists. The faces of the few specimens which still possess them are of
extreme length and breadth, and the subnasal portions excessively large
in comparison to the brain case; these faces are flat, and that distinctive
PLEISTOCENE WHITE MEN 25
human feature, the canine fossa, is lacking. In the case of most known
Neanderthals, the molar teeth have fused roots and enlarged pulp cavities,
while the dental borders are even, and the canines not interlocking.18
The dating of the various fossils mentioned above is in most cases under
dispute, but there is no valid evidence that any of them are earlier than
the Middle Pleistocene. Only Homo neanderthalensis in some of his more
highly evolved forms is known, however, to have extended into the Late
Pleistocene. Aside from all biological considerations, the time element is
sufficient to destroy the hypothesis that members of this heavy brow-
ridged group could have evolved directly into the earliest known form of
Homo sapiens. It is possible that these species represent a survival of an
ancestral stage through which Homo sapiens had in earlier times passed,
and that they were, during the Pleistocene, themselves passing through
a tardy process of evolving, but this explanation is not the only one that
may be presented. The sexual differentiation and luxuriance of gorilloid
characters which these species possess may conceivably never have been
found in the direct ancestor of sapiens man.
(5) THE NEANDERTHALOID HYBRIDS OF PALESTINE
In western Europe, Neanderthaloid skeletal material begins to appear
in the second interglacial, with the Heidelberg jaw,14 and is followed, dur-
ing the early part of the Riss retreat, by the Steinheim and Ehringsdorf
crania. The whole of the third interglacial, and the advance of Wurrn I,
belonged to Neanderthal men, and not a single sapiens skull has been
found, in Europe, dating from this long time expanse.
The Neanderthal group was extremely variable, and showed within its
ranks clear evidence of evolutionary change in a human direction. On
the whole, the western European specimens formed a marginal, and rela-
tively primitive, geographical sub-group of the species. The center of its
dispersion probably lay farther east, as did, one may suppose, that of
the Mousterian flake culture with which the Neanderthal species seems
to be basically associated.
In Palestine, which falls on a periphery of this cultural range, excavations
in caves near the Sea of Galilee and Mount Carmel have revealed a num-
ber of Neanderthaloid skeletons which are different from those in Europe,
18 The condition known as taurodontism is not as uncommon as has been supposed,
and can no longer be cited as an impediment to the relationship of Neanderthal with
other types of man. For a discussion and bibliography on the subject of taurodontism,
see Galloway, A., The Skeletal Remains of Mapungubwe, pp. 127-174, in Fouch6, L.,
Mapungubwe.
14 Current scientific opinion in Germany tends to place Heidelberg in the first inter-
glacial.
26 THE RACES OF EUROPE
and others which are, in fact, only partly Neandefthaloid.16 The materials
from the Mountain Carmel caves, situated in a late Middle Pleistocene
setting, corresponding to the latter part of the third interglacial in Europe,
were found imbedded in a breccia thick with Levalloiso-Mousterian imple-
ments. It is with these late Mousterians, who showed atypical racial
features, that we are at present concerned.
In one of the Mount Carmel caves, that of Tabun, was found the skele-
ton of a small woman, fully Neanderthaloid, and associated with it was a
male mandible equal in size to that of Heidelberg, but possessed of that
human feature, a chin. In a nearby grotto, the Mugharet es-Skhul, were
the remains of a number of individuals, including three male crania suffi-
ciently complete for reconstruction and measurement. A preliminary
publication 16 of three of these skulls, and of the long bones of the same
and other individuals, gives us a reasonably accurate idea of their posi-
tion in the human family tree. Originally considered members of the
Neanderthaloid species, they are now known to be fully human, although
preserving a number of unmistakable Neanderthaloid characteristics.
The leg bones of the Skhul people are long and slender, the femora
heavily pilastered, in contrast to the Neanderthaloid form. The feet are
fully human, but lack the reduction found in the middle phalanges of
modern races, while the heels are short. The humeri arc likewise long
and slender, the radii and ulnae straight, instead of being bowed as with
Neanderthal man, including the Tabun female. The hands of Skhul men
were broad and large.
In the Skhul pelves, definite Neanderthaloid features appear; the entire
structure is lower and narrower than those of most modern men. The
Tabun woman's pelvis, on the other hand, is quite different from other
Neanderthaloids, in the possession of a long, plate-like pubis, which is an
ape-like character. The vertebral column of the Skhul men, while human,
and possessing a lumbar curve of sapiens character, is short in the cervical
region. The total height of the cervical vertebrae is only 55.7 mm., as
contrasted with a mean of 68.4 mm. for modern man. Thus the Skhul
men were short-necked, and in this respect possessed a Neanderthaloid
trait. In comparison with Neanderthal man, the Skhul thorax was flat,
while that of the Tabun woman retained the barrel-like earlier form.
The ribs of the Skhul men are variable in cross-section; some are flat and
ribbon-like, as in modern man, others are thick and rounded, as with
15 Keith, Sir A., "A Report on the Galilee Skull,'* in Turville-Petre, F., Researches in
Prehistoric Galilee.
Keith, Sir A., and McGown, T. W., BASF, #13, 1937, pp. 5-15; also "Mount Carmel
Man," etc,, Early Mant Phila., 1937, pp. 41-52. (Other notices superseded by the last
two mentioned.)
» Keith, Sir A., and McCown, T. W,, BASF, #13, 1937, pp. 5-15.
PLEISTOCENE WHITE MEN 27
Neanderthal. The latter form is also associated with the Upper Palaeo-
lithic European men,17 whose relationship to the Skhul people will be
treated later. The stature of the Skhul males was tall, ranging from 173
to 179 cm., while that of the females, estimated from long bones, was
short, 158 cm. The sex differentiation thus revealed is great.
In the skull, Skhul man is definitely intermediate between the Neander-
thal sCnd sapiens groups, but much closer to the latter, so that its inclusion
in the living species cannot be denied. The skulls of the three males are
extremely large. In length, they equal Galley Hill, but far exceed it in
breadth; the vault height of two specimens, #5 and #9, measured from
the ear holes, is equal to that of Galley Hill, but the third, #4, is as low
as with true Neanderthals, while the extreme breadth of this specimen
acts as a compensation, permitting a greater capacity than with the other
two. In vault form, then, two are mainly sapiens, while one appears,
from the measurements, to be largely Neanderthaloid. The capacities of
these three skulls are 1588, 1600, and 1616 cc., respectively, much greater
than those of Galley Hill or others of his type, and greater than those of
most living men. At the same time, they exceed most Neanderthal figures.
In brain size as in stature, Skhul man exceeded either Neanderthal or
Homo sapiens as previously known.
The best preserved and most complete specimen, #5, is a heavy, thick
skull, with heavy browridges, which do not, however, attain a maximum
Neanderthaloid development. The greatest length falls higher, in the
rear, than with the Neanderthals; although the occiput is protruding, it
is not conical in form, as with many Neanderthal specimens. The vault
is well-arched, the lambdoid region slightly flattened, and the forehead
no more sloping than in many modern sapiens crania.
The face, while large, fails to attain the gorilla-like proportions of
Neanderthal, and falls within the modern range in height and breadth.
The interorbital distance is, comparatively speaking, great; the upper
bonders of the orbits straight. Both tjie maxillae and mandible are of
great size and robusticity, exceeding most modern specimens, and the
alveolar prognathism is excessive. The mandible has, however, a fully
human chin, and the teeth are, like those of the Tabun specimens, not
taurodont. The palate, viewed from below, while large, is long in pro-
portion to its breadth, unlike Neanderthal in which the breadth exceeds
the length. The foramen magnum, like that of Neanderthal, is long and
narrow.
Although the anthropornetric position of the Skhul crania will be dis-
cussed later in more detail, it is worth noting at the moment that in most
characters capable of measurement the #5 specimen falls between Homo
w Aichel, O., Derdeutsche Mensch, p. 30.
28 THE RACES OF EUROPE
sapiens, as exemplified by Galley Hill and later examples of the same type,
and Neanderthal, as known from the totality of that species. 18
Keith and McCown have demonstrated, beyond serious doubt, that the
Skhul skeletons are intermediate between Homo neanderthalensis and Homo
sapiens, and that Neanderthal must therefore be included among the an-
cestors of modern races. Thus the opinions of Hrdlifcka, Aichel,1® and
others, expressed earlier on the basis of equally valid but less striking evi-
dence, are at last, in one sense or another, substantiated. We now know
that the Neanderthal strain did not become extinct, but passed over into
the genetic stock of modern man. If this occurred once, it could have
occurred a number of times. The field is now open to discover survivals
of non-sapiens accretions in modern races in other parts of the earth. This
privilege must, however, be used with caution.
(6) UPPER PALAEOLITHIC MAN IN EUROPE,
THE EVIDENCE AS A WHOLE
The next step is to examine the evidence which reveals the racial com-
position of Upper Palaeolithic man in Europe. Until the discovery of the
Swanscombe fragments, these were the earliest sapiens remains which were
definitely datable to the satisfaction of all interested scientists, and im-
mune to the doubts which had thrown all supposedly earlier finds into
the shade.
The first Upper Palaeolithic people, the bearers of the earliest phase of
the Aurignacian culture, arrived in Europe during the middle of the
Laufen interglacial, between the retreat of Wurm I and the advance of
Wurm II. On the basis of accurate Scandinavian chronology, it is pos-
sible to set the end of the Upper Palaeolithic in western Europe with more
accuracy; 11,800 B.C. seems to mark a turning point, with the migration
of the reindeer northward, and the first introduction of Mesolithic culture.
In view of the present differences of opinions between geologists, it seems
unwise to set even a tentative date for its inception. In any case, the time
that elapsed during the Upper Palaeolithic must have provided ample
room for change in some of the more fluid physical characters of a people,
especially if they have been subjected to rigorous climatic conditions and
specialized diets.
We must not place too much importance on fine differences in stature
as a means of determining genetic affinity or distance, especially over
periods of tens of thousands of years. Head form, too, although it changes
with much less speed than stature, for it is not directly concerned with
18 Figures for the latter obtained from Morant, G. M., AE, vol. 2, 1927, pp. 376-377.
" Hrdliftka, A., The Skeletal Remains of Early Man, MCSI, vol. 83, 1930.
Aichel, O., Der deutsche Mtnsch.
PLEISTOCENE WHITE MEN 29
gross size, nevertheless responds to the stimuli which control it, and we
must not be surprised if long heads have in some instances become round
heads during the course of hundreds of generations.
In studying the remains of Pleistocene and of post- Pleistocene man,
therefore, we must be careful not to confuse characters which are of racial
importance with progressive modifications which may occur, in response
to cultural changes, within any group. Such modifications are especially
concerned with the jaws and teeth. Among the more primitive white
peoples, such as Berbers and Albanian mountaineers, the incisors of the
two jaws meet edge to edge, as they did among most of the mediaeval in-
habitants of western Europe. Under modern conditions this changes
rapidly to an overbite, and is frequently accompanied by a narrowing of
the palate and crowding of the teeth, making modern orthodontia profit-
able. This shifting of the bite affects also the position of the lips and
changes the entire facial expression.
Another modification which seems to proceed with some rapidity is the
enlargement of the masticatory muscles under sub-arctic conditions. As
these muscles enlarge, the angles of the lower jaw become everted, the
zygomatic arches expand laterally, and often the brain case becomes
keeled in response to an increase in temporal muscular attachment. At
the same time both the mandible and the palate develop tori. These
correlated changes act without regard to race since they are apparently
functional adaptations. They also act with some rapidity, for the mediae-
val Icelanders acquired them in less than four centuries.30 These occur
in varying degree among some of the later Upper Palaeolithic European
skulls, as well as among Eskimos and modern Siberians.
We must be particularly careful, therefore, in studying the remains of
Upper Palaeolithic man, to remember that his time span was unques-
tionably greater than the totality of time which has elapsed since it ended.
We must also remember that the men who conquered the cold lived under
new and rigorous climatic and dietary conditions, and that these condi-
tions must have exerted a strong influence upon the more plastic elements
of their bodily form. Therefore, metrical and morphological differences
in physical type which appear, during the course of these millennia, may
imply, in some instances, a response to environment rather than a diver-
sity of origin.
From all of the regions in Europe which we know to have been inhab-
ited during the Upper Palaeolithic period, over one hundred skulls which
have been disinterred at one time or another, during the last century,
have been called to the attention of persons competent to determine their
age. Of these hundred or more skulls, however, only sixty odd have been
» Hooton, E. A., AJPA, vol. 1, 1918, pp. 53-76.
30 THE RACES OF EUROPE
measured and published. We have, in this group, a large enough series
to merit treatment by biometric methods, in contrast to the remains of
earlier non-human species, which consist for the most part of single speci-
mens, and may, therefore, be approached from a morphological and
anatomical standpoint alone.
Unfortunately, these crania have not been drawn in equal proportions
from all the countries in which Upper Palaeolithic cultures are repre-
sented. By far the largest number come from France, where they were
preserved in caves, and where archaeological interest, over an entire cen-
tury, has been greater tnan in any other European country. A smaller
number come from England, Spain, northern Italy, Germany, Czecho-
slovakia, Poland, and Russia. In studying this group of skulls as a whole,
we must remember that the western European element is over- weighted.
Morant, the present leader of the English biometric school, has con-
tributed a valuable statistical study of these skulls.21 (See Appendix I,
col. 1.) To twenty-seven, which he personally remeasured, he adds
twenty-five measured by other investigators. These fifty-two skulls, of
unquestioned geological age, form the nucleus of his study. Of these
skulls, seventy per cent come from the first, or Aurignacian period.
Although in the later sections of this chapter we shall examine the posi-
tion of these skulls singly by regions and by periods of time, it will be
profitable, for the moment, to follow Morant in treating this group of
crania as a single unit. Despite the fact that the Europeans of the Upper
Palaeolithic were probably the product of more than one invasion, and
despite the fact that they lived through a long period of time, and covered
a geographical range which includes the greater part of the continent,
the first of several striking results of Morant's study is the discovery that
this composite sample is little more variable in the totality of its features
than one would find in any large cranial collection of post-glacial men,
unified in space and in time. Von Bonin, working with the long bones
and extremities, obtained exactly the same result.22
It is amazing to find that the Upper Palaeolithic men were less variable,
on the whole, than the inhabitants of London who were buried in plague
pits during the seventeenth century. They were less variable than the
modern rural population of a small section of Carinthia, and only a little
more so than the skulls of the extremely isolated Greenland Eskimo,
whose time span covered at most a few centuries, or the Egyptians who
were buried at Gizeh between the twenty-sixth and thirtieth dynasties.
The great complexity of race in modern Europe fs largely due to post-
Pleistocene migrations from other continents, and the retention of local
81 Morant, G. M., AE, vol. 4, 1930-31, pp. 109-214.
22 Bonin, G., von, HB, vol. 7, 1935, pp. 196-221.
PLEISTOCENE WHITE MEN 31
types in modern populations reflects the greater isolability in small regions
of farmers than of hunters. But the Upper Pleistocene people were by no
means completely homogeneous, as will be shown later by an examination
of individual crania, in their chronological and geographical contexts.
Since, as Morant has shown, this total Upper Palaeolithic group is
unified enough to be considered a single population,28 we may proceed to
generalize about the traits which most of the members of this group pos-
sess in common. The first and most notable of these is the extremely large
size of the brain case, larger in most cases than Galley Hill or most modern
men, and comparable in size to Skhul. This is found in all but a few of the
skulls, whatever the actual dimensions and forms. The cranial indices,
however, are very variable, ranging from sixty-five to eighty-five, and this
variability is too great to imply a single homogeneous type.
In these skulls the males are easily distinguished from the females, for
there is a greater difference between the sexes than is usual among more
recent groups of man. The same is true of long bones and stature.24 This
implies, of course, a stronger development of secondary sexual charac-
teristics. In the male skulls the bony markings are all pronounced, the
browridges are as a rule heavy, the faces are excessively broad, with flar-
ing zygomata. The upper face height is variable — medium to short in
most individuals, but in others quite long.
One of the most distinctive characteristics of most (but not all) of these
skulls is that the orbits are very broad and very low. The nasal skeleton
is almost always prominent.25 The nasal root, although deeply overhung
by glabella, is still high, and the osseous nasal profile is as a rule straight
or convex. The nasal spine is sharp and the lower border well marked.
The nose, on the whole, is leptorrhine to mesorrhine.
The lower jaw presents just as marked an individuality as does the
cranium. This bone is deep, wide, and heavy, with flaring gonial angles
and a prominent chin. The palate is rather wider than those of most
living men, although the teeth are not<of excessive size. If one judges the
face form from the calvarium alone, the great breadth of the face, coupled
with a variable length, yields in most cases a low upper facial index, plac-
ing these skulls in the euryene category. If, however, one calculates a
total facial index, many of these skulls are leptoprospic, for the great
height of the mandibular symphysis compensates for the shortness from
nasion to alveolar point. This condition, in which the lower part of the
23 By the word population we do not, necessarily, mean a human aggregation of
single racial origin. What we mean here is a group of people, unified by interbreeding
and forming a geographical and social unit. Such a population, of course, may have
a multiple origin.
24 Bonin, G., von, op. cit.
26 The Grimaldi "negroids" form an exception.
32 THE RACES OF EUROPE
face is exaggerated, is one of the chief diagnostic features of this type of
man, and a suggestion of it may still be seen among some of the living
peoples of northern Europe.
In the totality of facial features, with a few exceptions, the Upper Pa-
laeolithic people may be said to have resembled modern white men.
Some, however, probably looked like a certain type of American Indian,
notably that of the North American Plains, and of the OnaS and Tehuelche
of southernmost South America. This comparison, we must remember,
is wholly morphological, since we do not know Upper Palaeolithic man's
pigmentation, hair form, or hair distribution.
The skeletons of the Upper Palaeolithic people vary in size by sub-
periods, as will be shortly demonstrated, but as a whole the group was
tall, long-limbed, and slender, with narrow hips, broad shoulders, and
large hands and feet. On the whole, the limb bones were not excessively
robust, and the limb ratios, determining the relative lengths of arm and
leg segments, and of arms to legs, were unstable.
The mean stature of the males was about 173 cm., of the females 1 55 cm.
The men were taller than the means of any modern European countries,
with the exception of Iceland and Montenegro, but not taller than mod-
ern Americans. The women, on the other hand, were actually small.
The equivalents of these mean statures are, in feet and inches, but five
feet nine, and five feet one and a half. Galley Hill man, by comparison,
was only five feet two.
Morant, in his statistical study, compared his Upper Palaeolithic sample
with a long list of post-Pleistocene cranial series. He found that the early
group exceeded all of the later ones by a wide margin in seven measure-
ments,28 while it reached the limit of recent human means in six others.27
This mass deviation would, in Morant's opinion, place Upper Palaeo-
lithic European man at one end of the scale and the rest of humanity,
white and otherwise, all of lesser antiquity, at the other.
It is possible to quibble with Morant, and to discover small series or
subseries which contradict this finding. For example, the Ona skulls from
Tierra del Fuego,28 a series of Bronze Age crania from Esthonia,29 and of
M Horizontal circumference, glabcllooccipital length, sagittal arc from glabella to
opisthion, nasio-bregmatic arc, internal biorbital diameter, bizygomatic diameter, and
length of the foramen magnum.
** Transverse circumference, brcgma-lambda arc, biasterionic breadth, bimaxillary
breadth, orbital breadth. These five, according to Morant, fall within 1 mm. of the
greatest post-Pleistocene means. Orbital height, he finds, is .7 mm. shorter than the
lowest comparative mean.
28 Morant, in his group "Fuegians, pooled," mixed Ona skulls with those of the
smaller and quite different Yaghans. If one abstracts the Ona crania from Lebzeltcr's
original tables, he will find that the European Upper Palaeolithic means of Morant are
essentially duplicated. w Friedenthal, A., ZFE, vol. 63, 1931, pp. 1-39.
PLEISTOCENE WHITE MEN 33
Iron Age ones from the Norwegian coast,80 are equally large in facial as
well as cranial dimensions. But these exceptions in no way invalidate his
discovery, that the Upper Palaeolithic people, despite their generalized
European facial appearance, were separate in many metrical characters
from most of living, or for that matter pre-Aurignacian, sapiens men. The
reason for this deviation is not difficult to discover, but we must approach
the obvious conclusion slowly, in order to make sure of an accurate recon-
struction of prehistoric events.
(7) CHRONOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DIFFERENTIATION
OF THE EUROPEAN AURIGNACIAN GROUP
The Aurignacian flake culture,31 with which the Upper Palaeolithic
period in Europe began, was not a single unit throughout its time span,
but seems to have been composed of several separate entities derived from
more than one non-European source.
The first Aurignacian level in Europe, the Chatelperronian, is repre-
sented by three skeletons only. These include the two "negroids" from
the Grotte dcs Enfants, Grimaldi, near Mentone, and Combe Capelle.
Of the three, the Grimaldi pair may have been the older. Except that
they belonged to the earliest Aurignacian period, a more exact estimate
of their age is not possible.32 These were the remains of an adult female
and an adolescent male. Disregarding for the moment their racial affin-
ities, we may be sure that they were fully sapiens, and that they resembled
Galley Hill in stature and in gross cranial vault form. The vault dimen-
sions, however, are smaller. They thus show nothing whatever of the
great size and robusticity of the crania belonging to the total Upper
Palaeolithic group, and nothing of the latter's exuberance of bodily
growth.
In other respects they were apparently somewhat negroid, in the sense
that they possessed features divergent from the modern white standard
in a modern negroid direction.38 These include the virtual absence of
browridges, a sharp bowing of the frontal bone, low, broad nasal bones,
a guttered lower border of the nasal opening, alveolar prognathism, a
large palate, and large teeth. The orbits, furthermore, are relatively
narrow, the face both absolutely short and narrow. The long bones show
a difference, however, in limb proportions between these people and
wSchreiner, K. E., SNVO, II, #11, 1927, pp. 1-32.
« Garrod, Miss D. A. E., RBAA, Pres. Ad., Sect. H., 1936, pp. 155-172.
M Hopwood, A. T., op. cit.
M Verneau, R., "Anthropologie," in Les GrotUs de Grimaldi, vol. 2, fasc. 1.
Keith (Antiquity of Man, p. 67) and Morant (AE, vol. 4, 1930, pp. 116-119) deny this
negroid character completely, Morant on the grounds of faulty restoration, which exag-
gerated the prognathism of the adolescent male.
34 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Galley Hill, for the distal segments are relatively long, and the arms long
in relation to the legs.34 In this as in the possession of long heels 36 the
Grimaldi specimens are truly negroid, and again upset the unity of the
total Upper Palaeolithic sample.
There is no type of man more completely sapiens 36 than a negro. The
two Grimaldi specimens, in being partially negroid variants or relatives
of the Galley Hill group, are entirely divorced from the line or evolution
which produced either the Palestinian Skhul people or the later European
Aurignacians. In this respect the argument as to how much or how little
negroid they actually were, is of no importance.
Whence they came to Europe, in the van of the Upper Palaeolithic
migrations, is likewise not, at the moment, worthy of extensive argument.
They must have come from Africa or southwestern Asia, but until others
of the same type have been found, the problem will remain open. They
may represent an early negro-white mixture, or a generalized proto-
negroid in the process of specialization.37 They are probably too late,
however, in time, to have been contemporary members of the generalized
stock which may have been mutually ancestral to the negroes and whites.
The study of the third specimen, the male skeleton of Combe Capelle,
is more pertinent to our present problem. Like the two Grimaldi negroids,
it deviates completely from the body of Upper Palaeolithic crania and
long bones in the distinctive features of the main group. Although as
long as the mean for the total series, the cranial vault is considerably
narrower, somewhat higher, and smaller in capacity. In the details of
vault form, it is essentially similar to Galley Hill, but is actually narrower
even than Galley Hill itself.
The Combe Capelle face is the earliest which can be definitely asso-
ciated with a Galley Hill type of vault. Here it differs again from the
middle Aurignacians to follow, for the bizygomatic and bigonial diame-
ters are as small as those of most modern long-headed white men, and the
face, orbits, and mandible are narrow. The nasal opening is wider than
those of most later Upper Palaeolithic European crania but the nasal bones
are European in form. There is no prognathisrn and the subnasal seg-
ment of the face is not exceptionally large. Like Galley Hill, Combe
Capelle man was short, with a stature of 160-162 cm.
It will be necessary, in studying the crania of the remainder of the
Aurignacian, to combine all sub-periods, since no distinction has been
made in the majority of cases. Furthermore, the crania which might
34 Bonin, G., von, op. cit.9 p. 205.
»/««/., p. 215.
38 As opposed to Neanderthaloid.
» Montandon, G., RA, vols. 4-6, 1936, pp. 105-139.
PLEISTOCENE WHITE MEN
35
have been Solutrean are also included. The present survey, then, in-
cludes the famous Cr6-Magnons of France, and the Moravian mammoth
hunters, who lived in the open and buried their dead in sepulchres built
of mammoth jaws and shoulder blades.
Despite the general homogeneity of Upper Palaeolithic man, these two
groups, the western and eastern, may be shown to have differed from each
other in certain well-defined ways. Both were tall, with statures well
RECONSTRUCTIONS FROM PALAEOLITHIC CRANIA
FIG. 2. NEANDERTHAL MAN. FIG. 3. CRO-MAGNON MAN.
(LA CHAPELLE.) (THE OLD MAN OF CRO-MAGNON.)
Reconstructions, under the direction of Professor V. Lebzelter; Fig. 13 by Herr
Fahrwickel, Fig. 14 by Herr E. Grenzer. MAGW, vol. 65, pp. [4], [26].
over 170 cm., and in this likeness of growth they segregate themselves
from the few early Aurignacian representatives which we have studied.
Both the western and the eastern type possess the special characteristics
of Upper Palaeolithic man which have been described earlier. But there
is one principal feature which .separates them — the cranial index. The
Cr6~Magnons, who were concentrated in France, range in this ratio from
69 to 85, whereas the eastern group, including the Russian skulls, ranges
from 64 to 76. The mean index for the French skulls equals 76, while that
of the eastern group, representing the same period of time, is 71. In other
words, the eastern Aurignacian type, like Galley Hill and Combe Capelle,
was purely dolichocephalic, while the Middle and Late Aurignacians of
France include among their numbers a brachycephalic element, which
reaches the high limit of 85 in the male skull, Solutr6 #2.
36 THE RACES OF EUROPE
The western group has been named Cro-Magnon after a senile male
skull which is .usually taken as the standard example of this type, and
which possesses the most specialized Upper Palaeolithic features in an
exaggerated manner. Skulls of this type have a rather flat vault, the
lowest and broadest orbits in the entire series, and short, extremely wide
faces. Their nasal apertures are of medium width, and their nasal bones
highly curved and projecting.
The most brachycephalic skull shows, of course, quite a different con-
formation of the cranial vault. It belongs to the curvoccipital type, with
a gently rounded rear profile. This Solutr£ #2 specimen is a large skull,
and belonged to a tall man. Its face, however, shows the typical Cr6-
Magnon features of flaring zygomata and wide jaw, combined with
extremely low orbits. The Cr6-Magnon character of this face, while
marked, is not as clearly shown as in the dolichocephalic examples, for the
fuller bulge of the temporals obscures it. The Cr6-Magnon type, in the
widest sense, therefore, includes both long-headed and round-headed ex-
amples with transitions in between, and the features which differentiate
it are just as pronounced in the roundest skulls as in the more numerous
narrower ones.
Let us turn to central and eastern Europe, and study the purely long-
headed examples from this part of the continent. In general, they re-
semble an exaggerated and leptorrhine Combe Capelle, with the low
orbits, wide faces, and heavy jaws found in excess further west. A few
skulls deviate in various ways from the standard, however; of these three
are notable, Briinn #1, Lautsch, and Predmost #3.
Briinn #1 , which lacks a face, but possesses a mandible, is, in vault form
and size, and in the lower jaw, the duplicate of Combe Capelle. Lautsch,
which has a face, belongs partly to the same general class, but is broader.
Its face, however, is narrow, and in this conforms to the Combe Capelle
type. On the whole, the eastern skulls, while subjected to the same in-
fluence which brought about an increase in gross size and osseous extrav-
agance in the Cr6-Magnons, nevertheless cling closer to the older Galley
Hill form, and were not affected by whatever factor caused the brachy-
cephaly in some of the western specimens.
The third of the not fully typical eastern crania, Predmost #3,88 is of
great value, for it reveals in a certain manner the reason for the
general- peculiarities of the Upper Palaeolithic series as a whole, and for
their separation, shown by Morant, from the bulk of living humanity.
This reason is simply that P?edmost #3 resembles Skhul #5 very closely,
both morphologically and metrically, while neither of these two speci-
mens deviates notably from the Upper Palaeolithic metrical means.
88 This may even have been associated with a Solutrean culture.
PLEISTOCENE WHITE MEN 37
On the whole, the Upper Palaeolithic group, including Predmost #3,
is intermediate between the Galley Hill-Combe Capelle type and the
Neanderthals, as known to us from the European Neanderthaloid group.39
In the first place, the horizontal circumference, taken above the brow-
ridges, ranges from 538 to 563 mm. in male Neanderthals. The Upper
Palaeolithic means is 549.1 mm., the individual figure of Pfedmost #3 is
556, that of Combe Capelle, 527 mm., which would be nearer a modern
dolichocephalic mean. In face breadth, the Neanderthal figure is repre-
sented by La Chapelle aux Saints with 152 mm., and the Le Moustier
adolescent with 148 mm. The Upper Palaeolithic mean is 142.8 mm.,
Pfedmost #3 is 144 mm., and Combe Capelle 137 mm. Again, Combe
Capelle represents modern European man, and the Upper Palaeolithic
group takes an intermediate position.
The same intermediate position is found in a number of other charac-
ters, including the vault breadth and height, the minimum frontal diam-
eter, the widths of the orbits, and the distance between the orbits. In in-
dividual cases, such as Pfedmost #3, the upper face height is intermediate
also, but in the group as a whole it is not, for the shorter dimension pre-
vails. The same is true of the nasal dimensions in which Upper Palaeo-
lithic man is not perceptibly Neanderthaloid. The cranial lengths of the
Upper Palaeolithic group are no greater than those of Combe Capelle and
Galley Hill; in fact, frequently shorter. The reason for this may be that the
equivalent Neanderthaloid diameter includes the browridges, which, when
eliminated, make the brain length somewhat less than that of Galley Hill.
The stature of the Upper Palaeolithic group equals that of Skhul; the
sex differentiation in size is the same; the pelves are similar, and so is
the rib section. The hands and feet are likewise large.
If the European group, with the exception of P?edmost #3, is less
Neanderthaloid looking than Skhul, this is not surprising. The distance
in time between the two was probably as great as or greater than that
between the beginning of the Middle Aurignacian and the present. Fur-
thermore, we have been comparing European Upper Palaeolithic skele-
tons with those of European Neanderthals. While the Aurignacian hunters
of Europe may possibly have absorbed some of the local Neanderthal
survivors, it is likely that the main accretion of this element took place
farther east,40 and we do not know that those so accreted were as spe-
cialized in a non-sapiens direction as the European examples.
89 Measurements from Morant's tables in AE, vol. 2, 1927, pp, 376-377.
40 The Aurignacian culture does not seem to have absorbed the local Mousterian of
western Europe, except in a few doubtful instances. See Leakey, L. S. B., Stone Age
Africat pp. 185-186. On the whole, the theory that European Neanderthals had become
extinct, or had departed before the arrival of the Aurignacians, is not invalidated by the
discovery of the Neanderthaloid characters of Middle and Late Aurignacian man*
38 THE RACES OF EUROPE
In admitting the partially Neanderthaloid character of Upper Palaeo-
lithic man (which is no new theory), we must accept at the same time
some genetic principles which apply to modern primary crosses between
distant races,41 as well as to these ancient interspecific mixtures. Although
blending is the rule in most characters, simple dominance appears in a
few; while major changes in size appear through this mixing. The stature
of the hybrids far exceeds that of their parents, and through the general
genetic upset, the brain size becomes greater than that of the earlier purely
sapiens stock.
It must be admitted that there is an alternative interpretation of the
Neanderthaloid traits of Upper Palaeolithic man. That is that he repre-
sents a stage in the evolution of Neanderthal in a sapiens direction; that
different branches of the Neanderthaloid stock evolved into sapiens men
at different times; and that the Swanscombe — Galley Hill — Kanam —
Kanjera stock went through this process at a much earlier date than
did the group under consideration.
For the purposes of the present study, it makes no difference whether
the early sapiens stock, fully evolved by the Mid-Pleistocene, had passed
through a Neanderthaloid stage in its previous history, or had evolved
directly from some less gerontomorphic and more gibbonoid ancestor.
The question which is at the moment pertinent is, are the Skhul — Upper
Palaeolithic peoples to be considered Neanderthaloid-^aj&zVn^ hybrids, or
simply evolved Neanderthaloids, in which case the hybridization con-
necting the Upper Palaeolithic people with modern Europeans would
have occurred later? All of the existing evidence, of somatology as of
archaeology, points to the former hypothesis, which we have accepted, in
lieu of further information, as one of the main theses in our reconstruction
of European racial history.
Returning to the specific consideration of the Upper Palaeolithic Euro-
pean group, we find that the difference between the eastern and the
western Aurignacians, which consists, most demonstrably, of the brachy-
cephalic tendency in the latter, has not been explained. It might, how-
ever, have been due to a differential mixture between sapiens and more
than one Neanderthaloid strain. The Neanderthaloids in Europe, who
lived in the western part of the continent, varied in cranial index from 67
(Gibraltar) to 77 (La Quina), and were not far from the French Upper
Palaeolithic mean of 76.
When measured from ophyron, a point on the frontal bone behind the
browridges, the crania of these Neanderthals have the following lengths:
three males, 193, 186, 187; three females, 185, 183, 186 mm. These are
"Shapiro, H. L., MBM, vol. 11, 1929, pp. 1-106; The Heritage of the Bounty,
pp. 217-233.
PLEISTOCENE WHITE MEN 39
shorter than the French Upper Palaeolithic means, taken from the same
point, of 195.6 mm. for males, and 188.6 mm. for females. The cranial
indices calculated from these lengths are, in five out of eight Neanderthal
cases, above 80.0. Thus there was, in the Neanderthal group as we know
it, a brachyencranial, or brachycerebral, tendency in brain form which,
with a reduction of browridges, might, in mixture, have caused brachy-
cephaly in some of the hybrids. That it may have done so in the case of the
French brachycephals, notably Solutre* #2, which has a cranial length of
182.5 mm., is by no means more than a suggestion.
As the reader will have gathered from the preceding pages, the study of
race in Europe during the advance of the last ice is not a simple matter, nor
one to be solved lightly. It will be of help to study parallel developments
in other quarters, especially in Africa.
(8) UPPER PALAEOLITHIC HUNTERS OF NORTH AFRICA
During the Late Pleistocene, at the time of the Wurm glaciations in
Europe, northern Africa, including the present Morocco, Algeria, and
Tunisia, enjoyed a cool climate and an abundant plant life; making an
admirable home for human beings. Fortunately, many Late Pleistocene
skeletons from these countries have been studied, and we are able to sup-
plement our information from Europe very greatly by comparison.
During the Upper Palaeolithic, there were three cultures in North Africa
which existed contemporaneously as geographical units; the Capsian,
covering a restricted range in Tunisia and eastern Algeria; the Oranian,
a related culture extending over the provinces of Alger and Constantine,
and into Morocco; and the Aterian, along the Moroccan seaboard.
The Capsian and Oranian were cultures basically related to the Aurig-
nacian of Europe, but which contained throughout their history a micro-
lithic blade element which was destined to move northward, after the end
of the glacial period, and to invade Europe as the Tardenoisian. The Cap-
sian had probably moved westward along the southern Mediterranean
shore from the East; the Oranian was nothing but a western extension of
the Capsian; while the Aterian was a protracted survivor of the Mouste-
rian, which developed its own peculiarities as time went on, and was grad-
ually crowded to the Atlantic seaboard by the Oranian.
It is at present believed that North Africa, during the Late Pleistocene,
was a marginal area of refuge, and not a highway of cultures. Gibraltar
served less as a bridge than as a barrier. Nothing can better attest the
passive cultural r61e of North Africa during this period than the fact that
the Aterian, a Mid-Pleistocene culture, was allowed to elaborate its own
special technique long after the Mousterian, from which it sprang, had
passed out of existence elsewhere.
40 THE RACES OF EUROPE
That the earlier phases of the Capsian and Oranian, coming directly
after the Mousterian, were comparable in time to the Upper Palaeolithic
cultures of Europe, such experts as Menghin, Obermaier, and Leakey are
unanimous,42 while Miss Garrod, on the basis of Vaufrey's work, would
make them later.43
We can only, at this point, agree with Menghin that while the exact
time correlation of North African and western European Late Pleistocene
industries is still floating, they may be considered roughly parallel. At
present, the general agreement is that the essential elements of both
European and North African Upper Palaeolithic cultures came from the
east, and had, at least in part, a common origin.
So far, all of the human remains of the Late Pleistocene from North
Africa come from the Province of Gonstantine, where most of the archaeo-
logical work has been done. The total of these skeletons probably reaches
one hundred, but, unfortunately, less than half of them have been fully
preserved or competently studied.44 They come for the most part from two
great sites, Afalou bou Rummel, and Mechta el 'Arbi. The former is
Oranian, the latter Capsian.
Afalou bou Rummel is an Early Oranian site. Within this early horizon,
Arambourg distinguishes two levels, a lower^and an upper. The lower
may be correlated with the Early Aurignacian of Europe, by one system,
or with Middle and Late Aurignacian, according to another.
The lower level is represented by the skeleton of a single adult male, to
whom we shall refer by his catalogue number, #28. Number 28 was a
short man, about 161.5 cm. tall, equivalent in stature to Galley Hill,
Combe Capelle, and the male negroid from Grimaldi. His skull differs
greatly from the others taken from the upper level of the same site. It is
ovoid in shape, hyperdolichocephalic, and low vaulted; it possesses a slop-
ing forehead, a large U-shaped palate, and high orbits. It is only moder-
ately massive, and is about equal in this respect to Combe Capelle. This
skull is that of a generalized white type, and can be placed without much
difficulty into the general class of Galley Hill and Combe Capelle. Like
the latter, its nasal aperture is wide, its index chamaerrhine.
Forty-nine other crania have been taken from the upper lenses of the
Early Oranian culture level at Afalou bou Rummel. These correspond
42 Menghin, O., Weltgeschichte der Stein&it, pp. 34-35.
Obermaier, H., AAnz, vol. 7, 1931, pp. 259-265.
Leakey, L. S. B., Stone Age Africa, pp. 105-111.
48 Garrod, Miss D. A. E., RBAA, Pres. Ad., Sect. H.
Vaufrey, R., Anth, vol. 43, 1933, pp. 457-483.
44 But two satisfactory accounts have been published :
Part II of Les Grottes Palaeolithiques de Bern Seghoual, by Boule, Vallois, and Verneau.
Cole, Fay-Cooper, LMB #1, 1928, Section on skeletal material.
PLEISTOCENE WHITE MEN 41
closely in physical type to Middle and Late Aurignacian man in western
Europe, but the two groups are not identical. Like Cr6-Magnon, all of the
Afalou skeletons studied were tall, with an estimated male mean falling
between 171 and 175 cm., according to different methods. Their limb
proportions, with long distal segments, are like those of many of the
Cro-Magnon group; while their hands and feet, similarly, are both longer
and broader than those of most Europeans. The combined height of the
vertebrae show that their bodies, as well as their legs, were long, and
the total bulk of a typical male, in good condition, must have been great,
A high ratio between the length of the collarbone and that of the upper
arm (clavico-humeral index) reveals that they had broader shoulders than
those of most modern white men, a feature which has been also noticed
on the Chancelade and Obercassel skeletons, and perhaps is equally true of
the European group as a whole. The pelves are high and have narrow
openings; the feet are highly arched, with well-developed heels; and the
size and muscular markings of the long bones differentiate the males
from the females clearly. All of the bodily traits of these men are shared
by Cr6-Magnon, and all are, in a general sense, European.
The Afalou crania have been exhaustively described and thoroughly
illustrated. In general, they are very large, low-orbitted skulls, thick-boned,
and marked in high relief for muscular attachment. The browridges form
a heavy jut, even greater in most instances than those of the Gr6-Magnons.
Behind a salient glabella the forehead slopes in all instances. Vertical
foreheads, frequent among modern whites, especially females, and present
in some Cr6-Magnon individuals, do not occur here. The union of the
parietal and occipital bones is always marked by a lambdoidal depression,
or flattening,46 while below this depression the occiput is usually bun-
shaped and projecting. The mastoids are strongly developed, and the
thickness of the vault is greater than that of modern man, but no greater
than with Gr6-Magnon.
Metrically, the male skulls (see Appendix I, col. 3) are practically
identical with those of the 'total European series, except that they are
slightly shorter and higher in vault dimensions, while the upper face is a
little shorter. In these divergences from the total European group, they
resemble the western branch, or Cr6-Magnons. The cranial indices of 23
males range from 70 to 80, with a mean of 74.8; while the female figures
are: range 70 to 84; and mean 75.7. Both in range and in means of
head form, the Afalou series equals that of Cr6-Magnon.
The nose of the Afalou type is perfectly European in bony conformation.
45 This feature is extremely common among living North African tribesmen, and
among crania from the Canary Islands. See Coon, C. S., Tribes of the Rif, p. 312.
Hooton, E. A., The Ancient Inhabitants of the Canary Islands, p. 134.
42 THE RACES OF EUROPE
The paired nasal bones unite at a sharp angle, without trace of flatten-
ing, while the bridges are high and mostly convex. The nasal spine is
strong and projects far forward. The nasal index, which lies just over the
border of chamaerrhiny,46 furnishes a real metrical difference between
Afalou and Cr6-Magnon. The elevation of the index is due to a shorter
height as well as to a greater width. Not one of the Afalou skulls is actually
leptorrhine. This feature, combined with the sloping forehead and heavy
browridges, serves to differentiate the types in the two continents. The
Afalou mandible, furthermore, is extremely broad, deep, and heavy. In
the possession of a pronounced chin greater than those commonly found
among the living, it is clearly opposed to any known Neanderthal form.
However, it resembles the Neanderthaloids in one feature; the bigonial
breadth is frequently greater than the mandibular length, a condition
rare in Homo sapiens, and not even found in Skhul.
In the Cr6-Magnon series, the combination of a short, broad upper face
with a long cranial vault has often been called "disharmonic," and it has
been asserted that this condition is the result of mixture between a longer,
narrower-faced dolichocephal and a shorter, wider-faced brachycephal.47
In the European series, although both long and round skull forms occur,
there are not enough crania which still possess facial bones to make a
statistical analysis of this point valid. But in the Afalou series, where the
same set of conditions is duplicated, such an analysis is possible.48 Out of
nine dolichocranial skulls, four have upper facial indices in the broad cate-
gory, while fourteen out of eighteen of the rounder-headed examples are
broad faced. The tendency toward a broad upper face form, then, is
borne predominantly by the meso- and brachycranial element in the group.
If this is true for the Afalou series, it is probably equally valid in the Cr6-
Magnon group.
Two of the Afalou skulls, however, present the "disharmonic" combina-
tion of a hypereuryene face with a long skull form. In explaining this
anomaly we must remember that an extreme width of the face is sex-
linked in both the Cr6-Magnon and Afalou series; it is a manifestation of
the extreme ruggedness and luxuriance of muscularity which the males of
both series manifest, and is lacking, as a rule, among the females.
One other peculiarity which is common to both the European and the
North African Upper Palaeolithic peoples is a very low orbital index. This
again lends itself in the second series to statistical analysis. Only three out
of eleven dolichocranial skulls are chamaeconch, while fourteen out of
n
«• Mean for 21 males— 53.1; Nose Ht. = 52.7 mm.; Nose Br.^28.4 mm.
47 Hooton, E. A., Canary Islands, pp. 204-207.
48 The coefficient of mean square contingency between the cranial index and the up-
per facial index,, calculated with nine boxes, equals .53.
PLEISTOCENE WHITE MEN 43
eighteen of those with higher cranial indices fall into this low-or bitted
category.49
Hence we may deduce that the two parallel series, Cro-Magnon and
Afalou, consist in each case of a Galley Hill-Neanderthal mixture as a base,
with which is associated a variant tendency to round-headedness. To this
is linked an extremely short, broad upper facial form, with a heavy lower
jaw, and wide, low orbits. At the same time, certain differences, such as
the nose form, definitely prevent the assumption that the two are identical,
and make it extremely unlikely that the two met, after their initial separa-
tion, during the entire span of the Late Pleistocene.
Other facts strengthen this conclusion.50 The Afalou people knocked
out one to four incisor teeth from the jaws of each person of either sex, be-
tween the ages of fourteen and sixteen, apparently as a puberty rite. Tooth
knocking is unknown in Europe before the Mesolithic,51 although finger-
chopping, during the Upper Palaeolithic, is indicated by the outlines of
mutilated hands on the walls of the caves. Therefore, if the Cr6-Magnon
people observed bloody puberty ceremonies, as is quite possible, they must
have removed some less tell-tale part of the anatomy than the teeth. While
this bit of cultural evidence renders the theory of physical contact between
the two groups unlikely, it does not necessarily affect the problem of rela-
tive age. We still do not know whether the Afalou men, whose sequence of
types parallels that in western Europe, were contemporaneous with their
kinsmen to the north, or later than them to arrive.
From a study of these presumably Pleistocene Algerians, we are able to
confirm the conclusions reached in the preceding section, and to amplify
them. A fully sapiens individual, comparable to Combe Capelle in every
important respect, preceded, in time, a group of overgrown, large-headed
and wide-faced Neanderthal-sapiens hybrids. This latter type, like Cr6-
Magnon and unlike the people in central and eastern Europe, bore a
tendency to brachycephaly. That Cr6-Magnon and Afalou men were the
parallel termini of similar movements, and not way stations on a single
line of migration, is probable. In view of the earlier evidence of a similar
mixture in Palestine, and of the general center of Aurignacian activity in
that neighborhood, it may be considered likely that the second pair of
parallel movements proceeded westward from that general quarter. The
earlier waves which brought Combe Capelle and Afalou #28 must have
49 C sa .47. In this contingency table, of 6 boxes, the progression is constant, and of
undoubted significance.
50 It was at one time thought that the presence of caries in a small percentage in the
Afalou teeth made them later in age than the Europeans. However, the two Solutrean or
Magdalenian skulls from Le Roc, Charente, were also carious.
Boule, M., and Vallois, H., BIPH, #18, 1937.
61 See Chapter III, p. 68, footnote 27 (Ofnet).
44 THE RACES OF EUROPE
come from a different center. Whether the Cr6~Magnon and Afalou
people derived their brachycephalic tendencies from parallel mixtures at
the terminal points of invasion or brought them with them in the first
place, cannot be determined without further evidence.
(9) AURIGNACIAN MAN IN EAST AFRICA
The Aurignacian culture, the racial connotations of which we have just
reviewed in Europe, Palestine, and, in the guise of Capsian and Oranian,
in North Africa, also extended southward to East Africa.62 Here, as in
Algeria, microliths were present in the midst of other forms more typical of
Europe and western Asia.53 While the correlation of the pluvial periods
of East Africa with the glacial phases farther north is still under discussion,
it is probably safe to conclude that the Kenya and Tanganyika Lower
Aurignacian was roughly equivalent in time to Upper Palaeolithic hori-
zons elsewhere, although the Upper Aurignacian may have lasted much
later, in view of the fact that East Africa was a racial and cultural frontier
and a marginal area.
The remains of six Upper Aurignacian men have been discovered in the
two colonies named. Five of these were exhumed by Leakey at Gamble's
Cave, Elementitia, B4 and the sixth is the famous Oldoway skull discovered
by Reck in 1914.56 Two of the Gamble's Cave specimens, and Oldoway,
which are all masculine, consist of nearly complete skulls and long bones.
The others from Gamble's Cave are too fragmentary to be of much value.
In general, these specimens belong in the purely sapiens category, as
represented by Galley Hill, Kanjera, Grimaldi, Combe Capelle, and
Afalou #28. At the same time, however, they differ from all named in one
important respect — they are extremely tall, with statures of 177, 179, and
180 cm., which even exceeds the Cr6-Magnon and later Afalou figures, but
the great stature is unaccompanied by the broad shoulders and bodily
bulk of the hybrid Europeans and North Africans. The long bones are
very slender, and the hands and feet small and narrow.
The same principle of attenuation applies to the faces. In all of them,
and especially in Oldoway, the faces are extremely narrow, and very long,
especially in the upper segments. The browridges are weak, the zygomatic
arches feebly developed, the mandibles light and slender, with narrow bi-
gonial diameters, and weak, although positive, chins. The orbits are high
and narrow, and the noses likewise. The Gamble's Cave skulls are lep-
68 Leakey, L. S. B., Stone Age Africa, pp. 38-74.
« Garrod, Miss D. A. E., RBAA, Pres. Ad., Sect. H.
M Leakey, L. S. B., The Stone Age Races of Kenya, pp. 47-56; Stone Age Africa, p. 172.
56 Reck, H., Oldoway, die Schlucht des Urmenschcn, Leipzig, 1933.
Mollison, T., and Gieseler, W., VGPA, vol. 3, 1929, pp. 50-59, 60-67.
Boule, M., and Vallois, H., UHommejomle d*A$$dar, AIPH, Mem. 9, pp. 60-64.
PLEISTOCENE WHITE MEN 45
torrhine, leptene, and leptoprosopic; Oldoway is mesorrhine, and hyper-
leptoprosopic. The two Gamble's Gave skulls are orthognathous, but
Oldoway possesses considerable alveolar prognathism.
In vault size, these crania resemble Combe Gapelle and Afalou #28,
rather than the European and North African crania of later Aurignacian
and Oranian date. Oldoway and Gamble's Cave #4 are higher and nar-
rower than the European Upper Palaeolithic mean; Gamble's Cave #5,
which is the skull of an adolescent, is shorter, higher, and nearly as broad.
The foreheads are gently sloping and rounded; the occiputs projecting, but
without the lambdoidal flattening which characterizes the European
crania. The total impression is one of thinness and delicacy.
In the morphology of the head and face, these three specimens are not
exactly alike. Gamble's Cave #5, which has a cranial index of 74, is nearest
to the European standard; while the two others, Gamble's #4, with an
index of 71, and Oldoway, with 64.5, are decreasingly so. But they are
closer in many ways to modern European racial types than are the Upper
Palaeolithic skulls. They seem, however, to have been subjected to some
influence which has made all extremities, including both limbs and face,
extremely long and thin. One may compare this with the modern changes
in the English stock settled in Queensland.66
Both of the Gamble's Cave skulls seem to be fully or nearly "white" in
the skeletal sense, but Oldoway is, in a way difficult to analyze, per-
ceptibly negroid. Many modern tribes of East Africa, including the
Somalis and Masai, and the upper classes of others such as the Bahimas,
show today the same general features which are found in these pluvial
period skulls, particularly in Oldoway. These modern Hamites have long
spindly legs, thin hands, and narrow wrists, while their bodies are cor-
respondingly thin and attenuated. Their skulls are universally long,
smoothly contoured, and lacking in strong muscular markings. Their
noses are narrow and often highly arched, their jaws light and narrow,
their faces long and thin. All of these modern East African Hamites show
a certain amount of negroid admixture, 'but their skulls are considerably
smaller than the three from the pluvial period.
On the basis of head size, if for no other reason, these skulls cannot be
dismissed as intrusive burials from later periods. Mollison, who has
studied the Oldoway skull, is convinced that it is as fully fossilized as the
bones of the other fauna of the period to which it is now attributed.67
M I can find no adequate references to this phenomenon, but common observation
attests its existence.
*T And not of the Lower Palaeolithic horizon to which it was first ascribed, Boule, M.,
and Vallois, H., AIPH, Mem. 13, 1934, pp. 60-64.
Mollison, T., and Gieseler, W., VGPA, vol. 3, 1929, pp. 60-67.
Leakey, L. S. B., Stone Age Africa, pp. 172-173.
46 THE RACES OF EUROPE
The only reasonable conclusion is that the modern Hamite is ancient in
East Africa, and is at least partially descended from this ancestral, purely
sapiens, form. At the same time we may be equally sure that modern post-
glacial Europeans of Mediterranean type did not come from this particular
corner of Africa; that whatever the date of these specimens in years, East
Africa was not, in Upper Palaeolithic times, the center of Mediterranean
racial evolution.
Neither, it would appear, was the Sahara; so far the archaeologists have
not found evidences of the Upper Palaeolithic Capsian culture in the cen-
tral zone of the desert itself, where there is at present a gap between the
Levalloisian and what appears to be an early, arrow-chipping Neolithic
in Capsian tradition. The Capsian apparently came to North Africa from
the east, and the mid-Sahara may have served even during Pleistocene
times as a dividing line between white and negroid humanity, just as it
does today. At the same time it is likely that the Empty Quarter of south-
ern Arabia even in those days functioned as a barrier between Mediter-
raneans and Veddoids.88 Although what are now the edges of deserts may
have been breeding grounds of white humanity during the Pleistocene,
the great deserts themselves have always been racial frontiers.
(10) THE MAGDALENIANS
In concluding our survey of human racial types and racial movements
during the Pleistocene, it will be well to return from Africa to study that
group of Late Palaeolithic cultures found in Europe and northern Asia,
and collectively known as Magdalenian.59
The Magdalenian was the longest of the Upper Palaeolithic cultural divi-
sions in time span, lasting in western Europe from the peak of Wurm II until
about 11,800 B.C., while in parts of eastern Europe where it is found it may
have been even older. It marks the culmination and decline of the second
Wurm advance, and is the first instance, except for that of the geograph-
ically limited Solutrean culture, in which we are sure that sapiens man
was exposed to the full force of a glacial climate. During the Magdalenian
as during the Solutrean, the great abundance of fine needles and other
tailoring implements in archaeological deposits attests the close cultural
adaptation of these people to the cold conditions under which they hunted.
During the Magdalenian there must have been numerous population
shifts and migrations with the changing climate, as the men followed the
68 See Chapter XI, section 6, for a discussion of the Veddoids in southern Arabia.
69 A separate study of race during the Solutrean has been omitted, since there are no
skulls which all authorities accept as definitely belonging to that short and far from
widespread cultural phase. Those of Pfedmost, including jf3, might well be Aurig-
nacian; those of Le Roc fit more easily, from the craniological standpoint, into a Mag-
dalenian category.
PLEISTOCENE WHITE MEN 47
herds of reindeer which formed their chief article of diet. We know that
at one time reindeer crossed the Pyrenees and wandered into Spain, where
the Magdalenian hunters followed them. In general, however, Spain, like
Italy, was a marginal area, relatively sheltered, in which local cultures of
Aurignacian origin persisted, with the addition of microlithic elements,
presumably from Africa.60 These southern inroads were, however, but
minor Magdalenian incidents. It was a sub-glacial tundra culture, and
stretched eastward across Siberia, where numerous sites have recently
been discovered.
Despite its great time expanse, the Magdalenian is represented by fewer
skeletal remains than is the Aurignacian. The finds seem to be limited
entirely to the west 61 — to France, England, western Germany, and
Spain.62 Moving eastward from Germany, we find no more human re-
mains until we arrive in northern China.
The number of fully authenticated Magdalenian skulls, about twenty-
five, might be large enough to warrant separate statistical study if all of
them were well documented. As matters stand, we are able to discuss but
a few of them in any detail. In general, they are as variable in the cranial
index as those of the Middle and Late Aurignacian, although in western
Europe the head form in this later period seems to run somewhat longer.
Some of the skulls, as typified by the famous Ghancelade and by the
male from Obercassel, show, however, something new — a so-called Eski-
moid modification of the masticatory apparatus. This consists of an
even greater widening of the zygomatic arches than had been previously
known; a flattening of the parietals, an enlargement of the area of tem-
poral muscle attachment, and a keeling of the cranial vault. These fea-
tures are accompanied, most markedly in the Chancelade specimen, by
60 It is the modern tendency to deny African influences in the Spanish Upper Palaeo-
lithic. Vaufrey (Anth, vol. 43, 1933, pp. 457-483) shows that the Capsian did not enter
Spain, nor did it extend westward of Central Algeria. The Oranian was formerly called
Ibero-Marusian until it was determined that this, too, was absent from Spain. Never-
theless Spain was influenced, during the Upper, Palaeolithic, by some microlithic indus-
try, which must have come from points south and east, of the same general type as that
which went to Kenya as Wilton, to Egypt as Sebilian, to Palestine as Natufian, and to
North Africa as Capsian and Oranian.
81 Two Russian skulls from Undori may be Magdalenian and not Aurignacian.
Talko-Hryncewicz, PAn, vol. 1, 1926, p. 208.
Field, H., AA, vol. 38, 1936, p. 277.
Pavlow, A., AnthPr, vol. 3, 1925.
62 The Spanish material is particularly unsatisfactory. Dr. Obermaier in 1924 re-
jected all previously studied finds except for two cranial vaults which had been cut down
to serve as drinking bowls, a femur, and a few teeth. (Obermaier, H., Fossil Man in
Spain, pp. 288—290.) Two large series from Segovia, published by Dr. de las Barras de
Aragon (AMSE, vol 12, 1933, pp. 90-123) as Magdalenian or Mesolithic, include one
trephined skull. Our earliest positive case of trephination in Europe dates from the Late
Neolithic. Furthermore, one of the sites contained pottery.
48 THE RACES OF EUROPE
a great eversion of the genial angles, a prominence of the malars, and a
consequent flattening of part of the facial plane.
This new adaptation, common among living Eskimos and Siberians,
has been interpreted by a number of authors 63 to mean that the Mag-
dalenians as exemplified by Chancelade were the ancestors of the living
Eskimo, whose forebears moved northeastward as the ice retreated, and
eventually crossed Behring Straits. But several objections have been
raised to this identification. The nasal bones of Chancelade, in the first
place, which were broken off and lost soon after the skull had been dis-
covered, were very highly arched, projecting, and even hawk-like.64
They were thus extremely European in form, and not typically Eskimoid
or mongoloid in the modern sense.
On cultural grounds, Birket-Smith and Matthiassen have postulated
that the Eskimos are not the product of a simple eastward migration from
Asia, but that their origin is linked with that of the American Indian.65
It may be true that the similarities between Eskimo and Magdalenian
culture are due to convergence, although this thesis has by no means
been finally established, On physical grounds as well, evidence has been
adduced to show that the Eskimo is really close to the American Indian.66
The question of Magdalenian-Eskimo relationships, in any case, is part
of the general problem of those between Upper Palaeolithic man of the
entire northern zone, and the origin of the American aborigines as a whole.
It is too early at present to settle either.
Returning to Ghancelade, we see that this individual differed in many
ways from the standard Upper Palaeolithic mean. His face was very long,
like that of Predmost; his orbits were high, and, like those of Combe
Capelle, narrow. None of the other Magdalenian skulls which simulate
him in " Eskimoid'5 character diverge so completely from the total group,
and hence Chancelade had been set apart by many as a separate race.
Unlike the Late Aurignacians, he was a short man, about 160 cm. high,
and his stature would be usual among most of the present inhabitants of
the Arctic circle. His extremities, with his short heel bones, would also
not be alien to the latter.67
Besides Chancelade and other individuals which approximate his type
in varying degrees, the true Cr6-Magnon of Aurignacian tradition sur-
vived unchanged into the Magdalenian. The Laugerie Basse cranium
•» Morant, G. M., AE, vol. 1, 1926, pp. 257-276, is the latest and most exhaustive ex-
position of this view.
w We must thank Sir Arthur Keith for this discovery. An old and rare photograph,
reproduced on page 395 of New Discoveries, establishes tfiis point definitely.
« Birket-Smith, K., PICA, 1930, pp. 470-475.
M Shapiro, H. L., PSC, 1934, pp. 2723-2732; APAM, vol. 31, 1931, pp. 345-384.
Seltzer, O. C,, HB, vol. 5, 1935, pp. 313-370.
87 Bonin, Gt» von, op. cit.
PLEISTOCENE WHITE MEN 49
could well fit into such a series. Others, such as the Le Placard cranium
and skull C from Aveline's Hole in England,68 represent an unreduced sur-
vival of the brachycephalic eleiftent in the Cr6-Magnon complex. Still
other skulls are smaller than the Upper Palaeolithic standard, show a
reduction in browridges and in malars, and anticipate the general reduc-
tion in size and in ruggedness which was to alter profoundly some branches
of the Upper Palaeolithic stock in Europe and Asia after the close of the
Pleistocene. It is important to learn that this reduction had already begun
as early as the Magdalenian, and that at that time there was no geograph-
ical difference between those which were and were not affected by this
incipient tendency.
During the Magdalenian, then, the internal diversity of Upper Pa-
laeolithic European man became more noticeable than before. Some of
the examples which are left to us represent a continuation of pre-existing
Aurignacian forms, others show a modification found among living peoples
of the Arctic, while still others anticipate the size reduction of the Mes-
olithic. We may, if we like, attribute these differences to local segrega-
tions and modifications, but since our knowledge of race in Magdalenian
Europe covers so small a portion of the area in which that culture existed,
it is perhaps more reasonable to postulate new movements as well as local
survivals and changes.
(11) UPPER PALAEOLITHIC MAN IN CHINA
Our knowledge of the eastern distribution of Upper Palaeolithic man
during the height of glaciation has been enormously extended by recent
discoveries made by Dr. Pei, by the late Dr. Davidson Black, by P&re
Dr. Teilhard de Ghardin, and by Dr. Franz Weidenreich, who have es-
tablished the presence of several varieties of Late Pleistocene sapiens man,
including the European type, in China and Mongolia.69
At Chou Kou Tien, close to Peiping, the discoverers of Sinanthropus have
also found three well-preserved skulls, with one mandible and most of the
accompanying long bones, in limestone pockets of late glacial debris,
which includes Upper Palaeolithic implements analogous to European
types. The preliminary descriptions of the cultural remains would suggest
late rather than early Upper Pleistocene age. One of these skulls, the
one with the mandible, seems, upon preliminary examination, to resemble
68 The skulls from Aveline's Hole, Kent's Cavern, and Cough's Cave, were described
by Keith, who considered them to be of Mesolithic age (Antiquity of Man, p. 407; New
Discoveries, pp. 406-421); but Clark, an outstanding authority on the Mesolithic in
northwestern Europe, indentifies them as Magdalenian (Clark, J. G. D., The Mesolithic
Age in Britain, p. 107).
69 The first discovery of this nature was of a sapiens tooth from the Sjara-osso-gol
Deposits in Mongolia. Black, D., BGSC, vol. 5, 1927, p. 285.
Also, Keith, Sir A., New Discoveries, pp. 250-251.
50 THE RACES OF EUROPE
the European Upper Palaeolithic group very closely, and especially the
male of Qbercassel; it has also been compared to Ainu crania. A second
skull greatly resembles that of a modern Eskimo, while a third may be
compared to the racial type which invaded Japan during Neolithic times.70
The importance of these skulls cannot be overemphasized. They indi-
cate that in eastern Asia as well as in Europe, the Late Palaeolithic group
was already racially complex; that peoples of European type stretched
across the entire width of the northern half of the Eurasiatic continent;
and that the mongoloid family of races had already begun its character-
istic development. By means of this knowledge we may explain, at least
in part, the enigma of the Ainu, a large-headed, broad-faced white group
living on the outer periphery of eastern Asia. At the same time fresh light
is thrown upon the human materials which may have taken part in the
early peopling of America.
(12) SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Although the Pleistocene men are long dead, and factory workers scurry
to their labors where the Magdalenian hunters once impounded reindeer,
the problems of human racial origins, and of human development during
the PleistQcene, are still of great importance. On the foundations of our
knowledge of Pleistocene man, in Europe, in Asia, and in Africa, must be
built the interpretation of later and more complicated racial movements,
racial survivals, genetic continuities and genetic changes. For this reason
it seems better advised to state without trepidation the reconstruction of
Pleistocene racial events which the facts themselves suggest, than to defer
to more cautious and perhaps wiser opinions.
These conclusions, which are by no means novel,71 maybe stated briefly:
(1) Homo sapiens was fully evolved as early as the mid-Pleistocene, if
not earlier.
(2) The earliest Homo sapiens known, as represented by several examples
from Europe and Africa, was an ancestral long-headed white man of
short stature and moderately great brain size.
(3) The negro group probably evolved parallel to this white strain,
to I am indebted for this information to Dr. Franz Weidenreich, who has given me
permission to publish this preliminary notice. These comparisons are tentative and the
reader must await Dr. Weidenreich's definitive publication for more detailed and more
exact information.
71 Aichel, Marett, and most recently Krogman, take stands essentially similar to the
following.
Aichel, O.s Der deutsche Mensch, pp. 12-36.
Marett, J, R. de la H., Race, Sex, arid Environment,
Krogman, W. M., "Cranial Types from Alishar Hiiyttk," in H. H. von der Osten,
The Alishar Hiiyiik, Oriental Institute Publication #30, part IV, pp. 213-293.
PLEISTOCENE WHITE MEN 51
from a related sapiens ancestor. At what point the ancestors of negroes and
whites diverged is not known.
(4) During the Middle Pleistocene, if not at other times as well, a mix-
ture took place between early white dolichocephals and one or more non-
sapiens hominid species, including Homo neanderthalensis.
(5) The result of this mixture was the development of a reasonably
stable hybrid race, which was characterized by an excess of size, both of
brain case and of bodily bulk. Although differing metrically from the
rest of Homo sapiens as a whole, its character was nevertheless mainly
sapiens, and only to a small extent Neanderthaloid or non-sapiens. Within
the sapiens species, its relationship was with the whites.
(6) This predominantly sapiens character may have been partly the
result of convergent evolutionary tendencies on the part of the non-sapiens
ancestor.
(7) Modern white men must include both individuals and racial en-
tities which respectively possess and lack this non-sapiens strain, since all
branches of the white stock did not mix with it.
(8) On the basis of Palaeolithic cultural phenomena, one cannot assume
that the non-sapiens element absorbed through mixture was less intelligent,
or, in the social and intellectual sense, less human, than the original
sapiens species. Modern European races which possess the former element
show no signs of intellectual inferiority, or of any other discernible mental
differences.
(9) Most if not all of the basic variations of bodily and cranial form,
including brachycephaly, which occur among white men, already existed
during the Late Pleistocene. The materials for the differentiation of
white races and sub-races in post-glacial times were all present.
52
THE RACES OF EUROPE
SAPIENS MEN, FROM THE SECOND INTERGLACIAL
T(3 THE POST-GLACIAL MESOLITHIC
FIG. 4. GALLEY HILL. AGHEULEAN. (FACE RECONSTRUCTED.)
FIG. 5. COMBE CAPELLE. AURIGNACIAN.
FIG. 6. TEVIEC #11, BRITTANY. LATE MESOLITHIC.
Redrawn to scale: Fig. 4, from Keith, Sir A., The Antiquity of Man, Fig. 63, p. 188.
Fig. 5, from Aichel, O., Der deutsche Mensch, Plate 2. Fig. 6, from Boule, M., and
Vallois, H., AIPH, Mem. 18, 1937, Plate 14.
PLEISTOCENE WHITE MEN 53
NEANDERTHAL AND NEANDERTHALOID DERIVATIVES
FIG, 7. NEANDERTHAL. LEVALLOISIO-MOUSTERIAN, (LA CHAPELLE AUX SAINTS,
SLIGHTLY RESTORED.)
FIG. 8. SKHUL #5. PALESTINE. LEVALLOISIO-MOUSTERIAN.
FIG. 9. PREDMOST $3. AURIGNACIAN OR SOLUTREAN.
Redrawn to scale: Fig. 7, from cast by J. H. McGregor, 1919. Fig. 8, from Keith,
Sir A., and McCown, T. W., BASF, Bull. 13, 1937, Plates 5 and 6. Fig. 9,
from Aichel, O., Der deutsche Mensch, Plate 4.
54 THE RACES OF EUROPE
BROAD-HEADED CRANIA OF NEANDERTHALOID INSPIRATION
FIG. 10. AFALOU #12. AFALOU BOU RUMMEL, ALGERIA. EARLY »ORANIAN.
FIG. 11. HVELLINGE #1. SWEDEN MESOLITHIC.
FIG. 12. FJELKINOE, SKANE, SWEDEN. NEOLITHIC.
Redrawn to scale: Fig. 10, from Boule, M., Vallois, H., and Vemeau, R., AIPH,
Mem. 13, 1934, Plate 13. Fig. 11, from Aichel, O., Der deutsche Mewch, Plate 17; also
Kossinna, G,, Urspntng und Verbreitung der Indogermanen, Fig. 134, p. 123. Fig. 12,
from Retzius G., Crania Suecica Antiqua, Plates 39-40.
PLEISTOCENE WHITE MEN 55
MESOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC CRANIA OF MEDITERRANEAN TYPES
FIG. 13. MUGE, PORTUGAL. LATE MESOLITHIC OR EARLIEST NEOLITHIC.
FIG. 14. LONG BARROW, BRITISH NEOLITHIC.
FIG. 15. CORDED FROM GOTLAND, NEOLITHIC.
Redrawn to scale: Fig. 13, from Vallois, H., Anth, vol. 40, 1930, Fig. 2, p. 344.
Fig. 14, from Crania Britannica, vol. 2, Plate 59. Fig. 15, from Kossinna, G., Ursprung
und Verbreltung der Indogermanen, Fig. 102, p. 90.
Chapter III
THE MESOLITHIG PERIOD
(1) THE HISTORICAL SETTING
The Mesolithic cultural period, which follows the final Palaeolithic in
Europe, is wholly post-Pleistocene in that continent, and extends roughly
from immediately post-glacial time to 3000 B.C. and later.
The Mesolithic manner of living was primarily similar to that of the
Upper Palaeolithic. People still relied on hunting and the gathering of
wild vegetable products for food, and the population must have remained
as sparse as ever. Man had acquired but one domestic animal — the dog,
which may have helped in hunting, but which was not bred for eating,
and hence served as only an indirect source of food. The Mesolithic econ-
omy was, therefore, a prolongation of the Upper Palaeolithic system into
relatively recent times; in the technical sense, however, there were certain
improvements; with the introduction of microliths composite weapons
were made; dugout canoes furnished good water transportation, and tree-
felling axes must have made the building of adequate houses possible.
The forerunners of the textile arts were probably developed to permit the
manufacture and use of fish nets, good basketry, and matting.
The cultures of the Mesolithic period in Europe may be divided into
two elements of different origins, which in many regions met and blended.
One was the intrusive Tardenoisian with its advanced microlithic tech-
nique, which came in from the south across the straits of Gibraltar, and
perhaps around the eastern end of the Mediterranean.1 These migrations
into Europe from the south were caused by climatic shifts incident upon
the final glacial retreat. As the glacier moved northward to take up its
last stand in the high Scandinavian land-mass, the erstwhile well-watered
and temperate belts of North Africa and the Near East suffered a gradual
desiccation. As the rain-belt moved northward, zones of temperate and
sub-tropical climate shifted from Africa to southern and central Europe,
and the climate of Europe became warmer in early post-glacial times than
it is at present. The people who brought the elements of the Tardenoisian
complex northward had been accustomed to hunting on open grasslands
before their arrival in Europe, and they, therefore, settled in sandy regions
1 Clarke mentions this second route as a possibility. Clarke, J. G. D., The Mesolithic
Settlement of Northern Europe, pp. xiv— xv.
56
THE MESOLITHIG PERIOD 57
and treeless highlands, since neither their tool kit nor their general manner
of living was suited to a forest environment.
The second cultural element was furnished by the survival of the old
Upper Palaeolithic techniques, employed by the descendants of the rein-
deer hunters. The gradual growth of forest in what had formerly been the
North European tundra belt forced them to learn a new kind of hunting
and to live on the flesh of new animals, while the warming of northern
waters gave them an abundance of fish and molluscs, focussing their
attention not only on the forest but also on the rivers and sea.
In the north and west of Europe, where the glacier lasted the longest,
cultures of Aurignacian and Magdalenian tradition survived into the full
Mesolithic, when some of them blended in varying degrees with the newly
arrived Tardenoisian. In outlying regions, such as the north coast of
Ireland and Finnmark in Norway, flint implements of Upper Palaeolithic
inspiration may still have been made as late as the time of Christ.
For the purpose of simplification, therefore, the history of the Mesolithic
period in Europe may be reduced to two elements: (1) an invasion of
microlith-makers from southern regions which had been temperate and de-
sirable during the Late Pleistocene, but which were now drying up and be-
coming less habitable than Europe; (2) survival of the Palaeolithic people
of Europe in various regions and in varying intensity, but concentrated es-
pecially in the northern forest belt, along the western coasts, and in the
centers where the ice had lasted longest, notably, Norway and Switzerland.
(2) MESOLITHIG MAN IN AFRICA
Before gathering information which will help us in Europe, let us first
see what changes or continuities occur in Africa, with the passage into
post-Pleistocene time. In East Africa Leakey has found skeletons asso-
ciated with a microlithic culture which he calls Elmenteitan, probably at
least partly contemporary with the post-glacial Mesolithic cultures of
Europe,2 with which he has tentatively correlated it. The series includes
the skulls of three adult males, three adult females, and one child, as
well as a number of miscellaneous long bones. The bodies which they
represent had been placed in rock niches on either side of a watercourse,
and a subsequent flood had washed most of them out and deposited them
in silt. Hence, it is impossible to associate the long bones with the crania.
From this series of seven skulls, it is evident that the earlier East African
Mediterranean racial types were carried over into the post-glacial period
with little or no alteration. The vaults of the Mesolithic skulls are again
comparable in size to Galley Hill and Combe Capelle. The shape of
these vaults, however, is now variable, at least in the female group, for
2 Leakey, L. S. B., Stone Age Races of Kenya, Chapter 6.
58 THE RACES OF EUROPE
one of the latter skulls has a cranial index of 80. This sex distinction in
shape, may, of course, have been equally present in the Aurignacian
group, but we have no material to confirm it.
The face continues the special evolution which had begun during the
Aurignacian; it grows both longer and broader, while the nasal height
increases at the same time.3 Both the faces and noses of these skulls are
exceptionally long, by any racial standards. All of them have high orbits.
The nose remains leptorrhine, but the nasal skeleton is not highly arched;
some of the crania, especially one of the female specimens, show consider-
able prognathism. In general, the foreheads are sloping, the browridges
and other bony markings slight to medium on the males, while on the
females the browridges are actually lacking. One male specimen,
Elmenteita A, differs from the others; the mandible has everted gonial
angles while on the cranium the temporal crests rise high over the parietals,
producing a narrow forehead, and giving the whole head a pseudo-
Eskimoid appearance.
In the Gamble's Cave Aurignacian series, since only males were repre-
sented, it was impossible to tell whether or not any extensive differences
between the sexes existed. In the Elmenteitan group, the male crania ex-
ceed the female ones considerably in the length and breadth of the vault
and in the face heights and face breadth. Vault heights, forehead breadths,
and orbital dimensions are much the same in both, however. These East
Africans, therefore, while lacking the bony luxuriance of the Upper Pa-
laeolithic Europeans and North Africans, do exhibit a positive amount of
sex linkage in the characters which make them racially distinctive.
Despite the continued residence of this long-faced racial group in East
Africa, there is still little that is negroid about most of the skulls. The
forehead, in some of the females, is a bit bulbous, but so it is with many
living Mediterraneans; some of the jaws project forward with a consid-
erable alveolar prognathism, but so do the jaws of a number of early
European crania.4 The nasal index, which falls near the human minimum,
is at the opposite extreme from those of negroes. The nasal bones, present
in but two crania, are long, narrow, and hour-glass shaped; they taper
upwards, and penetrate high into the frontal bone, as with certain anthro-
poid apes and the Eskimo; but the two bones are not greatly arched and
the nasal vault, in these two specimens, is low. Thus the nasal bones pos-
sess an individual character which is neither typically white nor negroid.
The Elmenteitan people remained as tall as the Upper Aurignacians.
3 Nasion-menton heights on males are 126 and 132 mm.; nasion-alveon 80 and
81 mm.; nose heights 58 to 59 mm.
4 The female skull #F 1 is the most nearly negroid of all, and in this case a definite
negro strain seems very likely.
THE MESOLITHIG PERIOD 59
The mean stature for six males is 178.7 cm., for three females, 152.5 cm.;
thus, the sex differences are great in bodily size, as well as in head and face
diameters. The greater stature and sex differentiation of these East Afri-
cans may have been simply the result of evolutionary change; one cannot
find a non-sapiens species to provide these modifications, as in the case of
the Upper Palaeolithic Europeans.
Before we leave East Africa for some time, it may be interesting for us
to note that Leakey has also found a number of skeletons associated with
a parallel culture, Wilton A., located nearby and probably not later than
Elmenteita. These Wiltonians were tall, heavy-boned men, with large,
strongly arched foreheads, and small faces, very much like the Strand-
loopers from South African shell heaps, and ancestral Bushmen. Thus
along the Lake Victoria shore line, not far away from Elmenteita, were
ancestral Bushmen, living in geographical proximity to Mesolithic ances-
tral Hamites. The East African whites lived on a racial frontier, and not
in a center of white racial differentiation. If Bushmen traits turn up now
and then among Hamites or Hamitic traits among Hottentots or Bushmen,
there is little wonder.
North Africa was occupied, during the post-glacial Mesolithic period,
by the Middle Capsian successors of the Afalou people. These are known
through a collection of skulls from the site of Mechta el 'Arbi, of which
only nine have been studied in any detail.6 All come from what Aram-
bourg calls the Middle Capsian, which has been correlated chronologically
with the European Solutrean by Menghin, with the Solutreo-Magdalenian
by Obermaier, and with the Mesolithic by Vaufrey.6 They are considered
here rather than in the preceding chapter since they belong with the
Mesolithic in the European sense both racially and culturally, whatever
their chronological position.
It is impossible, unfortunately, to treat these skulls with complete clarity.
Judging by published measurements, photographs, and drawings, we
may conclude that on the whole they resemble the earlier Afalou skulls in
a general way, but that most of them are smaller and lack the ruggedness
of their predecessors, having weaker browridges, less pronounced muscular
markings, and narrower faces. Some of them have vertical foreheads, a
feature foreign to the Afalou people. They still retain in most instances,
however, a low face and low orbits, and a range of head form reaching
the limits of the earlier series.
8 Probably over fifty crania have been removed from this site by successive expedi-
tions, but only five have been carefully studied. See Cole, Fay Cooper, LMB, vol. 1,
1928, pp. 167-189. Four others, of which two only are from the Mechta site, have been
dealt with, as thoroughly as the data permitted, in the Afalou volume.
6 Vaufrey denies the existence of a Middle Capsian, and says that these skulls are Late
Capsian, which he considers Mesolithic,
60 THE RACES OF EUROPE
In their degree of size reduction, and diminution of sex-linked bony
profusion, they may be likened to some of the Mesolithic crania from
Europe, which will be studied later in this chapter. It is quite likely, as
Cole suggests, that one of the Mechta skulls showed a negroid tendency,
while the others were subjected to mixture with Mediterranean racial
elements. The inference is that the countries at the eastern end of the
Mediterranean, from which these influences probably seeped, were already
inhabited by small Mediterraneans. On archaeological grounds, it is
unlikely that these Mediterranean racial elements came directly from the
Sahara.
Our entire knowledge of the racial composition of the early inhabitants
of the southern Sahara is furnished by a single skeleton, unearthed at
Asselar, a military post some four hundred kilometers north of Timbuctu,
in what is now utter desert,7 but what was at the time a fertile, well-watered
plateau, drained by wide rivers, and rich in grass and ruminant game.
The skeleton, which had not been buried but which simply lay in the
place of death, was covered by lake-laid sands. These same sands have
yielded the bones of huge fish, in the same state of fossilization as those
of the man, and the shells of fresh-water molluscs, which indicate that the
region of Asselar was at that time still a lake country, with running streams
and a forest border, near the southern limit of the south-Saharan grass-
lands, and the northernmost extension of the tropical forest. Asselar man
died before this region had become desiccated, but his cultural association
is Mesolithic or Early Neolithic, and his chronological age unquestionably
post-glacial.
He was a tall man, over 170 cm. in height; his limbs were long in pro-
portion to his trunk, and his forearms and lower legs long when com-
pared to the proximal segments of their extremities. His hands were long
and slim, with small carpal bones, unlike the broad hands and thick
wrists of the Afalou men farther north.
The skull is of medium vault size, comparable to Grimaldi, Afalou #28,
and the Kenya Aurignacians. Like all of these, it is dolichocephalic,
with a cranial index of 71 . The muscular markings of the vault are slight,
and the browridges weak. In facial dimensions, Asselar is intermediate
between the Grimaldi and East African extremes. Morphologically, how-
ever, it is the most negroid specimen of equal age yet found. The malars
project forwards, and the lower border of the orbit stands in front of the
upper, when the skull is placed in the eye-ear plane. The nose is chamaer-
rhine, and negroid in conformation.
Asselar man was either an incompletely evolved negroid, or a negro-
*Boule, M., and Vallois, H. V., AEPH, Mem. 9, 1932.
See also Bailly, Rene, RA, vol. 43, 1933, pp. 172-181.
THE MESOLITHIG PERIOD 61
white hybrid; he did not closely anticipate, in cranial form, the modern
blacks from the Guinea Coast and Sudan. He retained certain tendencies
in a white direction, and others which related him to the Bushmen and
Hottentots. The Asselar find, like those in East Africa, makes it very likely
that the spread of fully differentiated negroes into much of their present
area in Africa was a fairly recent phenomenon.
(3) THE NATUFIANS OF PALESTINE
Compared with the continent of Africa, from the prehistoric standpoint,
Asia is archaeologically little known. So far, excavations have revealed
implements of Mesolithic technique in Kurdistan and in Palestine,8 but
only from the latter have Mesolithic skeletons been recovered. Here an
Aurignacian culture lasted during the entire Late Pleistocene, and directly
preceded the Mesolithic. Since Miss Garrod feels that this region was one
of the main areas of differentiation of the Aurignacian cultural technique,
it is very unfortunate that not a single Aurignacian skull has been pub-
lished. Therefore, the very important question of the Late Pleistocene re-
lationships of this key area must remain unsettled.
For the following period, however, at least two hundred skeletons have
been exhumed from two different Mesolithic levels and from five or more
sites. So far, only two of these skeletons have been published, one from
each level. Great doubt is current at the moment concerning the exact
nature of the physical types of this people, and we must await detailed
publications in the near future before this matter may be settled.9
These Palestinians, who have been given the name Natufians, appar-
ently differed in physical type from period to period. One of the two skele-
tons which has been published is that of an adult female from the earliest
level at a site called Erg el Ahmar. 10
The skull of this woman is large, robust, and thick- walled; it is purely
dolichocephalic, and has an elevated cranial vault in which the height
almost equals the breadth. The forehead, as with females of many races,
is broad, straight, and rounded. The* face, likewise, is broad, and of
medium height; the nasal root, somewhat depressed, is hidden under
browridges massive for a female, while the nasal bones project far forward,
to form an accentuated profile.
The low, broad orbits of this specimen assume the rectangular form
characteristic among most of the Upper Palaeolithic skulls from Europe
and North Africa, while the orbital index is correspondingly low. The
8 Garrod, Miss D. A. E., BASF, No. 6, 1930, pp. 8-43.
9 Mr. T. D. McCown was, at the time of writing, engaged in working over a large col-
lection of these skeletons under the direction of Sir Arthur Keith and intends to publish
it shortly.
10 Vallois, Henri, V., Anth, vol. 46, 1936, pp. 529-543.
62 THE RACES OF EUROPE
nose is high, narrow, and metrically leptorrhine; the nasal spine promi-
nent, and the lower border of the piriform opening strongly crested. The
mandible, of medium robust icity, possesses a prominent chin. The rugged
beauty of this Natufian woman was, however, somewhat diminished by
an abnormality of dental occlusion, for her lower incisors overlap the
upper ones.
Morphologically, this skull is perfectly European and belongs without
question to the general Upper Palaeolithic type. It would also fit metri-
cally into the female range for this group. It would, however, fit equally
well into the North African series of Afalou bou Rummel, except that it is
somewhat narrower nosed than the females of that group as known at
present.11 In the absence of data on Palestinian Aurignacian crania, one
may suppose that the Aurignacian Upper Palaeolithic Neanderthal-
sapiens hybrid developed in this neighborhood from Skhul-like beginnings,
and that this Erg el Ahmar female is a survival of it.
The skulls from the later Natufian period, while exceedingly numerous,
remain dubiously classified because of several conflicting ideas about them
which have been published. Sir Arthur Keith 12 in a preliminary report on
the remains from Shuqbah and Kebara, states that the later Natufians
were short people, the males having a mean stature of 160 cm. and the
females of 152 cm. The tallest male in the group was only 165 cm. in
height. The hands and feet of these later Natufians were remarkably
small, and their long bones were in no sense massive.
The skulls which Keith describes are of a peculiarly Mediterranean
type, with a cephalic index ranging from 72 to 78, thus rivalling the sub-
dolichocephalic head form of short statured Mediterraneans living today.
The brain cases are of medium size, and the faces absolutely small. The
lower jaws are also small and weakly developed, with little chin promi-
nence and a prevalence of alveolar prognathism. The wide, low- vaulted
nose, in combination with prognathism, gives a somewhat negroid cast
to the face. The browridges are smooth, and the whole system of muscular-
ity in the male but slightly developed. These late Natufians represent a
basically Mediterranean type with minor negroid affinities.13 There was,
apparently, a change of race during the Natufian. These small Mediter-
raneans must have brought their microliths from some point farther south
or east, impelled by changes of climate.
11 Some of the Mugharet el Wad crania, which belong to the earlier horizon, seem
likewise to resemble those of the Upper Pleistocene. This comparison represents, how-
ever, a preliminary impression, and is stated only with reservations. Personal com-
munication by Mr. T. D. McCown.
** Keith, Sir A., New Discoveries, pp. 202-214; PICP, 1932, pp. 46-47.
13 This impression is also confirmed by the French school.
Boule, Vallois, and Verneau, Les Grottes Palaeolithiques de Bent Seghoual, pp. 212-214.
THE MESOLITHIC PERIOD 63
(4) THE MIDDEN-DWELLERS OF THE TAGUS
Although, during the last century, many skulls have been removed from
caves in various parts of Spain, not one of them may be assigned with
complete security to the Mesolithic period. Since Spain was apparently
the main if not the only highroad of migration northward from Africa
into Europe during the Mesolithic, this gap in our knowledge is ex-
tremely unfortunate, particularly in view of the parallel deficiency in
Morocco.
Late Mesolithic skeletons have, however, been found in Portugal, in a
series of shell-heaps which lie on a raised shore near the village of Muge, on
the eastern bank of the Tagus River, some fifteen miles upstream from the
head of tide-water. At the time of occupation, the shellfish which the
midden-builders ate lived in salt water,14 and the land must have lain
several meters lower than its present level. This sinking may probably be
correlated with the formation of the Litorina Sea, which lasted in what is
now the Baltic from 5600 to 2500 B.C. If this dating applies to Portugal,
the Muge middens were probably formed nearer the end of this period
than its beginning. The safest dating for this site is immediately pre-
Neolithic,15 if not early Neolithic, in the third millennium B.C.
Over two hundred human skeletons have been removed from these
middens at various times during the last eighty years. Of this number,
however, only nine have been measured and published in such a way that
we may profitably consider them here.16 In the past, many curious ideas
have been circulated about the racial types represented by these remains,
and these notions have been widely credited and frequently repeated. The
principal misconception has been that the Muge crania include two types:
a non-European negroid, and a hyperbrachycephal variously called Alpine
and mongoloid.
Actually, there is no evidence to show among them a greater negroid
tendency than is commonly found among many living Europeans of
Mediterranean extraction, while the so-called "brachycephalic" skulls are
probably all or almost all mesocephalic, since some were badly warped
14 Obermaier, H., Fossil Man in Spain, p. 325.
16 Obermaier, op. cit., p. 325, says: "The fauna of these deposits does not include
any domestic animals — except perhaps the dog — and consists of wild cattle, deer, sheep
or goat, horse, swine, dog or wolf, felines, badger, civet, and hare." (Italics are mine.)
The Iberian Peninsula is not known, at the period in question, to have sheltered either
wild sheep or wild goats. The only animal which could possibly have been mistaken
for either is a diminutive ibex, the bones of which are much smaller than those of either
sheep or goat. Unless the bones in question are actually those of ibex, the Muge midden-
dwellers must have already met the first waves of the Neolithic economy from North
Africa. Agriculture and domestic animals did not necessarily enter the Iberian Penin-
sula in one magnificent sweep; scattered families of herdsmen may have wandered over
as an advance guard.
16 Vallois, Henri V., Anth, vol. 40, 1930, pp. 337-389.
64 THE RACES OF EUROPE
*
by earth pressure, and others were improperly measured; while still others
have been lost or mislaid. l7
The cranial series from Muge, as it is known at present, is reasonably
homogeneous. The cranial index ranges from 69 to 80, or possibly 82, with
most of the skulls in the low seventies. One may postulate a mean of
about 75 to 77 on the living, The brain case is of medium size, but rela-
tively high; ovoid in form, flattish on the top, and gently rounded in the
occipital region. The female crania have vertical foreheads, while those
of the males are sloping; the frontal bone in both is always strongly curved.
On most of the male skulls, the browridges are well developed in the
median segment, but not on the sides, while on the female specimens, the
supraorbital region is usually quite smooth.
The orbits are low, but not especially narrow. The nasal dimensions are
small, yielding a mesorrhine index; the lower border of the nasal opening
is usually sharp, but in some cases it is rounded, and in one guttered. The
face is mesoprosopic, being both low and extremely narrow. In the photo-
graphs, the zygomatic arches appear to be delicate, and closely aligned to
the temporals. The mandibles are of moderate height, but narrow, while
the palates are quite large for the total size of the skulls, and the teeth are
also large. Most of the skulls show a slight alveolar prognathism, which in
a few instances is quite marked.
Among the nine crania measured by Vallois, the females equal the
males, or approach them closely, in all dimensions. Sex differentiation,
therefore, is practically absent from the metrical standpoint, but the differ-
ence in browridge development is apparently sufficient to permit the crani-
ologist to distinguish them readily. The long bones, studied apart from
the crania, to which they cannot be matched, give a reconstructed stat-
ure of 160 cm. for the males, and 152 cm. for females. Despite this short
stature, a limb form found among some Upper Palaeolithic peoples is re-
peated here — the distal segments are long when compared to the proximal.
The racial position of the Muge population cannot be finally deter-
mined until more evidence, both internal and comparative, is at hand.
Yet from present indications there seems every reason to believe that the
Portuguese midden-dwellers were very similar to, or identical with, the
late Natufians of Palestine, and that both represented a northward thrust
from a Mediterranean racial homeland somewhere in southwestern Asia,
northeastern Africa, or both.
(5) MESOLITHIC MAN IN FRANCE
Our knowledge of Mesolithic man in France is little better than that
of the Iberian Peninsula, despite the extensive digging which has been
17 Vallois, op. cit.
THE MESOLITHIC PERIOD 65
going on there for almost a century, French Mesolithic sites are di-
vided into two main cultural groups, the Azilian and the Tardenoisian.
The Tardenoisian represents the northward advance of the Capsians
from North Africa, and its eastward spread across central Europe to
Russia, and perhaps beyond. The Azilian represents a degenerate Mag-
dalenian cultural expression surviving in southwestern France, in the
Asturias of Spain, and in parts of England, under incoming Tarde-
noisian influence. By the time of the full Mesolithic, the fauna of
France had changed almost completely, for the reindeer which the
Magdalenian people had hunted had been replaced by red deer, while
the impressive mammoths and other large mammals were by now long
extinct.
The only French Mesolithic series known, aside from single skeletons,
comes from T6viec, a small island to the west of the peninsula of Quiberon,
Morbihan, Brittany.18 Here a coastal population subsisted on molluscs, in-
cluding Litorina, and crustaceans, with little hunting. Its remains, consist-
ing of twenty-one skeletons, come from stone cists buried in a midden on a
raised beach. The implements, as shown in the archaeological part of the
T6viec report, seem to be of a marginal, Azilian-like Epipalaeolithic char-
acter, like those from the Asturian horizon in Spain, with some late Tar-
denoisian influence. On the basis of the artefacts, the raised beach, the
Litorina skulls, and the stone cists, one must suppose that the remains
cannot be older than the fourth millennium B.C., and may be even later.
However, they are purely Mesolithic and antedate the local Neolithic,
however retarded.
Of the twenty-one skeletons, seven adult males and eight adult females
have been studied (see Appendix I, col. 3). The skulls are reasonably uni-
form; they are smaller in size than the Upper Palaeolithic French crania,
but a little larger than those of the Muge people or Natufians; the vault is
as high as its breadth; the cranial form between dolicho- and mesocephaly,
with a male mean of 74.3, and the narrow range of 72 to 77. These skulls
are thick boned, and rather massive in structure. Morphologically, they
resemble the Upper Palaeolithic rather than the Mediterranean form. The
faces are low and relatively broad, with the bizygomatic diameter often
exceeding the head breadth. The browridges of some of the males are
rather heavy, the nasion depression deep. The noses are mesorrhine, and
fully European in form; the orbits are low.
On the whole, these skulls look like smaller replicas of Aurignacian and
Magdalenian forms, or an intermediate stage between these and the
Mediterraneans from farther south, as exemplified by the Portuguese and
18 P6quart, Marthe, and St. Juste; also, Boule, M., and Vallois, H., AIPH, Mem. 18,
1937.
66 THE RAGES OF EUROPE
Palestinian specimens. One skull in particular bears a striking resemblance
to Chancelade.
The statures of these people were low: 159 cm. for the men, 151 cm. for
the women; the long bones not very heavy. The distal extremities were
relatively long; not as much so as in some earlier skeletons, but more so
than among most living Europeans.
Our interpretation of these late Mesolithic remains from the western
corner of France is that they represent a group of marginal Epipalaeolithic
survivors from beyond the Pyrenees, pushed northward, partly by climatic
changes and partly by the arrival of new people from North Africa. We
have, after all, no other evidence to show us what kind of people inhabited
the Iberian Peninsula during the Late Pleistocene; a conglomerate of first
wave Grimaldi- Combe Gapelle-like Aurignacians plus some Magdalenians,
plus some bringers of microliths from the south and east, would presum-
ably look very much like this T6viec type, especially since the overgrown
Middle and Late Aurignacians did not hunt south of the Pyrenees.
Aside from this T6viec series, the Azilian culture proper is represented
by the remains of four individuals removed from the Trou Violet at
Montardit,19 Arrifege, in the northern Pyrenees, near the type station of
the Azilian at Mas d'Azil, and one mandible and several long bones, from
Mas d'Azil itself.20 Only one specimen, the so-called Montardit I, includes
a complete skeleton, or even a complete brain case. Without elaboration,
one may say that in every respect they belong to the same type as that of
T6viec.
(6) THE OFNET HEAD BURIALS
The third reasonably large series of Mesolithic crania in Europe comes
from the Ofnet cave near Hohlheim in Bavaria,21 where thirty-three skulls
were found neatly arranged in a solid circle, like eggs in a nest. Nineteen
of them belonged to children, ten to women, and only four to men. Along
with the skulls were, in most cases, the two topmost neck vertebrae, the
axis and atlas. The bodies were missing. A few miles away, at Kauferts-
berg, a single adult male skull has been discovered which was buried under
identical circumstances.
Unfortunately, it is impossible to detect the murderers in this Mesolithic
mystery. The peculiar sex ratio, the fact that all the heads were buried at
once and while still fresh, and the further fact that all had been fractured
by sharp blows with a lens-shaped implement similar in form to a round-
poled celt,22 make it unlikely that this was a normal, peaceful form of
19 Sawtelie, R. O. (Mrs. Wallis), PMP, vol. 11, #4, 1931.
20 Piette, E., BSAP, ser. 4, vol. 6, 1895, pp. 485-486.
21 Scheldt, W., Die etszeitlichen Schadelfunde aus der grossen Ofnet-hohley etc.
22 Mollison, T., AAnz, vol. 13, 1936, pp. 79-88. *
THE MESOLITHIC PERIOD 67
burial. The skulls were daubed with red ochre, and a few flint implements
were left with them. From these clues we may deduce that the killers,
their victims, or both, were culturally either Tardenoisians,23 or Azilians,
and that the date is probably Period II of the Mesolithic.24 These skulls
do not form a homogeneous group, but differ greatly in head form, as well
as in other characters. Of the two dolichocephals, the male #K1818 is
obviously an Upper Palaeolithic survivor, without visible change. This
skull exceeds the rest of the series in general size. It is extremely massive,
with projecting browridges, a retreating forehead, a very broad face, ex-
tremely low orbits, and a ponderous mandible. Its cubic capacity is well
over 1600 cc. Its companion, a male of lesser dimensions, is less extremely
developed and falls closer to the general type of the series.
The mesocephals, which include Kaufertsberg, are smaller, and rela-
tively higher vaulted; as Boule and Vallois have pointed out,25 they verge
on the type of Teviec, which these authors consider to be Magdalenian
survivals. At any rate, they do not seem to be intermediate between the
dolichocephals just described, which resemble rather a full Aurignacian
prototype, and the brachycephals.
The last present the real Ofnet problem. Two of the brachycephalic
crania are masculine,26 two feminine, with the highest index, that of a
female, 87. These skulls are long, wide, and of moderate vault height; the
faces are without exception wide. In one of the male specimens (K1809)
the greatest length of the skull lies in the forward segment, as with modern
planoccipitals, such as Armenoids. The forehead of this skull is very wide,
and the face extremely broad and low. The face is, furthermore, com-
pletely orthognathous, and the lower jaw is very massive, with flaring
gonial angles and a square, bilateral chin. This jaw is also very high, and
reduces the impression of shortness in the total facial plane. The other
male specimen, on the borderline of brachycephaly (K1800) is the only
one in the whole group which is hypsiconch, and one of two that are lep-
torrhine.
The female skulls show a considerable sex difference in head form, and
likewise in browridges and other manifestations of bony relief. As with
their Upper Palaeolithic prototypes, they are notably smaller, in most
cases, than the males. On the whole, they vary much less than do the
masculine crania, and fall closest to the brachycephalic male, K1809, in
type.
23 Clark, J. G. D., The Mesolithic Settlement of Northern Europe, p. 218.
24 Mollison, in view of the cross-section of the implement with which they were killed,
suggests that the date may have been Late Magdalenian, since no such implement re-
appears until the Late Neolithic. Mollison, T,, op. cit.
26 Boule, M., and Vallois, H., AIPH, Mem. 18, pp. 170-177.
w Including #K1800, the C. I. of which is 79.85.
68 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Despite the differences between these skulls, which have been empha-
sized in the foregoing description, they all have in common an Upper
Palaeolithic character. The dolichocephalic males might have been direct
descendants of the local Late Pleistocene population or intruders of similar
type from North Africa. The mesocephals might have been, and probably
were, the bearers of the Azilian culture from southern France to Bavaria.
The brachycephals, on the other hand, may have been survivors of the
type represented by Solutr6 #2 several thousand years earlier, but their
resemblance to the brachycephals of Afalou bou Rummel is much stronger.
It is possible that the old Afalou type was thrust into central Europe
at the head of the wave of migration which brought the smaller Mediter-
raneans to Portugal. It is likewise possible, but on archaeological grounds
still impossible to demonstrate, that these brachycephals came from Asia
Minor or Palestine, where an Afalou-like type existed in the early Natu-
fian, and presumably still earlier. The question of the origin of these
brachycephals cannot be settled without further data.27 At any rate, the
skulls of the Ofnet victims serve to show that various survivors of an older
order had begun to assemble north of the Alps in early post-glacial times.
(7) MESOLITHIC MAN IN THE CRIMEA
From Ofnet eastward, Mesolithic Europe is a blank until we reach the
Crimea, for in all the intervening territory, no human remains of this
period have been found and described. In the small cave of Murzak
Koba,28 near the Crimean village of Chorgun, Soviet archaeologists have
found two skeletons crushed under heavy stones which fell from the roof.
One is masculine, the other feminine.
The man from Murzak Koba was tall (180 cm.); long headed, large
headed, with heavy browridges, and heavy superior oblique ridges on the
occiput. The configuration of the nasion region, with a depressed root,
is typical of Upper Palaeolithic European man; while the orbits are ex-
tremely low and wide. The face is wider than the Upper Palaeolithic
mean, and longer. Murzak Koba man was, without any question, a sur-
vival of the eastern European Upper Palaeolithic type into Mesolithic
times. His female companion apparently represented the feminine version
of the same race.
87 The photographs of at least three out of eight Ofnet crania, published by Scheldt,
show apparent signs of tooth knocking. These are K1809, upper right lateral incisor;
K1813, lower right median incisor; Kaufertsberg, lower left lateral incisor. Since in-
cisor evulsion was found in some of the Natufian skulls, as well as in the one published
Late Capsian cranium, this might indicate either a southeastern or a southwestern
connection. (Personal communication of T. D. McCown, for Natufians. The Late Cap-
sian skull is A!n Mlila, described by Boule, Vallois, and Verneau in the Afalou mono-
graph,)
*8 Field, Henry, AA, vol. 39, 1937, p. 468.
THE MESOLITHIC PERIOD 69
The cultural equipment of this couple consisted of flint implements and
bone harpoons of Mesolithic type. The bearing of these two skeletons on
the general problem of Mesolithic diffusion is that an entry of Mesolithic
culture and race into Europe from a point this far east is rendered a little
less likely.
This does not, of course, affect in any way the possibility of an entrance
by way of the Balkans; but extensive reconnaissance work in Jugoslavia
has failed to locate any Mesolithic horizon there.29 We are again forced to
the conclusion that the bulk of the Mesolithic influences, both cultural and
physical, which entered Europe after the retreat of the glacier came into
that continent over the Straits of Gibraltar,30 a conclusion which may, of
course, need revision as new evidence shall come to light.81
(8) PALAEOLITHIC SURVIVALS IN THE NORTHWEST
During the maximum of the Wurm II glaciation, Palaeolithic man
adapted himself, as we have seen, to the cold. Once so adapted it is
only natural to suppose that he followed the climate to which he was ac-
customed northward as the ice melted, and as the animals which he ate
moved in the same direction. Now the final glaciation of Europe was cen-
tered not in the most northerly point of the continent, but in the land
mass of the Scandinavian Peninsula, and, apparently, the coasts of Norway
(northern and western) were not affected by the last glacial advance.
Human beings thus could penetrate Scandinavia in Late Palaeolithic
times.32 Scandinavia, therefore, formed the last retreat of Old Stone Age
man fleeing before the encroaching temperate conditions with their growth
of forest and change of fauna; for when the ice disappeared he had no
further place to go. Here at last the changing climate of the early post-
glacial period faced him with the final necessity of modifying his culture.
The accompanying chart renders it unnecessary to describe at length
the changes which took place in the Baltic region during the Mesolithic.88
In Period I, which lasted from the end of Palaeolithic times until about
6800 B.C., following the de Geer chronolo'gy, a number of local industries
a>Fewkes, V. J.} BASP, #9, 1933, pp. 17-32.
30 Italy must be rejected as a likely avenue of entry, since the culture of that penin-
sula during the entire Upper Palaeolithic was the Grimaldian, a local form of Aurigna-
cian, which persisted, without a Solutrean or Magdalenian interlude, until Mesolithic
times, and even through them to the Neolithic, with only a minor microlithic influence.
Greenlee, R. F., The Association and Interrelation of the Microlithic Cultures of Europe and
Africa (privately printed), 1935, pp. 28-31.
31 Bonch-Osmolovskii, G., reports the discovery of another Mesolithic skeleton from
the Crimea, buried in a crouching position. He states that it is earlier than Murzak
Koba and is not of "Cr6-Magnon" type. Quoted by Field, H., AA, vol. 39, 1937, p. 467.
82 Boe, J., and Nummedal, A., Le Finnmarkien.
* Most of the following is based on Clarke, J. G. D., The Mesolithic Settlement oj North-
ern Europe; also, Antiquity, vol. 12, 1938, pp. 154-171.
70
THE RAGES OF EUROPE
developed in northern Europe from Palaeolithic origins. Thus the tanged-
point cultures which stretched from Belgium to the Ukraine, across the
north of Germany and of Poland, are derived ultimately from Aurignacian
MESOLITHIC CHRONOLOGY IN THE BALTIC
3£0-CHRQNOU>Gf
M1**tfe6eer
andSauramo)
CLIMATIC
PERIODS
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PLEISTOCENE
PERIODS
PHASES OF
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(after Munthe
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FORESTS
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BOREAL
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MAGLEMOSE ^
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6300
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TUNDRA
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UPPER PALAEOLITHIC
HAMBURG CULTURE
(MEIENDORF)
FIG. 16
Adapted and combined from the charts of Godwin and Clark, with further modifica-
tions suggested by Movius. Godwin, H., "Pollenanalysis," etc., The New Phytologist,
Vol. 33, #4, Oct. 12, 1934, p. 339. Clark, J, G. D.s The Mesolithic Age in Northern Europe,
p,53.
prototypes, and the Hamburg culture of Meiendorf, which was ancestral
to the Ahrensburg of Period I, was partly contemporaneous with the
French Magdalenian.
In the very north of Scandinavia, during at l(iast the latter part of
Period I, tanged-point using people lived beyond the upper edge of the
glacier, isolated, on a narrow coastal fringe, from the rest of mankind.
To the south of the ice, in Denmark and the southern end of Sweden, as
THE MESOLITHIC PERIOD
71
well as in northern Germany, Palaeolithic survivors apparently invented
the so-called "Lyngby" antler axe to cope with the encroaching forest.
However, the most important culture of this period was the Ahrensburg,
Komsa Curt UPC-
MESOLITHIC
GEOGRAPHY OF
N.W. EUROPE
Fosna Culture
W
mtmM^s
• Lyngby
A Swiderian
• Ahrensburg
o Hamburg
X teemoucnampa
MAP 1
After Clark, J. G. D., The Mesolithic Settlement of Northwestern Europe, 1936, Fig. 15,
p. 55; Antiquity, vol. 12, 1938, Fig. 2, p. 158.
which is best known from recent excavations at Stellmoor, a few miles
northeast of Hamburg.
In Boreal times, Period II (ca. 6800-5600 B.C.) the bed of the North Sea
rose, and England and Scotland were joined to Denmark by dry land.
At the same time the Baltic became a fresh-water lake, called the Ancylus.
The entire North European plain, from England over to the Urals, was
covered with a temperate forest. In this forest arose the Maglemose cul-
ture, which was derived from three elements: (1) the previous cultures of
72 THE RACES OF EUROPE
the north, especially the Ahrensburg and the "Lyngby axe" cultures,
(2) the Magdalenian, already incorporated in the Ahrensburg, (3) the
northward moving Tardenoisian, of eventual southern and southeastern
inspiration. Hence, the inhabitants of northern Europe in Period I
(ca. 11,800-6800 B.C.) were simply the descendants of the people who
had lived immediately south of the ice-sheet for several thousand years,
while during Period II (6800-5600 B.C.) they were joined by the vanguard
of newcomers, whom we may already have met at Ofnet. These facts
should give us some idea of the physical composition of the North Euro-
pean population during these two periods.
The culture of Period III, which roughly coincides with the time of the
Atlantic climatic phase, was conditioned by further changes of environ-
ment. The waters of the ocean rose due to the melting of the ice, the
Baltic again became salt, and Britain was isolated from the continent by
the encroachment of the North Sea. During Period III, the Maglemose
manner of living persisted in the North European peripheries, while in
the special center of Denmark and southern Sweden developed a new
culture, the Erteb^lle.
The Erteb^lle people were gatherers and eaters of molluscs on the shores
of the newly formed Litorina Sea, and at the same time salt-water fisher-
men. Their kitchen-middens, or shell-heaps, contain quantities of animal
bones and discarded artefacts, including a crude pottery ware.
The Erteb011e culture had its roots in the Maglemose, although un-
doubtedly it was reinforced by new elements presumably from the south
and east, and it was a local development from local human material.
When the Neolithic farmers and herders finally reached Denmark and
southern Sweden, they found a sedentary population of clam-diggers
and fishermen firmly established along the coast, and owing to the
abundance of sea food, this population must have been one of con-
siderable density. Well-equipped sea fishermen on the shores of richly
stocked waters offer far more resistance to invading agriculturalists
than do hunters. The Ertebjzflle people were not driven out by their
Neolithic neighbors, nor were they absorbed without trace into a larger
population. In southern Scandinavia the old racial elements persisted
alongside and in combination with the new, while in Norway the old
tanged point makers lived on, to contribute technical methods to the
Neolithic craftsmen.
Period I is not represented by a single piece of human bone which can
be dated with any pretense of accuracy. Period II, the Maglemose, is
known from a number of skeletal finds, most of which, however, are in
doubt. The only remains which are completely accepted and about which
there can be no question are: (1) St£ngenas, near Roe, in the Parish of
THE MESOLITHIC PERIOD 73
Bro, Bohusian, Sweden; (2) Mullerp, Denmark; (3) Svaerdborg, Sweden;
(4) Sandarna, Sweden.34
Of these, the only useful specimen for racial deductions of any conse-
quence is that of St&ngenas, consisting of a brain case, a femur, and a tibia.
These were the bones of an extremely tall man, 181 cm. in height,35 with
long legs, particularly in the lower segments. The femur and tibia show all
the peculiarities of form and development associated with Upper Palaeo-
lithic man. The brain case, which is of extreme length, has an index of
71.9, a broad forehead, and prominent browridges. Furst, who has studied
this fragment carefully, assigns it without question to the Upper Palaeolithic
racial group, especially to the central European Aurignacian.36
The Mullerp and Svaerdborg finds consist of a child's mandible each,87
and a few broken fragments of other bones. That of Sandarna is limited to
one long bone. For further evidence of the racial composition of Magle-
mose man, we must turn to northern Germany.
In northern Germany, which forms a part of the North European
Mesolithic area, a number of skulls, found under varying circumstances,
have been attributed to all three Mesolithic periods. It is difficult, if not
impossible, to verify the alleged age of any one of them.
Among the most likely are two adult skulls, and one adult and three in-
fantile mandibles, dredged from the bottom of the Pritzerber Sea, north-
west of Brandenburg on the River Havel.38 Although they came from a
layer of blue clay underlying peat on the lake bottom, the exact geological
age of these formations cannot be established. Antler and bone artefacts
recovered from the same clay belong to Periods I, II, and III of the
Mesolithic.39 The two skulls are probably female, although the sex has not
been conclusively determined. Both are of dolichocephalic type, with
indices of 71 ; both have certain early European characters such as alveolar
prognathism, strong browridges, high temporal crests, marked supramas-
toid ridges, and relatively large teeth. But the two differ in some respects;
number one is large headed, short faced, and chamaerrhine, and number
two of small capacity, very long faced, and mesorrhine. But both have
only moderate bizygomatic diameters.
34 Clarke, J. G. D., op. cit., pp. 133-136.
36 Calculated by two of Pearson's formulas. Stat. « 71.272 -f 1.159 X (F + T),
and Stat. - 71.443 + 1.22F + 1.08T.
*flFurst, Carl M., FKVA, vol. 20, 1925, pp. 274-293.
37 The so-called Homo kiliensis, a child's skull, may also date from this period, but the
evidence is not sufficient for certainty.
Clarke, op. cit., p. 133.
Rcche, O., AFA, vol. 21, 1925, p. 176.
Kossinna, G., MannusB, #6a, 1928; Ursprung und Verbreitung der Germanen, pp. 134—
142.
* Reche, O., AFA, vol. 49, 1928, pp. 122-190. *9 Clarke, op. cit., p. 134.
74 THE RACES OF EUROPE
A careful comparative study of these two crania places them both with-
out difficulty into the female series of Upper Palaeolithic skulls; the great-
est similarity is between number two and the female of Obercassel. Al-
though the two Pritzerber crania differ widely in size and in face form,
these differences can be matched in the Upper Palaeolithic group. The
adult male mandible found with the Pritzerber crania is large, wide, high,
and has everted gonial angles; it belongs to the same racial category as the
crania. Typologically, these Pritzerber See remains are Mesolithic, for
the two skulls could be female counterparts of Stangenas, but to which of
the three sub-periods they belong, we cannot tell.
The Anthropological Institute of Kiel University possesses a number of
skulls from Schleswig-Holstein of purported Mesolithic age, most of which
were removed from Kiel Harbor or the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal, during
dredging operations. Others were simply dug up from peat deposits by
farmers draining their bogs. Dates of varying accuracy may be assigned to
seven of these specimens; all seven belong to the physical type of which
Stangenas may be a male, and the Pritzerber See crania female, ex-
amples.40
Four of them have been dated by pollen analysis;41 three being assigned
to the earliest Litorina transgression, and presumably to the very end of
Period II, or Maglemose, archaeologically; and a fourth to full Litorina,
thus probably Period III, or Erteb011e. The other three specimens, in-
cluding the Ellerbek skull, which was dredged from submerged land in
Kiel Harbor, may be dated, very tentatively, only by their associations
with implements.
Thus, so far, we have found only dolichocephalic crania of European
Upper Palaeolithic type associated with early post-glacial Mesolithic re-
mains in northern Germany, as well as in Scandinavia. But there are
other skulls, of dubious Mesolithic association, which are brachycephalic.
These include the skulls of Plau, Mecklenburg; Domitz, from the bed of
the Elbe; and Spandau, from the mouth of the Spree. All three could fit
very easily into the brachycephalic group from Ofnet, and if they are not
Mesolithic, show the northward movement of that type in later times.42
Before concluding this survey of racial associations in the Mesolithic of
40 Aichel, Otto, Der deutsche Mensch. The specimens referred to are B 5, KS 11032,
KS 11254b, B 38, B 34, B 37, B 10.
41 With newly exhumed skulls, Professor Aichel sent earth or peat from the cranial
cavity to palaeobotanists; with specimens which had lain for years in museums, he
gathered earth from the ear holes. This method does not always yield certain results,
for sometimes the samples do not contain enough pollen for statistical study.
« Clarke, J. G. D., op. cit., pp. 133-136.
Reche, AFA, vol. 49, pp. 122-190.
Kossina, G., MannusB, #6a, 1928, p. 144.
Kossina, G., Die fndogermanen, MannusB, #26, 1926, p. 16.
THE MESOLITHIG PERIOD 75
northwestern Europe, we must not fail to mention the parallel situation in
the British Isles. Briefly, during the Upper Palaeolithic there are no true
Solutrean or Magdalenian deposits in Britain, but the Aurignacian con-
tinues, to develop into an early Mesolithic culture called Greswellian.
This in turn is later influenced by Azilian cultural diffusion from western
France and northern Spain. The Aurignacian which came to England,
and from which Creswellian developed, apparently came from central
Europe.43
During the Mesolithic, a northern extension of Greswellian, strongly
mixed with Azilian, extended to southwestern Scotland, where it has been
found in the Oban caves of Argyllshire. The deposits of some of these
caves date from Late Atlantic time, subsequent to the maximum Litorina
transgression, during which period the caves were formed. This would
roughly correlate the remains which they contained with Period III in
Scandinavia. We must remember, however, that, although a few stray
Maglemosian finds have been made in eastern Scotland, the land con-
necting Scotland with Denmark in the Boreal period had since sunk below
the North Sea, and skeletal material from the Oban caves cannot be
closely related in a cultural sense to that from Scandinavia.
During the last century, a number of these caves, when excavated,
yielded skeletal material dating from the Late Mesolithic through the
Bronze and Iron Ages into modern times. One of the sites, the Mac Arthur
cave, contained some artefacts which have been recognized as Azilian,44
as well as two male skulls, of which one at least is probably contemporane-
ous with the deposit.45
This specimen, called skull B, is very similar to the Stlingenas fragment
in Sweden, with nearly identical vault dimensions, a cranial index of 70, a
broad forehead, and heavy browridges. The sagittal arcs of the skull, the
breadths and heights of the orbits, the depressed root of the nose, the
breadth of the face, and the height of the mandible, are all typical of the
purely long-headed variety of the Upper Palaeolithic European racial
group. From the photographs 46 it is possible to make further observations,
and even to reconstruct tentative values of additional measurements. The
bizygomatic facial breadth was greater than the breadth of the vault, and
the nose was leptorrhine.
Oban man is, in short, an ideal example of the central European Aurig-
nacian physical type. As far as this one specimen is concerned, the initial
43 Garrod, Miss D. A. E., RBAA, Pres. Ad., sec. H., vol. 4, 1938, pp. 1-26, viz. p. 23.
44 Abb6 Breuil (PSAS, vol. 55, 1921, p. 163) states that the site is fundamentally
Creswellian influenced by a strong Azilian admixture, with faint Maglemose traces.
46 Turner, Sir W. (TRSE, vol. 51, 1914-15, pp. 211-214), states that skull B actually
lay in the shell deposit, while skull A was taken from the black earth above it.
46 Turner, p. 213.
76 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Upper Palaeolithic invasion of the British Isles was still represented, many
thousands of years later, by its original racial type.
(9) SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The Mesolithic Age in Europe is the time gap, lasting nine thousand
years, between the end of the glacial period and the Neolithic. Peoples
living in a Mesolithic stage of culture continued to obtain their food by
hunting, fishing, and the gathering of wild vegetable products as they had
in the Palaeolithic; but they now possessed one domestic animal, the dog.
Technologically, the introduction of the microlithic blade, which could
be used in composite tools, and the invention of the wood chopping axe,
further distinguish this period.
With the retreat of the last ice cap, the fertile grasslands of the Sahara
and of southwestern Asia began to dry, game became scarce, and the rain
belt moved westward and northward. The microlithic technique, which
had been employed during late Upper Palaeolithic times in North Africa
and the Near East, was carried across the Straits of Gibraltar and through
the Caucasus and South Russia into Europe, where it spread northward
and northwestward, eventually affecting the industries of the entire con-
tinent. At the same time, it was diffused into Palestine.
This cultural diffusion to the north and northwest was accompanied in
the Late Mesolithic or followed in the Early Neolithic by the invasion of a
people new to Europe, a relatively small-headed, short statured, effeminate
looking, Mediterranean type, of direct Galley Hill deviation, and ancestral
to one branch of the modern Mediterranean race. These Mediterraneans
also entered Palestine in Late Mesolithic times.
A population of Upper Palaeolithic derivation, compounded of early
Aurignacian and Magdalenian elements, moved northward from Spain
and the Pyrenees to western France and Germany, if not farther. In the
vanguard of the northern movement was a large, broad-faced, brachy-
cephalic type reminiscent of the brachycephalic element resident in Al-
geria at an earlier date. Although its geographical origin is not certain,
it was definitely a member of the middle and late Aurignacian group of
mixed j^Vw^-Neanderthaloid derivation.
In eastern Europe it is possible that the older Palaeolithic race was rein-
forced in early post-glacial times by an increment from the Near East,
although this cannot as yet be clearly demonstrated. Invasions parallel to
that which crossed Gibraltar probably entered Europe via the Caucasus,
but there is at present very little evidence to suppdrt such a theory. In
northwestern Europe, especially in Scandinavia and Britain, where the
last glacier had its main centers and lasted the longest, Upper Palaeolithic
man of the central European variety persisted through the Mesolithic, and
THE MESOLITHIC PERIOD 77
it is to this corner of Europe that we must look for a maximum survival of
glacial age European man into the present time. Similarly, the other main
type which we traced during the Palaeolithic — the long-faced and long-
legged ancestral Hamite of East Africa — persisted in East Africa into the
Mesolithic without change.
Although most if not all of the innovations, both racial and cultural,
which reached Europe during the Mesolithic Age, came from North
Africa and also perhaps from points farther east, we may suppose that
events of far greater importance to human history were going on at this
time on the continent of Asia. There the peoples of the western plateaux
must have already begun the mastery of the animal and vegetable worlds
which was to permit them to increase in numbers, and to overflow into
Europe, thus marking the beginning of the Neolithic period in the latter
continent. If we are to understand the racial changes which affected the
population of Europe at the end of the Mesolithic, we must next devote our
attention to these imminent invaders.
Chapter IV
THE NEOLITHIC INVASIONS
(1) INTRODUCTION
The word Neolithic has two meanings, one purely technical, and the
other of broader implications: (1) the manufacture and use of polished
stone implements, in the form of axes, adzes, gouges, chisels, and hoes;
(2) the conquest of the procreative forces of the biological world, through
agriculture and animal husbandry. These two definitions, implying tools
on the one hand and food on the other, do not always overlap, for some
peoples may be considered Neolithic in one of the two senses only. Of
the two, only the second is of really vital importance in human history.
In fact, the change from food-gathering to food-producing was the greatest
step in human development since the invention of language.1
The initial adoption of a Neolithic economy occurred, however, at few
centers on the earth; one in the Old World and another in the New are all
of which we can be sure at present. In the Old World, the plants and
animals which were suitable for domestication ranged in a wild state in
the highland zone from Anatolia to the Indus, with some species extending
out along the southern shore of the Mediterranean. Abyssinia may have
been a separate center for the domestication of some grain plants, but
probably not of animals. Perhaps when the Yemen shall have been
studied by economic botanists, this fertile highland on the other side of
the Red Sea will assume a like importance.
In the millennia during which the glacier was retreating to its Scan-
dinavian center and growing thinner, the climatic zones which made a
well-watered grassland of this entire plateau belt moved northward, and
the regions in which Old World civilization originated grew gradually
drier. Afghanistan and Iran, now for the most part nearly desert plateaux,
were then fertile; in Egypt the valley of the Nile was a string of swamps
ind jungly lakes, full of crocodiles and hippopotami.
It is now generally believed, although still unproven, that agriculture
ind the domestication of animals did not arise in the three valleys of the
^ile, Tigris-Euphrates, and Indus, but in the highlands between them.
The river valleys became important as centers of civilization because
icasonal flooding and the deposit of fresh alluvium made it impossible for
1 Childc, V. Gordon, The Dawn of European Civilization; The Most Ancient East; The
Danube in Prehistory; New Light on the Most Ancient East; Man Makes Himself.
78
THE NEOLITHIC INVASIONS 79
primitive farmers to exhaust the soil, thus permitting sedentary residence;
furthermore, the development of irrigation and drainage canals were
public works necessitating social solidarity, and kingdoms arose here while
the highlanders kept to their villages and fought their feuds, as many of
them still do today.
As Childe has pointed out, the acquisition of a new and more productive
means of economic life has as one of its first effects an increase in the pop-
ulation. Agriculture and the domestication of animals did not appear in
one day. The acquisition of a full Neolithic economy may have taken
one or more millennia, and it only very gradually replaced hunting and
collecting. The primitive slash-and-burn system, which must have been
the first followed, and which was the earliest in Europe, prevents intensive
use of the soil and promotes a slow but nevertheless positive type of
nomadism.
The desiccation which followed the movement of the rain zones north-
ward resulted initially in the migration of peoples into Palestine, North
Africa, and southern Europe, in the form of the Mesolithic invasions, which
we have already studied. These movements were not extensive, however,
because the new economy of food production permitted a greater utiliza-
tion of the drying soil on which wild animal and vegetable life, useful to
man, had grown scarce. For a while emigration was unnecessary; but
when the inevitable population increase had come, western Asia over-
flowed, and farmers moved into regions where the climate which had
formerly blessed their homelands now prevailed.
The desiccation which followed the shifting of the cyclonic storm belts
did not become complete until what is called, in northern Europe, Atlantic
time, that is, in the neighborhood of 5000 B.C. Only by this time had
Europe, south of the newly formed northern forest, really become cli-
matically what the highland belt had been before — a temperate, well-
watered parkland, instead of a chilly, treeless plain.
The same general date, 5000 B.C., may;be tentatively set as the time of
the beginning of agriculture and animal domestication. It was not until
almost 2000 years later, however, that the disciples of this new economy
were to expand and invade more than the threshold of Europe.
The Neolithic invaders of Europe, seeking new lands for farming and
grazing, came as a further result of the same environmental shift which had
impelled the earlier Mesolithic invaders, whom they supplemented without
a gap, and with whom they blended. But the Neolithic invasion was not
as simple as the Mesolithic. As the new economy spread, it affected a
number of peoples, whose reactions were not all the same. Europe, the
new stronghold of a lost climate, was broached in different places and in
different ways.
NEOLITHIC MOVEMENT\.
AND CHRONOLOGY
MAP
80
82 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Map 2 will shdw, in a very general sense, the time scale of Neolithic
invasions into Europe, and the routes by which these invasions may have
come. It is to be noted that Crete became Neolithic before any of the
European mainland, followed by Greece and the land near the Bospo-
rus; eventually these agriculturalists spread into all the northern Mediter-
ranean lands by sea. Meanwhile, other Neolithic farmers had been moving
along the coast of North Africa from Egypt, and had crossed over Gibraltar
to invade Spain. Hence they migrated northward and eastward, as far
as the Swiss lakes and the Rhine.2 Their agriculture, and their pig, sheep,
and cattle husbandry, eventually spread over most of western Europe,
and even into England. At the same time still other farmers, in this case
coming from Anatolia, or southeastern Russia, or both, were moving up
the Danube, and eventually established themselves in the fertile valleys
of Moravia and Bohemia, and even farther westward until they met the
stream coming northward over Gibraltar.
These three movements were the primary invasions which brought a
new, agricultural population into Europe. Later in the Neolithic there
were two other movements of a different character. One was that of the
Megalith-builders, who sailed through the Straits of Gibraltar and skirted
the western shores of Europe to the British Isles and Scandinavia. These
seafarers probably introduced the new economy to the northern isles and
Scandinavia. Then there were the Corded people, so-called on account
of the decoration on their pottery — who came from some mysterious point
in southern Russia or the steppes of western Asia north of the plateau,
and who were probably less dependent on farming than on pastoral
nomadism and trade. Just as the Megalithic people carried civilization
to the far western corners of Europe by sea, so the Corded people intro-
duced the new enlightenment into the north, where the old hunting and
fishing life survived.
Five invasions, then, converging on Europe from the south and east,
brought a new population to Europe during the third millennium B.C.,
and furnished the racial material from which living European populations
are to a large extent descended.
(2) THE NEOLITHIC AND THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE
In Europe, the Neolithic is primarily the period of the Mediterranean
race, in one form or another. It was, apparently, the Mediterraneans
who accomplished the change to a food-producing economy elsewhere,
and who expanded into the territory of the food-gatherers.
These Mediterraneans, while surprisingly homogeneous in some re-
spects, may be segregated locally and typologically into sub-groups on
8 Menghin, O., Weltgeschkhte der Steinzeit, pp. 294-302.
THE NEOLITHIC INVASIONS 83
the basis of a few characters. Before proceeding much further with our
geographical-historical reconstruction, it will be well to define what we
mean by Mediterranean, to compare it with other races which we have
already met, and to specify its principal subdivisions.
By Mediterranean, in the skeletal sense alone, we mean the wide family
of closely knit racial types which are long headed, orthognathous, meso-
rrhine or leptorrhine, narrow faced, and of medium head size, descended
from the general Galley Hill stock, and related to Combe Capelle and
Afalou #28. Mediterranean, in this sense, is the name by which we pro-
pose to designate that one of the two major racial elements, concerned with
the development of white peoples, which completely lacks Neanderthaloid
ancestry. It differs from the major Upper Palaeolithic group of Europe
and northern Africa in several respects, as shown on page 84.
The "Mediterranean" racial family is just as " white," in the larger
meaning of the word, as the Upper Palaeolithic family. Its chief differ-
ences from the latter are: a smaller brain size, a moderate body size, and
a lack of the excessive specializations which characterize the northern
group. The Mediterranean group seems to be of purely sapiens ancestry,
without Neanderthaloid or other mixture.
Before the Neolithic, the principal branches of the Mediterranean
family must already have come into existence. Some Mediterraneans
were probably white skinned, and others brown; it is also possible that the
differences in hair and eye color which so strongly distinguish living
Mediterranean sub-varieties had already come into existence.
We cannot speak with authority about Nordics until we meet blondism
in the flesh, nor make profitable surmises about them until we find it in
literary references and artistic representations. We must not, therefore,
let differences in pigmentation and soft parts confuse our understanding
of the skeletal unity of the Mediterranean race.
It can be shown that Sumerians who lived over five thousand years ago
in Mesopotamia are almost identical in skull and face form with living
Englishmen, and that predynastic Egyptian skulls can be matched both
in a seventeenth century London plague pit, and in Neolithic cist-graves
in Switzerland. Modern dolichocephalic whites or browns are very similar
in head and face measurements and form. The Nordic race in the strict
sense is merely a pigment phase of the Mediterranean.8
On the basis of the material to be covered in this chapter, we may dis-
tinguish the following branches of the general Mediterranean or Galley
Hill group:
1 Popularly, the word "Nordic" is frequently applied to a blond or pigmentally inter-
mediate conglomerate type or group of types in northern Europe, which contains other
than blond Mediterranean elements.
84
THE RACES OF EUROPE
Upper Palaeolithic
1 . Great size of brain case.
2. Mean skull length about 198 mm.
in males.
3. Vault height variable, usually mod-
erate.
4. Head form variable. Local means
70-72 in some cases, 74-75 in others.
5. Strong tendency to become brachy-
cephalic, manifest in some local
branches.
6. Thick vault, heavy relief of muscle
attachments.
7. Browridges and development of
nuchal lines on occiput strong.
8. Face variable in length, frequently
short.
9. Face very broad, bizygomatic di-
ameter over 140 mm. in males.
Zygomatic arches greatly bowed.
10. Orbits very wide and low.
11. Distance between orbits great.
12. Nasal skeleton prominent.
13. Sub-nasal segment of face height
relatively great.
14. Mandible thick, heavy, with great
symphysial height, wide bicondylar
and bigonial diameters; prominent,
often bilateral chin.
15. Stature variable, but most char-
acteristically tali, mean probably
about 172 cm.
16. Bodily build usually robust, shoul-
ders very broad, chests voluminous,
hands and feet large.
Mediterranean
Brain size variable, but usually moder-
ate.
Mean skull lengths between 1 83-1 93 mm.
in males.
Absolute vault height has the same
range in absolute dimensions, or higher,
but usually higher in relation to other
diameters. Within the Mediterranean-
Galley Hill group, differences of vault
height serve as diagnostics of race or
sub-race.
Same.
Tendency to brachycephaly not mani-
fested by advent of Neolithic in areas yet
known.
Vault medium to thin, muscular relief
on vault as a rule slight.
Browridges and nuchal lines variable,
medium to weak.
Same, but some notably long-faced
exceptions.
Face usually narrow, 127-133 mm.,
zygoma tic arches weak and laterally
compressed.
Orbits of moderate proportions.
Distance between orbits slight.
Nasal skeleton prominent in some types,
but not in all.
Sub-nasal segment of face height rela-
tively slight.
Mandible variable; usually light, of
small symphysial height, and narrow in
both lateral diameters, chin moderate
or pointed. In some types, however, the
mandible approaches the Upper Palaeo-
lithic form in height, but not in breadth.
Stature variable, but most characteris-
tically short, types vary from 159 to 172
cm. in means.
Bodily build usually linear, hands and
feet smaller, weight probably less.
(1) Mediterranean Proper (hereafter meant when the word "Mediter-
•anean" is used alone): Short stature, about 160 cm.; skull length 183-
187 mm. male mean; vault height 132-137 mm. mean; cranial in-
lex means 73-75; browridges and bone development weak, face short,
THE NEOLITHIC INVASIONS 85
nose Jeptorrhine to mesorrhine. Type already met in Portugal and
Palestine in Late Mesolithic. Represents the paedomorphic or sexually
undifferentiated Mediterranean form, and often carries a slight negroid
tendency.
(2) Danubian: The same in body size and build, skull length and cranial
index the same; individually, the index goes to 80. Vault is higher than
breadth, means 137-140 mm. Nose mesorrhine or chamaerrhine.
(3) Megalithic: Tall stature, means 167-171 cm., slender build; skull
length over 190 mm.; cranial index 68-72 means, individual range below
78; vault moderate in height, less than breadth; forehead moderately
sloping, browridges often of moderate heaviness, muscular markings
stronger, skull base wider, face medium to long, nose leptorrhine, mandible
often deep and moderately wide. The East African Elmenteitans repre-
sent an individual and extreme form of this. It represents a gerontomor-
phic or sexually differentiated Mediterranean or Galley Hill form, and
in cranial features is closer to Galley Hill itself than any other branch.
(4) Corded: Tall stature, means 1 67-1 74 cm. ; build linear but muscular,
perhaps heavier than the Megalithic; extremely long-headed, 194 mm.
mean. Vault of great height, means over 140 mm., exceeding breadth;
browridges and muscular markings medium to strong; face very long, and
of slight to moderate breadth; mandible deep and chin marked, but nar-
row through gonial angles. Nose leptorrhine, often prominent. This type,
in western and northern Europe, approaches in some respects the Upper
Palaeolithic type with which it mixed.
(5) Other Forms: Include mixtures between the four named, as well as
others which are also intermediate but perhaps ancestrally undifferen-
tiated. The later "Nordic" forms are intermediate. In Asia Minor and
the Irano-Afghan plateau appear forms noted for great prominence and
convexity of the nasal skeleton, and lack of nasion depression. Since thqse
features are found on individuals of varying size and proportions, as well
as brachycephalic races of the same neighborhood, they seem to represent
some local genetic tendency, and cannot be considered the exclusive prop-
erty of a given race. However, one might name the small variety found in
Asia Minor Cappadocian, while a larger form commoner farther east, and
metrically close to the Corded, may be called Afghanian.
The names given the racial divisions outlined above have been chosen
with the intention of avoiding close reference to living races, since they are
based on the skeleton alone. Mediterranean forms an exception; it is so well
known and firmly established that it cannot be changed. In this particular
case, we may be reasonably sure of the character of the soft parts, owing to
the antiquity of accurate realistic portraiture in Egypt, Crete, and Meso-
potamia, as well as to mummification.
86 THE RACES OF EUROPE
The names Danubian, Megalithic, and Corded, have been deliberately
taken from archaeology since, as will be shown, the types so designated
were closely linked, during the Neolithic and even later, to the cultural
entities with which they are thus identified.
It is hoped that the use of these labels will eliminate the necessity, in
the rest of this chapter, of elaborate description.
(3) IRAN AND IRAQ
Unfortunately for the compiler of a general book, both the archaeology
and the somatdlogy of the Iranian plateau and of Mesopotamia are in
their respective infancies. City after city, and village after village, remain
undug, while thousands of skulls, some excavated and discarded, and
others still in the ground, remain unmeasured and unpublished. Despite
the notable work done at al ?Ubaid, Kish, Ur, Warka, Susa, Persepolis,
Rayy, and other sites, the archaeologists have not yet found the begin-
nings of Near Eastern civilization. Until recently, no single unquestion-
ably Neolithic site had been discovered in the whole of Asia Minor, Meso-
potamia, or the Iranian plateau over to India; at present several sites
have been located in Anatolia and Armenia.4 In the Tigris-Euphrates
Valley, the Neolithic material, if it exists, must be buried by many feet of
alluvial soil. In the eastern highlands, if it exists, it should not be hard to
find. The difficulty is that no one has seriously looked for it. The claim
of this whole highland and riverine zone to priority in the development
of the Neolithic economy cannot yet be confirmed or refuted.
There is, however, another claimant equally lacking in credentials — the
plain of west-central Asia, north of the plateau, and east of the Caspian.
In the grasslands drained by the Oxus and Jaxartes the great nomadic cul-
tures, associated with Indo-Aryan-speakers in the oldest traditional times,
and later with the Turks, had their bed of germination. From this center,
from time to time, invasions and migrations started in several directions.
One was the movement of the Aryan ancestors into India, about 1400
B.C.; another the Iranian invasion of the plateau which bears the name
and whose inhabitants speak the language of the invaders. A school,
founded by the Indo-European philologists of the last century, and sup-
ported, although with different dramatis personae, by the modern Turks,
would make of these vast plains the germinating-bed of Old World food
production.
Commencing with the Iranian plateau, we may consider skeletal ma-
terial which antedates the arrival of the Iranian-speaking immigrants.
Five crania from Luristan and the region directly to the north, in western
* Pittard, E., ASAG, vol. 7, 1937, pp. 389-391.
Field, H., AJSL, vol. 55, 1938, pp. 101-111.
THE NEOLITHIC INVASIONS 87
Iran, represent the pre- Aryan period; three males and two females,6 dat-
ing from 2000-1100 B.C., are all variants of the general Mediterranean
type, in Cappadocian and Afghanian directions. An Early Copper Age
skull from southern Baluchistan, which may date from the third millennium
B.C., is the same.6 We may surmise that the ancestors of the bulk of the
present plateau population had arrived by the beginning of the third
millennium.
In Mesopotamia, the earliest cultural remains have been found in
Sumeria. Here there has been recognized a long predynastic period, sub-
divided into three phases — al 'Ubaid, Uruk, and Jemdet Nasr. These
three probably occupied the fourth millennium B.C. The last two at least
were Copper Age cultures, while the al TJbaid culture proper, as exempli-
fied by the eighteenth to fourteenth levels at Warka, may possibly have
its roots in a true Neolithic.7
One grave at Warka, in level 14, belongs to the latter part of the
al 'Ubaid period, probably about 3700 B.C. The skull contained in it is
said to be dolichocephalic. Two skeletons from perhaps equally early
graves at al 'Ubaid itself powdered upon exposure, and could not be
measured. Hence our knowledge of the people of the fourth millennium
B.C. in Mesopotamia, based on indubitably contemporaneous remains, is
practically zero.
A series of seventeen crania from al 'Ubaid8 (see Appendix I, col. 4), which
may be predynastic or early dynastic, belong without exception to a type
which has been called Eurafrican, and which has been the most numerous
and most characteristic element in the population of Mesopotamia from the
time of the marsh dwellers at al cUbaid to the present day. These skulls are
large, heavy, and purely dolichocephalic. They belong to the larger- and
longer-headed Mediterranean division, nearest in vault size and form to
the earlier Galley Hill and Combe Capelle. They differ in one important
respect, however, from most European skulls of the same general type,
in that their nasal bones are extremely prominent and highly placed.
These early Sumerians, like the inhabitants of the Iranian plateau, had
already acquired the projecting, aquiline noses so characteristic of the
modern Near East. Like the plateau dwellers, these early Sumerians
were Afghanian in race.
Mesopotamia is not, like Egypt, an isolated valley, for it may be entered
'Vallois, H. V., "Notes sur les Tfctes Osseuses," in Contencau, G., and Ghirsh-
man, A., Fouilles de Tepe Giyan.
6 Sewell, R., and Guha, B., Report on the Bones Excavated at Nal, MASI, vol. 35, 1929,
app. 5, p. 56.
'Jordan, J., APAW, Jh. 1932, #2.
8 Keith, Sir Arthur, "Report on the Human Remains, Ur Excavations," vol. 1 : in
Hall, H. R. H., and Woolley, C. L., Al Vbaid,
88 THE RACES OF EUROPE
without great difficulty from the highlands to the east and north, while it
forms a natural goal for the inhabitants of the Arabian uplands, made
mobile by the fickle rainfall of the pastures. The history of Mesopotamia
has consequently been a sequence of infiltrations and invasions from both
the highland zone and the deserts, for the country feeds the city with
men, and not the reverse.
In studying the racial history of Mesopotamia from the third millennium
B.C. onward, we must remember this almost constant influx, and observe
how it affected the Sumerians and the Semitic-speaking kingdoms. The
series of skeletal remains at our disposal, other than the series from al
'Ubaid, include: (a) a series from Kish, from graves which may be dated
at some time close to 2900 B.C.; (b) another from the same site, from
fourth dynasty graves, prior to 2500 B.C.; (c) skulls of the third dynasty
of Ur, dated about 2300 B.C. (d) Neo-Babylonian crania, from between
800 and 400 B.C. (e) Skulls from Kirkuk dated at the fifth century A.D.9
In all, well over a hundred skeletons have been studied. Most of the
skulls belong to the "Eurafrican" type already described, but two other
types are represented in most of the series. One of these is an ordinary
Mediterranean with a smaller skull and a higher cephalic index, which
ranges between 70-80 and averages about 75. This Mediterranean type
is more fragile, less rugged, shorter faced, and smaller in body size. This
is apparently not an original Sumerian type, for it is completely absent
in the earliest series from al 'Ubaid and Kish. It first appears well after
3000 and probably after 2700 B.C. in the fourth dynasty graves at Kish
(see Appendix I, col. 5), and from then on seems to persist in all of the
samples, except for the late Kirkuk series in the north. Like the larger
"Eurafrican" this smaller Mediterranean type may still be distinguished in
the living population of Iraq. .
The "Armenoid" racial type, which is the third one claimed in Meso-
potamia, begins with the earliest Kish graves and continues through the
Babylonian period. The identification of this type is not wholly certain,
however, for very few actually brachycephalic skulls have been found,
and, since facial portions of these are usually damaged, it is impossible to
define the type clearly. Most of the so-called Armenoid skulls are meso-
cephaiic or sub-brachycephalic, but, in a few instances, the cephalic
index. runs really high, in an extreme case, to 89. The occiputs of these
skulls are said to be flat, the browridges heavy, and the capacities great.
Although many of the skulls which have been called Armenoid may rep-
8 (a) Penniman, T. K., in Watelin, L. C., Excavations at Ktsht vol. 4. (b) Buxton,
L. D., in Langdon, Excavations at Kish, vol. 1 ; also Buxton, L. D., and Rice, D. T., JRAI,
vol. 61. (c) Keith, Sir A, "Report on the Galilee Skull." (d) Buxton, L. D., vide supra.
Buxton and Rice, vide supra, (e) Ehrich, R. F., Appendix to Starr, Richard, F. S.,
vol. 1.
THE NEOLITHIC INVASIONS
89
resent merely the rounder headed extreme of the total group, it is never-
theless probable that a planoccipital brachycephalic strain actually pene-
trated Mesopotamia during the third millennium B.C. Although it has
since increased in numbers, it still forms but a minority.
Except for these few brachycephals, none of the invasions or cultural
movements into Mesopotamia in historic times has changed the popula-
tion in any perceptible way. This would indicate that the regions which
FACIAL TYPES IN SUMERIAN ART
FIG. 17
FIG. 18
FIG. 19 FIG. 20
Fig. 17, Frankfort, H., Jacobsen, T., and Preusscr, C., COIC, #13, 1930/31, p. 70,
Fig. 27. Fig. 18, King Gudea, after Woolley, C. L., The Development of Sumerian Art.
London, 1935, Fig. 62a, p. 1 15. Fig. 19, from excavations at Khafaje, Expedition of the
Univ. of Pennsylvania Museum and of the American School of Oriental Research,
under Dr. E. A. Speiser, New York Sunday Times, Section 9, June 27, 1937. Fig. 20, same
source as Fig. 19.
90
THE RACES OF EUROPE
acted as feeders of immigrants to Mesopotamia were themselves similar
racially. The plateau people of Iran, therefore, were probably in the main
long-headed. The inhabitants of northern Arabia who had entered the
valley from time to time, and who still come to the banks of the Euphrates
to water their flocks, belong likewise to the general Mediterranean family,
and examples of both Afghanian and Mediterranean types may be selected
from the living tribes without difficulty. It is quite possible that the first
appearance of the finer and smaller Mediterranean type in Mesopotamia
came with the arrival or assimilation of the Semites.
The Sumerian sculptors have left behind them records in stone which
may piece out the evidence of the skulls. These records consist of bas re-
liefs, which are of conventional type,
and some really excellent portraits in
the round. The reliefs show wiry, ath-
letic men with large, often aquiline
noses. They are obviously normal
white men of some Near Eastern va-
riety, just as one would expect. The
portrait busts, of which three examples
are shown (Figs. 17, 18, and 19),
seem really to depict individual men
rather than conventional types or
ideals. Figure 18 represents the oft-
sculpted King Gudea, who has a
roundish face and a nose less promi-
nent than the bas-relief ideal. Figure
17, which looks less posed, bears the
sly expression of a Baghdad shop-
keeper of the present day. In both
heads the browridges are absent, and
the eyebrows concurrent. In these as in most examples of Sumerian
sculpture, there is no evidence of hair distribution or hair form which
is, however, conventionally shown in archaic statues of gods (Fig. 20),
dating from early dynastic times. In these, the beards are full, the hair
straight or wavy.10
In the later Babylonian and Assyrian sculptures, which depict Semitic-
speaking populations, we find a profusion of beard and head hair as with
the early Sumerian gods; the hair is wavy or curly, and the beard ex-
aggeratedly abundant. (See Fig. 21 .) The eyebrows meet over the root of
10 Frankfort, H., ''Oriental Institute Discoveries in Iraq, 1933-34," Fourth Prelim-
inary Report, COIC #19, 1935,
Speiser, E., New Tork Times, Jan. 27, 1937.
FIG. 21. ASSYRIAN.
After Schafer, H., and Andrae, W., Die
Kunst des alien Orients, 1925, p. 521.
THE NEOLITHIC INVASIONS 91
the highly arched nose, and eyelids and lips are full. The bodies are con-
ventionally thick-set, the arms and legs heavily muscled. The artists of
Babylon and Nineveh were anthropologists at heart, for they chose a truth-
ful rather than an imaginary ideal. Their kings and soldiers and slaves
could step down from the walls and mingle with the crowds today.
Although Mesopotamia was one of the great centers of Old World
civilization, and although its emissaries travelled hundreds of miles, and
its cultural influences were so far-reaching that we may feel them even
today, we must not attempt to link it directly with the Neolithic invasions
which entered Europe. The farmers who sought rich fields and grassy
meadows to the west of the Euxine and the Bosporus were not Sumerians
or Babylonians, but peoples who had started their wanderings before the
development of a metal age civilization, and who were affected only in-
directly by cultural emanations from its center. Nevertheless, this somato-
logical survey of early Iran and Iraq is of value in the larger problem of
the white race, for it enables us to define clearly the physical charac-
teristics of the Mediterranean types of man which were responsible for
what may have been the world's earliest civilization, and of the surround-
ing regions from which it was fed, just as one could tell the physical types
of France from a study of Paris or of Europe from a study of New York.
(4) CIVILIZED MEN IN EGYPT
Certainly the most satisfactory area in the whole world for the racial
study of a people of antiquity is the valley of the Nile. Over four thousand
Egyptian skeletons, covering a period of some seven thousand years, have
received anthropometric attention. One Egyptian series, consisting of nine
hundred males, is the most extensive group of crania of a single sex and
from a single place ever assembled. It is possible, therefore, to study varia-
bility and change in this isolated valley with delicate precision, for in one
district, the region of Upper Egypt about Abydos and Thebes, the cranial
material is more abundant than that of any age from any other region of
the same size in the world.11
Furthermore, from the beginning of dynastic times until the arrival of
Islam, Egyptian painters and sculptors recorded faithfully, often in colors,
the physical appearance of their living countrymen, as well as of many
different kinds of foreigners. At the same time, the climate of the Nile
Valley, and the skill of embalmers, have preserved intact the hair, skin,
and dried muscles of both natural and artificial mummies, from the pre-
dynastic period onward. With this abundance of evidence, we should be
nearly as familiar with the racial characteristics of the ancient Egyptians
as with those of the people of our own day.
« Morant, G. M, Biometrika, 1925, p. 4.
92 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Geographically, Egypt is not unified. In the first place, the Delta, which
resembles early Sumeria in its climatic conditions, is a marshy series of
water ways, continuous with the coasts of Palestine and Lybia, and easily
attainable from both directions, as well as from the sea. It, and to a lesser
extent, Lower Egypt, as well, forms an easy route of passage from Asia to
North Africa without touching most of Egypt proper. It is possible, there-
fore, that even in dynastic times movements of racial importance passed
from western Asia to North Africa over this coastal route, without affecting
the population of Egypt in any notable way. Upper Egypt, on the other
hand, is a narrow valley hemmed in by cliffs on either side. Beyond these
cliffs lie plateaux, which during the pluvial periods were well-watered and
covered with grass and game. There was only one gateway to Egypt from
the south — down the Nile — and during the dynastic period the Egyptian
kings kept garrisons on their southern boundaries to prevent immigration
from this quarter.
The cyclonic rain belt which moved northward from the Saharan and
Arabian deserts in the general post-glacial readjustment of climate also
took a westward direction.12 For this reason, a climate favorable for hunt-
ers and gatherers persisted longer in Egypt than in Mesopotamia. At
the same time, this movement may have had much to do with the migra-
tion of peoples crossing North Africa from east to west, keeping ahead of
the zone of serious desiccation. Morocco was the last of North Africa to
dry, and in parts of that country cedar forests and grassy uplands still
remain.
The archaeological sequence in Egypt, which has been well worked out,
begins with the lowest Palaeolithic and continues without a gap until his-
torical times. During the pluvial and early post- pluvial periods, however,
the swampy tree-fringed valley was not the most favorable hunting ground,
and Palaeolithic and Mesolithic food-gatherers ranged by preference over
the open grasslands to either side, making only occasional visits to the
river banks. As the plateaux grew increasingly arid, many of the hunters
who did not migrate westward moved into the still moist valley, toward
which the game upon which they lived must have been converging. One
such concentration of food- gatherers is seen in the Sebilian culture of Up-
per Egypt.13 The skeletal remains from this culture, which have not yet
been published, are said to anticipate in physical type the predynastic,
placing a fine Mediterranean type in pre-Neolithic times.14
In another part of Upper Egypt, the earliest known of the sporadic
agriculturalists, who at the same time or soon afterward, began to exploit
12 This summary of climatic changes in Egypt is based on Childe, V. G., New Light
on the Most Ancient East, pp. 49-51.
18 Childe, op. «V., p. 35. " Leakey, L. S. B., Stone Age Africa, pp. 177-178.
THE NEOLITHIC INVASIONS 93
the favorable environment of the Nile Valley, were the so-called Tasians,
named after the type site of their culture at Deir Tasa. At the time of their
occupation, this part of the Nile Valley was still swampy, with large trees
growing at the fringes of the marsh. In view of these climatic conditions,
it is estimated that this culture may have been introduced as early as 5000
or even 6000 B.C.15
Although the physical type of the Tasians has not yet been fully de-
scribed, Brunton's preliminary notice informs us that the few skulls as yet
found are large, thick-walled, and strong in muscle relief, with heavy
browridges. The cranial form, while prevailingly dolichocephalic, in-
cludes some brachycephals.16 The faces are broad, the orbits square, the
lower jaws deep, wide, and square, with flaring gonial angles and pro-
jecting, bilateral chins. Judging from the drawings of one example pub-
lished by Brunton, we may deduce that they were orthognathous, and in
this case at least, mesorrhine. They seem to belong to a purely white cate-
gory, and we may hazard a guess that they represent an Upper Palaeo-
lithic strain of Afalou or Early Natufiian type, forming a link between
Algeria and Palestine. They were not, however, important in the ultimate
formation of the Egyptian people, for in subsequent times they seem, both
culturally and racially, to have disappeared.
Another early Neolithic civilization of Egypt which left no clear traces
in the dynastic culture was that of the Fayum people and the Merimdians
of the Delta, who, contemporaneously with the Tasians, and following the
Sebilians, grew barley, emmer wheat, and flax along the shores of the
Fayum Lake and the estuaries of the Delta. They also kept herds of cattle,
and especially of swine. Their technology bridges the gap between a Cap-
sian Mesolithic and a full Neolithic. Their pottery, a thick black ware
decorated by incision, resembles early ceramic types of Neolithic western
Europe and of Anatolia.
The importance of these people is that they probably represent the pro-
totype of the Neolithic agriculturalists who moved westward along the
shore of North Africa to Morocco, and over into Spain, whence they spread
the Neolithic economy, with emmer, flax, and swine, to the Swiss lakes
and to the Rhine.17 Although they may have had little importance for
Egypt, they had much for Europe. Their appearance in the Fayum and
the Delta is dated at about 5000 B.C., and their disappearance about 4000
B.C. One millennium later they or people like them appeared in western
Europe.
The skulls of these people, which consist mostly of females and infants,
15 Brunton, Guy, Antiquity, vol. 3, #12, Dec., 1929, pp. 456-457.
16 Menghin, O., Lecture at Harvard University, April 6, 1937.
17 Childe, V. G., op. «/., p. 64.
94 THE RACES OF EUROPE
are all dolichocephalic and Mediterranean. There is no trace of negroid
influence, and the skulls are said to be larger than those of predynastic
Egyptians, to be described shortly.18
After this excursion let us return to Upper Egypt, to a number of sites
close to that section of the valley in which the Tasians had previously lived,
From the type site, Badari, come the earliest skulls of a definitely Egyptian
group which have yet been discovered. These Badarians lived about
4000 B.C., after the climate had become considerably drier than it was in
Tasian times, so dry, in fact, that in many cases the skin and hair of their
dead have been naturally preserved. The skin was apparently brunet
white, while the hair was black or dark brown in color, thick, of fine
texture, and usually wavy in form.
Although the Badarians, like the Tasians and Merimdians, still hunted
and fished to enhance their larders and vary their diet, they lived primarily
by agriculture and by herding cattle and sheep. Unlike the Merimdians,
they raised no pigs. By hammering copper they were entering the transi-
tion from the Neolithic to the Metal Age. They navigated the Nile in ships,
whose shapes are revealed by pottery models, but we cannot be sure that
they sailed them. These Badarians were undoubtedly newcomers to Upper
Egypt, who displaced the Tasians and perhaps other predecessors.
It is very difficult to identify the sexes of Badarian skulls, for the type is
a delicate and feminine one, showing very little muscular development.19
For this reason, the various investigators who have measured Badarian
skulls have in no two cases agreed on their sexing, and the means vary
accordingly, but with the most extreme division, the sex ratios are still
unusually small, even for an Egyptian series.
The Badarian series is the earliest cranial sample of any numerical length
which has yet been obtained from any part of the world. It is our first
series, unified in time and place, which is ample enough to be studied by
accurate statistical methods. These show that the series is not very vari-
able, but its variability is no less than that of many modern populations.
From this Morant concludes "In the last six thousand years there appears
to have been little change in the variability of racial populations." ™
The Badarian type represents a small branch of the Mediterranean
racial group. The head is unusually high in comparison to the other di-
mensions, and the facial skeleton is in the absolute scale unusually small;
the mandible is small, narrow, and light. Its mean male bicondylar diam-
eter is the smallest known, while the bigonial diameter of 91.6 mm. is also
extremely low.
Although the Badarian type is definitely related to that of the succeed-
18 Deny, Douglas, SAWV, Jahrgang, 1932, #1-4, pp. 60-61. 20 Ibid., p. 306.
19 Morant, G. M., Biometrika, 1927, vol. 27, pp. 293-309.
THE NEOLITHIC INVASIONS 95
ing predynastic people, it is distinguished from it in a number of ways.
The Badarian skulls are more prognathous than those of their successors,
and have higher nasal indices. The nasal index is just on the line between
mesorrhiny and chamaerrhiny. In fact, while the prognathism and nose
form would suggest a negroid tendency, this cannot be established, since
the hair form is definitely not negroid.
Morant shows that the Badarian cranial type is closely similar to that of
some of the modern Christians of northern Ethiopia — who incidentally
do not show negroid characteristics in the skull — and also to the crania of
Dravidian-speaking peoples of southern India. One might add that living
Somalis show a close approximation to this physical type in most respects,
and the extremely narrow jaw in which the Badarians seem to reach a
world extreme may be duplicated among both Somalis and the inhabi-
tants of southern India. In Europe, the closest parallel to the Badarian
type is found among modern Sardinians, but this is not as close as their
relationships to other and later Egyptians.
On the basis of these racial comparisons, it seems reasonable to suggest
that this Badarian physical type may have come from the south, near the
headwaters of the Blue Nile. It may represent an early Hamitic racial
strain, which persists despite some negroid admixture in Ethiopia and
Somaliland to the present day.
The Badarian was succeeded in Upper Egypt by a sequence of cultures
which may be treated under the collective term predynastic. In predynas-
tic Egyptian times, the inhabitants of Lower Egypt, that is the region
around Memphis and the modern Cairo, were physically and culturally
distinct from those of Upper Egypt. The Egyptian writing was developed
in Lower Egypt where reeds, birds, and other natural objects typical of
that environment were incorporated into the syllabic and alphabetical
signs. In predynastic times, there were two kingdoms of Lower and of
Upper Egypt. The union of the two under Menes, around 3000 B.C.,
marks the beginning of the dynastic tradition. Predynastic times may be
considered, therefore, to have occupied most of the preceding millennium.
In Upper Egypt, the early predynastic physical type is best represented
by the series from Naqada.21 (See Appendix I, col. 6.) The Naqada peo-
ple, although they resembled the Badarians in many respects, yet differed
from them sufficiently in others to assure us that these were two popula-
tions of separate though related origins. The Naqada people were fairly
tall, with a mean stature of 167.5 cm. for eighty males. They were prob-
ably taller than the Badarians, although we have no definite data on Bada-
rian stature. Both heads and faces were wider and larger than those of
the Badarians; the noses were narrower, and there was less prognathism.
21 Morant, G. M., Biomctrika, vol. 17, 1925, pp. 1-52.
96 THE RACES OF EUROPE
The less numerous Badarians were probably absorbed into the Naqada
population, though there is no direct evidence to confirm this assumption.
In Lower Egypt lived another group of Mediterranean predynastic
people who differed from the Upper Egyptians in certain noticeable ways.
The heads were broader, the cranial indices higher, reaching a mean of
75, whereas the Upper Egyptian mean is nearly 72. The vault height is
less, the face is no broader, but somewhat longer, and the nasal index is
lower.
The two types from Upper and Lower Egypt represent the extremes of
a purely native Egyptian population, but from the beginning of dynastic
times, around 3000 B.C. until Ptolemaic times, the numerous series which
give an excellent picture of the progress of racial continuity and change in
Egypt show the interactions of these two types. The racial history of Egypt
in the course of three thousand years was simply the gradual replacement
of the Upper Egyptian type by that of Lower Egypt.22 (See Appendix I,
cols. 7, 8.) As one looks at the tables from century to century, one sees that
the crania increased gradually in breadth from 131 to 139 mm., and the
faces from 124 to 129 mm. Ancient Egypt must remain the most outstand-
ing example yet known in the world of an important, naturally isolated
region in which native racial types were permitted to develop their own way
for several thousand years completely uninfluenced by foreign contacts.
Modern Copts, who probably represent the ancient Egyptian type more
faithfully than the Moslem population, have diverged from the earlier
types only in a reduction of the skull length from about 183 mm. to
177 mm. Therefore, evolutionary change in Egypt consisted entirely of a
slight reduction of head length, and in places of a lengthening of the face,
and a narrowing of the nose; but the change has not been notable.
Changes in physical type in any part of Europe within the last five hundred
years have been much greater than in Egypt during five thousand.
The wealth of contemporary illustrative material from Egyptian art
sources may be divided into two classes, conventional representations and
portraits. The former show a definite and well-recognized type; slender-
bodied and wiry, with narrow hips and small hands and feet. The head
and face are those of a smoothly contoured fine Mediterranean form.
The portraits, on the other hand, show two things in particular: that
there -was considerable individual variation in bodily build as in head and
face form within the dolichocephalic and mesocephalic range, and that
many of the officials, courtiers, and priests, representing the upper class
of Egyptian society but not the royalty, looked strikingly like modern
Europeans, especially long-headed ones. This is due perhaps to the fact
that the Egyptian nose was not typically high rooted, like those of the
22 Morant, op. at., 1925.
THE NEOLITHIC INVASIONS
97
FACIAL TYPES IN DYNASTIC EGYPTIAN ART
FIG. 22
FIG. 23
FIG. 24 FIG. 25
Fig, 22, portrait head of a man, in green slate, in Agyptisches Museum, Berlin; after
anon., The Art of Ancient Egypt, Phaidon Press, Vienna, 1936, Plate 166. Fig. 23, portrait
of Rahotep, Cairo Museum, after Schafer, H., and Andrae, W., Die Kunst des alten Orients >
1925, p. 222. Fig. 24, plaster mask from workshop of the sculptor Thutmosis, Statlisches
Museum, Berlin. Schafer and Andrae, p. 339. Fig. 25, statue in possession of the Earl
of Carnavon, Frontispiece, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology > vol. 7, 1917.
98 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Mesopotamians as depicted in their art; and also, perhaps, because the
portraiture, at least of the men, shows a greater angularity of line and form
than do the conventional representations.
There may also have been some distinction of type in the royal families,
for the rulers often have that extremely dolichocephalic head form,
coupled with a sloping forehead and high nasal aquilinity, with highly
excavated nostrils, seen so typically in the familiar mummy of Rameses III,
as in the living emperor of Ethiopia, Hailie Selassie. This strain may well
have been derived in most ancient times from the headwaters of the Nile.
The pigmentation of the Egyptians was usually a brunet white; in the
conventional figures the men are represented as red, the women often as
lighter, and even white. Although the hair is almost inevitably black or
dark brown, and the eyes brown, Queen Hetep-Heres II, of the Fourth
Dynasty, the daughter of Cheops, the builder of the great pyramid, is
shown in the colored bas reliefs of her tomb to have been a definite blond.
Her hair is painted a bright yellow stippled with fine red horizontal
lines,23 and her skin is white. This is the earliest known evidence of blond-
ism in the world. Later Egyptian reliefs, however, frequently represented
Libyans as blond,24 and in early Egyptian times, the territory of the
Libyans extended to the Delta itself. The Egyptian representation of
foreigners is quite accurate; besides the Libyans, who have Nordic features
as well as coloring, Asiatics, with prominent noses and curly hair, sea
peoples from the Mediterranean, with lighter skins and a more pronounced
facial relief than the Egyptians, are also shown, as well as negroes.
The blondism of Hetep-Heres II apparently belonged to the Delta and
to the connections outside to east or west, rather than to Egypt proper, for
it never recurred as an important or characteristic Egyptian trait. The
Mediterranean pigmentation of the Egyptians has probably not greatly
changed during the last five thousand years.
(5) NEOLITHIC NORTH AFRICA
In view of the importance of North Africa as one of the two main cor-
ridors of Neolithic diffusion into Europe, it is extremely disappointing that
in it very few human remains of this cultural period have been found. A
handful of skulls from Redeyef and Tebessa, near the border between
Algeria and Tunisia, are the only surely Neolithic ones that have been
described.26 These are all of the small-statured, thin-boned, small-headed,
dolicho- to low mesocephalic variety of Mediterranean already seen at
Muge; smaller, on the whole, than most of tile early Egyptians, and
2' Reisner, G. A., BBMF, vol. 25, #151, October, 1927, pp. 64-79.
84 Bates, O., The Eastern Libyans.
25 Bertholon and Chantre, Rec her ekes anthropologiques dans la Berberie Oriental*, pp. 237-
242.
THE NEOLITHIC INVASIONS 99
shorter-headed than the small Badarians. They cannot be derived directly
from Egypt proper, nor from any known population of the Delta, if the few
Merimdian skeletons already mentioned may be considered typical of that
region. This small and geographically limited group is a local form of
Mediterranean of the same variety which, at a presumably earlier date, had
crossed the Straits into the Iberian Peninsula.
Other remains, found in caves in eastern Algeria,26 are likewise small
in absolute body size, having a mean stature of approximately 160 cm.,
but resemble the type of T6viec rather than that of Muge. They may be
attenuated Afalou survivors, but cannot with certainty be ascribed to the
Neolithic. Many, if not all, may be Mesolithic in date.27
The megalithic cultural complex, borne through the Mediterranean by
sea in the Late Neolithic, and spreading northward past Gibraltar to the
British Isles, France, and Scandinavia, reached the North African shores.
But in this minor theater of megalithic activities the stone monuments,
which do not occur east of Tunisia, may have been first erected in post-
Neolithic times, since most of them contain objects of bronze, or even of
iron. They were, in fact, occasionally used as burial vaults through Roman
times, and right up until the arrival of the Moslems. Under these circum-
stances we cannot expect to find a purely megalithic race in the Tunisian
and Algerian dolmens M and, to a certain extent, the material lives up to
expectations. Although the cranial indices, in some thirty specimens,
ranges from 67 to 84, the majority of the skulls are dolichocephalic, and
some of them are extremely long, while most of them are leptorrhine,
unlike the broader-nosed ordinary Mediterranean crania of the Neolithic.
Furthermore, the stature of the dolmen people is tall, with a male mean of
about 168 cm.29 Unless these are the skeletons of Hamites or Arabs, we
may infer that the megalith builders were not the small Mediterraneans
proper of Mesolithic tradition, but a new ethnic element which we shall
be able to study more profitably when we find it in greater numbers farther
to the north.
(6) THE NEOLITHIC IN SPAIN AND PORTUGAL
It is not easy, from a distance, to collect and review the evidence for the
Neolithic population of the Iberian Peninsula. I have been able to assem-
ble data on some fifty crania from Spain, and nine from Portugal, which
seem, with reasonable certainty, to be of Neolithic age.80
26 Ibid., pp. 240-242.
27 Boule, M., Verneau, R., Vallois, H., AIPH, Mem. 13, p. 190.
28 There are very few in Morocco, and nothing is known of their skeletal contents.
29 Bertholon and Chantre, op. cit.t pp. 243-249.
80 Scheldt, W., in his Die Rassen der jungeren Stein&U in N. W. Europa, pp. 87-92, ac-
cepted but 38, besides the 68 early Bronze Age crania from el Argar. Gzortkower, S.,
the author of another compilation (PAn, vol. 8, 1934, pp. 45-52), used 118 from Spain,
100 THE RACES OF EUROPE
The Portuguese specimens, all from the Tagus Valley, can all be classi-
fied as Mediterranean. They include, however, not only the small Muge
type, but others with larger skulls and taller stature, as high as 168 cm.
in the case of one male.31
The Spanish material is best represented by two series, the first from the
cave of La Solana at Angostura, Segovia 82 (see Appendix I, col. 9), and
the second from the cave of Ticuso at Sepulveda, in the same province.33
Both of these series were originally called Magdalenian, but the presence
of pottery and polished celts in the Solana cave, and of trephination at
Ticuso, leave little doubt that both are really Neolithic.
The Solana series, which includes ten males and four females, repre-
sents a relatively large Mediterranean type, which may be nearly duplicated
in the Egyptian series from the royal tombs at Abydos 34 arid would also fit
metrically into a Mesopotamian Eurafrican type group. Morphologically,
the crania are relatively heavy, with moderately large supraorbitals.
The second series, that of Ticuso (see Appendix I, col. 10), includes
fourteen male and seven female crania. These are somewhat smaller and
more delicately formed than the Solana series, and resemble metrically the
Naqada predynastic skulls from Upper Egypt. Smaller series and single
skulls from other parts of Spain usually fall into this same category.
The human remains which represent the Neolithic period in Por-
tugal and Spain, therefore, incomplete as they are, corroborate the
evidence of archaeology. The Iberian Peninsula was a corridor of
movements into western Europe from North Africa, and two types, at
least, made use of this passageway — a small variety of Mediterra-
nean, somewhat larger than the Mesolithic people of Muge, but bas-
ically the same, and identical with the people who moved into the upper
valley of the Nile in predynastic times; and a somewhat larger, heavier
sub-division of the same race, similar to Neolithic man in western
Asia, and perhaps to the early farmers of the Egyptian Delta. To
what extent these two types included local Mesolithic survivors it is im-
possible to tell.
which probably include el Argar. When these are subtracted his list attains exactly the
same size as mine.
81 Barros e Cunha, J.-G. D., ACIA, 3me Session, Amsterdam, 1927, pp. 358-360.
Herve", G., REAP, vol. 9, 1899, pp. 265-280.
Mendes-Correa, A., BAC, vol. 3, 1925, pp. 117-146.
Herv6 states (p. 274) that the series includes a few brachycephals, but the published
data do not support this.
» Barras de Aragon, F. de las, AMSE, vol. 12, 1933, Cuad. 1, pp. 90-123; Verneau,
RDAP, 1886, ser. 3, vol. 1, pp. 10-24.
^Hoyos Sainz, L., CRCA, 14me Sess., Geneva, 1912, vol. 2, pp. 399-408; Barras
de Aragon, ibid.
** Morant, op. cit., 1925.
THE NEOLITHIC INVASIONS 101
(7) THE EASTERN SOURCE AREAS: SOUTH, CENTRAL,
AND NORTH
North of the Pyrenees, the Neolithic population of Europe was im-
mediately derived not only from Africa, but also from the east. In order
to understand the racial complications of trans-Pyrenean Europe in the
Neolithic, we must converge from a different quarter. The eastern source
areas, and their possible routes into Europe, may be divided into three:
(a) Crete and the Aegean Islands, thence by sea to Greece, and to Italy,
and from Greece, northward by land into Macedonia, (b) From Anatolia
over the Bosporus into the Balkans, and thence up the Vardar and down
the Morava into the Danube above the Iron Gates, (c) Around the north-
ern shore of the Black Sea, and perhaps of the Caspian Sea as well, then
the steppes of southern Russia into the plains which reach through Poland
to Germany, and into the Danube Valley.
(a) Our knowledge of the physical type in Greece during the Neolithic
is confined to one small, narrow, female skull of Mediterranean type, from
Arcadia,35 which, as we shall soon see, is perfectly consistent with the
racial picture farther north, although it is not very likely 36 that racial
movements passed northward from this quarter at that time. Crete, whose
civilization was rooted in the Neolithic, is unknown racially until the
Bronze Age.
The Neolithic inhabitants of Italy probably came from the east in large
measure by sea, although some may have entered from other directions, as
from North Africa by way of Malta and Sicily, around the Tyrrhenian
Sea from Catalonia, and down over the Alps from the north.
It is also very likely that Mesolithic types, containing an earlier Palaeo-
lithic increment, survived in Italy into the Neolithic, for, until the arrival
Df metal, Italy and its islands formed an area of relative isolation from the
main racial and cultural currents which affected Europe as a whole.
Although Aeneolithic or Copper Age skeletons from Italy are abundant,
those dating from Neolithic time are rare.37 All that have been found 38
(51) are long-headed, and of Mediterranean type. Three skulls from the
Ligurian cave of Arena Candide which are very large and of great length,
may represent, at least in part, an Upper Palaeolithic survival of Early
Aurignacian type, or an invasion of the tall Mediterranean type usually
identified with the megalith-builders. It will be more profitable, however,
to defer the study of racial types in early Italy and her islands until our
discussion of the Copper and Bronze Age population, when we shall have
something more definite and extensive with which to work.
86 Fiirst, Carl M., LUA, NF. Avd 2, Bd. 28, #13, 1932.
MFewkes, V. J., Goldman, H., Ehrich, R. W., BASF, #9, 1933, p. 18.
87 Sergi, G., Europa, pp. 270-289.
88 With the exception of one microcephalic skull, op. cit., p. 279.
102 THE RACES OF EUROPE
(b) The second eastern source area from which Neolithic invaders
may have entered Europe is that of the Anatolian plateau — to what ex-
tent the Danubian peasants were derived from these highlands is a matter
of dispute among archaeologists which we shall do well not to enter. At
any rate, no Neolithic skeletal remains have yet been found there, and the
metal period sites which have been studied are later than those in Mesopo-
tamia. Farther east, at a site called Zizernakaberd in Armenia, the brain
case of a tall man (172 cm.) with apparently Upper Palaeolithic affinities,
resembling Murzak Koba, may have been buried in the earliest Neo-
lithic time.89 This one specimen from Armenia is small evidence, and we
still do not know what kind of people lived in Anatolia at the time when
the first farmers pioneered up the valley of the Danube.
(c) The third eastern source area, and perhaps the most important of
the three in the total peopling of Europe in the Neolithic and later, is the
grassy plain extending from Poland across Ukraine and Bessarabia, north
of the Black Sea and Caucasus, across to the Caspian, and beyond into
Turkestan. Here the evidence of Neolithic man is considerably better than
in the other two.
On the eastern side of the Caspian, near the modern border between
Russian territory and Iran, are the three famous Kurgans, or mounds, of
Anau. The earliest cultural horizon found in this site, Anau I of the north
mound, probably dates from 3500 to 3000 B.C., on a conservative estimate.
This level, which is largely but not purely Neolithic, contained a number
of human skeletons,40 most of which were those of children.
All of the children were dolichocephalic, and apparently of Mediter-
ranean type. One adult female, found with them, was the same. She was
mesocephalic, with a cranial index of 76, and her skull shows a minimum
of bony relief. The forehead projects forward, the glabella is almost absent,
the nasal root high, and the nasal profile apparently straight; the orbits
are mesoconch, and the facial bones delicate.
Another adult, in this case a male, is represented by a mandible and
certain facial bones below nasion. Again a Mediterranean type is indi-
cated, orthognathous, with a strong lower jaw, and a small nose which was
moderately leptorrhine. This specimen, the female, and the children, al-
though hardly a series, are sufficient to show us that this southwestern
corner of Turkestan was inhabited by agricultural, animal-breeding,
» Vishnevsky, B. N., MAGW, vol. 64, 1934, pp. 102-111.
40 Moliison, T., "Some Human Rernains Found in the North Kurgan, Anau," in
Pumpelly, R., Explorations in Turkestan, vol. 2, pp. 449-463.
Sergi, G., "Description of Some Skulls from the North Kurgan, Anau," ibid., pp. 445-
448; ASRA, #13, 1917, pp. 305-321.
Warner, Langdon, "Report on Skeletons Excavated at Anau," in Pumpelly, R.,
op. cit., p. 484.
THE NEOLITHIC INVASIONS 103
pottery-making people of general Mediterranean type in the second half of
the fourth millennium B.C., as early as the predynastic period in Mesopo-
tamia.
Long bones from the following level in the North Kurgan show varia-
tions in stature — with two males at 170 and 161 cm., respectively, and a
female at 149 cm.
A post-Neolithic skull from the South Kurgan, probably of the third
millennium, is, like the others, dolichocephalic. It has a low, sharply
curved forehead, no browridges, small zygomatic arches, and apparently
considerable prognathism; 41 but an exact racial diagnosis of it cannot be
made.
Returning to the Neolithic material, we may be sure that it all belongs
to some branch of the Mediterranean race, but, with the present evidence,
which does not contain a single complete adult male specimen, we cannot
hope to distinguish the skeletal sub-variety.
In the grasslands of European Russia, south of the forest belt, a racial
continuity with Anau extends westward into the Ukraine. One of the
earliest sites which show this connection is located at Mariupol near the
mouth of the Kalmins River on the shore of the Sea of Azov.42 Here, an
unstated number of skeletons, lying in rows and covered with red ochre,
was found in association with apparently Early Neolithic implements, and
a quantity of bone, shell, and tusk objects. Although the typology of the
artefacts is early, we do not know the date, but the absence of pottery
would presumably argue against a late assignment.
No measurements of these skeletons have been published, but the de-
scription is sufficient to show that a Mediterranean type, perhaps similar
to that found at Anau, is probably involved. The stature was "slightly
above the medium height of today," 43 which would place it in the upper
160's; the bones of the extremities are elongated, the hands narrow and
long. The skulls are small, and in all cases dolicho- or mesocephalic.
Neolithic crania from southwestern Russia and the adjacent segment
of Poland are not numerous, but are clearly differentiated racially.44 They
belong to two types; a high-vaulted, moderately broad-nosed dolicho- to
mesocephal, associated with short stature, 160 cm. or less, in the males.
This type, which carries the Anau form to the west, is the most numerous,
41 From a poorly oriented photograph given Sergi by Pumpelly and published by the
former, without measurements. Sergi, G., ASRA, vol. 13, 1907, pp. 305-321.
42 Makarenko, N., ESA, vol. 9, 1934, pp. 135-153.
«/*«/., p. 140.
44 Bogdanov, A. P., AAM, vol. 3, 1879, part 1, p. 305.
Gzarnowski, S. J., Swiatowit, vol. 3, 1901, pp. 75-84.
Levit'kyj, I., AntrM, vol. 2, 1928, pp. 192-222; ZVAK, vol. 1, 1930, pp. 159-178.
Sailer, K., AAnz, vol. 2, 1925, pp. 26-46.
Zabrowski, S,, BMSA, ser. 5, vol. 2, 1901, pp. 640-666.
104 THE RACES OF EUROPE
and is centered in the Volhyn district of the Ukraine. With it, in the Late
Neolithic Fatjanovo culture, are associated a few brachycephals which,
except for head form, differ little from the rest. This "Danubian" type is
not basically different from some of the Lower Egyptian and Delta groups.
The second type, commonest in Late Neolithic cemeteries of the Kiev
government, is of the tall (stature = 171-1 72 cm.), hyperdolichocephalic
variety, usually leptorrhine and high-vaulted, which we have called
" Corded." Crania of this variety are actually few in number, and prob-
ably Late Neolithic in date. Metrically, they resemble the earliest Sume-
rian skulls at el Ubaid.
Sergi, on a visit to Moscow some thirty years ago, measured over
seventy male " Kurgan" crania from southern Russia, dating from all
periods from the Neolithic to the pre-Christian Iron Age. These, selected
as "Mediterraneans," 45 conform to the two types mentioned above. The
main group, the smaller variety, fits our "Danubian" type, the larger,
the "Corded." In general, the metrical deviation of the total group from
Mesopotamian figures is not great.
The result of this south Russian inquiry leads to several cumulative if
tentative conclusions:
(1) During the Neolithic, all known avenues of approach to Europe,
from Gibraltar to the southern limit of the Russian forest, show only
variants of Mediterranean or Galley Hill man. The Neolithic culture
with its food-producing economy, and the Mediterranean race, are, as
Sergi said, inseparably linked.
(2) The special "Mediterranean" form, which had apparently brought
agriculture to the countries north of the Iranian plateau and Black Sea,
was not unlike others found in more southerly regions in which Old
World agriculture is supposed to have originated.
(3) The tall, hyperdolichocephalic high-vaulted variant of the basic
Galley Hill stock, elsewhere to appear as the Corded people, was present,
at least by the Late Neolithic, in southern Russia.
(8) THE DANUBIAN CULTURE BEARERS
One of the most striking events of the Neolithic period in Europe was
the gradual migration of farmers up the Danube Valley into central
Europe. These new settlers stayed fairly close to the banks of the river
and its tributaries, farming on patches of loess where the land would not
need to be cleared by the axe. Southern Hungary, Moravia, Bohemia,
and Silesia were areas which they found especially favorable, and in which
they settled in greatest numbers. As they moved to the west, they finally
45 Sergi, G., Europa, pp. 309-316. In Sergi's own words, Eurafrican. This term has
since taken on a narrower meaning in the hands of Mesopotamian archaeologists.
THE NEOLITHIC INVASIONS 105
reached southern Bavaria, Baden, and the north of France, especially
the Paris basin. From southern Germany onward, they encountered the
descendants of the Neolithic people who had entered by way of Gibraltar.
The river valleys which the Danubians occupied must have been rela-
tively free of people; Mesolithic remains in the eastern and middle Danube
Valley are very scarce, if not entirely absent. 46 We may therefore expect
the remains of the Danubian immigrants to exhibit, without particular
alteration, the physical characteristics of the population or populations
from which they originated.
Danubian chronology is based on pottery types, particularly on tech-
niques of decoration; the earliest Danubian, Period I, is typified by in-
cised pottery with banded decoration, while the second and third periods
mark the common use of painted pottery. The agriculture of the Danu-
bians was a hoe-culture, for the characteristic tool is a hoe blade of flint,
called a "shoe-last celt." Their domestic animals included the ox, sheep,
and pig.
It is one of the problems which face the archaeologist in the future to
discover the point of origin of Danubian pottery. Incised black ware, of
the banded variety, undoubtedly came from somewhere to the east; from
the country north of the Black Sea, or from Anatolia, whence it may have
been influenced by the same source which produced the Merimdian of
the Egyptian Delta. In this case, the two movements, the Danubian and
that which passed over Gibraltar, may have come from a single original
source in western Asia, and have moved into Europe from two different
directions, converging in Switzerland, southern Germany, and France.
The painted pottery, on the other hand, shows definite Asiatic simi-
larities; there was painted pottery in Iraq in the earliest known cultures;
Anatolia contains some varieties of it; the Iranian plateau is said to be
full of it; there is painted pottery at Anau in Turkestan; and painted
pottery penetrated early into Kansu in China. Despite these occurrences,
we do not yet know by which route or routes it entered Europe from the
east. It may have come across the Bosporus, around the Black Sea, or
from both quarters. Again, it may have travelled, farther east, either
north or south of the Caspian.
The physical evidence at hand will hardly settle the problem of Danu-
bian origins, although it will, in a fragmentary manner, dispel a number of
unfounded hypotheses. In the material used in the present survey, seven-
teen male crania associated with banded pottery,47 and seven associated
"Fewkes, V. J., Goldman, H., Ehrich, R. W., BASF, #9, 1933, pp. 17-32. Also,
personal communication of Dr. V. J. Fewkes.
*7 Bayer, J., MAGW, vol. 51, 1921, pp. 46-47.
Lebzelter, V., MAGW, vol. 66, 1936, pp. 14-15; ibid., "Sitzungberichte," p. 16.
Reche, O., AFA, vol. 35, 1908, pp. 232-237.
106 THE RACES OF EUROPE
with painted,48 are all that can without doubt be attributed to the Danu-
bian Neolithic^ These may be supplemented by a smaller female series.
The two series, Banded and Painted, are so close to each other anthropo-
metrically that they may readily be pooled (see Appendix I, col. 11). Their
type is a familiar one — a small Mediterranean, with cephalic indices
ranging from 68 to 81, and a mean of 73.6. The mean cranial length is
185.5 mm., but individually they go as high as 196 mm. The vault height,
139 mm. is elevated in comparison to the other dimensions. The faces
are short (116 mm.), and moderately narrow (130 mm.); both foreheads
and jaws (minimum frontal 96 mm., bigonial 94 mm.) are also of moderate
breadth. The orbits are low, with an orbital index mean of 80, the noses
chamaerrhine, with a nasal index mean of 55. The highest orbitted skull
has an orbital index of 91, the most leptorrhine a nasal index of 45.
Although this Danubian group is reasonably homogeneous, even with
the small numbers available it is seen to include more than one type in
the strictest sense. For example, the stature is low; Reche found a mean
of 153 cm. for eight Banded male skeletons from Jordansmuhl, and in this
small series four mesocephalic crania are associated with higher statures
than are the purely dolichocephalic ones. Some of the skulls with higher
orbits and longer vaults differ again from the majority. On the whole,
however, the group is definitely dolicho- to mesocephalic, and definitely
Mediterranean. As far as the criteria studied may be invoked, this series
is very similar to Sergi's Kurgan group from southern Russia, and may be
considered to contain the same racial elements, although the Russian mate-
rial as a whole is less homogeneous.
If we carry the comparison further, we find, again, strong resemblances
in the Spanish Neolithic, and with all of the smaller Mediterranean
groups. The Danubians undoubtedly represent another branch of the
same racial group which entered Europe from North Africa through the
southwestern avenue. Where they came from immediately before their
arrival in Europe, however, it is impossible at the moment to tell. The
Russian evidence, including that from Mariupol and Anau, leans heavily
in favor of a trans-Euxine origin, but at the same time they might have
come from Anatolia, from which we have as yet no Neolithic skeletal
evidence. It is again possible that related elements from more than one
geographical source made up the Danubian migrations.
We do not know what language the Danubians spoke, nor what was
H, A., ACAP, 1931, pp. 114-115.
Lebzelter, V., WPZ, vol. 15, 1928, pp. 35-41.
Nestor, I., BRGK, #119, 1933, p. 37.
Schiirer von Waldheim, Hella, MAGW, vols. 48-49, 1919, pp. 247-263.
Virchow, R., ZFE, vol. 22, 1890, p. 97.
Zimmerman, G., AJKS, vol. 10, 1935, pp. 227-236.
THE NEOLITHIC INVASIONS 107
the coloring of their skin, hair, and eyes. But we may surmise from the
small evidence which has been assembled that the successive waves repre-
sented did not come from racially different parent groups.
Although we cannot, from this evidence, state what racial elements
were lacking in the Danubian countries during the Neolithic, we know
that the culture bearers from the east belonged to, or included mem-
bers of, the wider Mediterranean stock, which seems everywhere to be
associated with the earliest food production; and the most important ele-
ment seems to have been a small, light boned, rather infantile Mediter-
ranean.
(9) THE CORDED OR BATTLE-AXE PEOPLE
The latter part of the Neolithic period in most of north central Europe
is marked by the appearance of an enigmatical group of people, who
decorated their pottery, while still wet, with cord impressions, and who
also placed in their graves perforated stone battle-axes suspiciously like
those of the Fatjenovo culture in southern Russia, and others in the Cau-
casus. These axes, again, have copper parallels in Sumeria. The limits
of the country overrun by the Corded people are the Vosges on the west,
the Urals on the east, the Baltic on the north, and the Dinaric Alps on the
south.49 Although these invaders were partly agricultural, their graves
contain weapons rather than hoes, and, in a few cases, bones of horses,
probably of a domestic variety.
Their r61e in the economic and political picture of Neolithic Europe
remains still in doubt. Although they were equipped for warfare, they
did not fight for the love of battle alone. The location of their burying
grounds near the sources of natural wealth, such as amber, salt, and later
of tin, shows that they were interested in easily traded commodities of
small bulk but high value. They may have been Neolithic racketeers
extorting their share from the drones, or overlords among peasants, or
merely industrious and well-armed peddjers. Whatever their calling,
whether peaceful or otherwise, they were destined to influence the later
cultures of Europe in considerable degree.
The most typical aggregation of Corded skulls comes from Silesia and
Bohemia, whence a series of twenty-nine males may be assembled.50 (See
Appendix I, col. 12.) These belong to a very definite, very distinct physical
type. The length of the vault is great, well over 190 mm. in most instances;
its breadth is slight, yielding the low mean cranial index of 71; and the
height is great, considerably exceeding the breadth. Combined with this
49 Childe, V. G., The Danube in Prehistory, pp, 145-160.
60 Rechc, O., AFA, vol. 35, 1908, pp. 232-237.
Stock^, A., AnthPr, vol. 7, 1929, pp. 65-78.
108 THE RACES OF EUROPE
exaggeratedly long, narrow, and high vault form is usually found a high,
relatively steep forehead; stronger browridges and muscular markings than
are usual with the Mediterranean types familiar to us in Egypt, Spain, and
the Danube; while the face form includes compressed zygomata, low or-
bits, and a leptorrhine nose. The face heights are probably great, and the
mandible is deep and strongly marked, although usually narrow. Unfor-
tunately, in this series, these facial descriptions are much less certain than
those of the vault, for few of the crania retain their facial segments. The
long bones are heavier and more rugged than those of the smaller Mediter-
ranean varieties, but the stature, ranging between 157 and 170 cm. in
ten male examples, reaches the unimpressive mean of 164 cm. In other
Corded series, as we shall see later, it is almost always tall.
The Corded crania are larger than any from Egypt, and are metrically
very similar to the Elmenteita skulls from East Africa— the two groups
could be combined without loss of homogeneity. In Mesopotamia, they
may be favorably compared with the three early dynastic skulls from Ur,
although they are higher vaulted than the other early groups.
There has been much discussion over the origin of the Corded people,
and many cradle-areas have been proposed. Childe, despite several ob-
jections which he himself raises, prefers to derive them from southern
Russia, where the typical cultural elements of the Corded people are
found mixed with other factors. The so-called boat-axe, the typical
battle-axe form which they used, has relatives all the way to the Caucasus
and beyond. And the horse, their use of which in the domestic form is
not fully confirmed, since the grave examples might conceivably have
been wild ones, was first tamed in Asia or in southern Russia.
On the basis of the physical evidence as well, it is likely that the Corded
people came from somewhere north or east of the Black Sea. The fully
Neolithic crania from southern Russia which we have just studied include
such a type, also seen in the midst of Sergi's Kurgan aggregation. Until
better evidence is produced from elsewhere, we are entitled to consider
southern Russia the most likely way station from which the Corded people
moved westward.
There is one cautionary remark which must be made here, and that is:
there is so far no justifiable reason for assuming that the Corded people were
Nordics. Their cranial type, as we know it, does approach one or more of
the forms which we know, in later times, to have been associated with
blondism; but it also approaches those of the Iranian plateau and of Ur,
which were probably brunet. Let us withhold judgment, therefore, upon
Corded soft parts and pigmentation, and view these remains in the more
scientific but less lively light of a skeletal type.
This Corded skeletal type is familiar also in Poland, where it is found
THE NEOLITHIC INVASIONS 109
in the graves of its associated culture; but that country also contains the
more usual Danubian type, associated with a Neolithic agricultural
economy, and a certain number of brachycephalic and other crania,
which have northern affiliations, and which will therefore be dealt with
later.51
In southern and western Germany remains of the Corded people are
again found, and in comparative abundance. In Saxony and Thuringia
they flourished especially, and apparently were more stable here than
farther east. Out of ten crania which belong to the Saxo-Thuringian
Corded culture,62 four of the seven which can be measured are meso-
cephalic, and only three dolichocephalic. In the eastern Corded group,
the highest index was 75. The three dolichocephals seem to have be-
longed to the usual type.
The statures of two of them were both 1 68 cm. The rest of the crania,
as far as one can tell, are normal Neolithic Mediterranean examples,
which might have had either a Danubian or a North African derivation,
or both. The Corded people in the west and south of Germany had
settled down, and had combined with Neolithic farmers.
Before we leave this section, let us move still farther west to Baden, to
the Early Neolithic cemetery of Altenburg.53 Here, in the center of one of
the most brachycephalic regions of Europe today, were buried four male
skeletons, the crania of which ranged from 65 to 71 in cranial indices, and
two female skulls of 77. The long bones are small, the statures short; the
skulls are delicate in appearance and purely Mediterranean — but remark-
able for the narrow vault form of the males. Six other Neolithic male
crania, from Worms, are similar.54 This evidence, while not complete,
at least shows that the Corded people, in southern and southwestern Ger-
many, were preceded by an agricultural population of the smaller Medi-
terranean variety, upon which they superimposed themselves.
(10) THE NEOLITHIC IN THE BRITISH ISLES
The next move in this geographical game is back to the extreme west
again, and to Britain. The Early Neolithic culture of the British Isles was
a peripheral echo of the movements which influenced the rest of western
51 Lcncewicz, Stanislaw, Swiatowit, vol. 10, 1912, pp. 53-64.
Rosinski, B., WArc, vol. 9, 1924-25, pp. 29-50; ACIA, 2me Session, Prague, 1929,
pp. 164-174.
Westlawawa, Eleanora, PAn, vol. 9, 1935, pp. 80-84, French r6sum6, pp. 142-143.
62 Gotze, W., JVST, vol. 24, 1936, pp. 91-100.
Heberer, G., JVST, vol. 24, 1936, pp. 82-90.
Strauch, K., MannusZ., vol. 7, 1915, pp. 249-262.
68 Miihlmann, Wm. E., ZFMA, vol. 28, 1930, pp. 244-255.
" Virchow, R., ZFE, vol. 29, 1897, p. 464.
110 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Europe. The so-called Windmill Hill culture, closely allied to the Michels-
burg expression ill southern Germany, may have been originally of either
North African or Danubian inspiration, or a blend of both. Childe, seeing
Merimdian similarities in the pottery, suggests but does not insist on the
former. At any rate, we have no valid evidence in Britain itself to indicate
the physical type of the people who brought it.55
The bulk of the Neolithic population of the British Isles seems to have
come by sea,66 with the Megalithic invasions which also passed on to
Denmark and southern Sweden. In many parts of Scotland and in Ire-
land, the Megalithic people may well have been the first bringers of the
Neolithic economy. In England, it was their custom to make primary
interments under long barrows of earth, unchambered in Yorkshire and
Derbyshire, chambered in the counties farther south.
The cranial remains of Long Barrow men, as the occupants of these
monuments are called, are abundant.67 (See Appendix I, col. 13.) Al-
though over 160 skulls represent this group, the geographical distribution
is far from even. Wiltshire, Staffordshire, and Gloucestershire account for
120; fourteen only are from Scotland, and one from Ireland. The remain-
ing thirty come from a few counties of England. Wales is unrepresented as
is most of Scotland; the few crania found in the latter country were all
buried close to the sea. The Long Barrow people, who had come by water,
selected open, unforested country to live in. A large .part of the land area
in the British Isles was, therefore, either uninhabited or open to the wan-
derings of earlier human occupants.
The Long Barrow population formed a distinct, homogeneous type;
one different from any which, to our knowledge, had previously inhab-
ited the British Isles since the days of Galley Hill; and one which cannot
be duplicated, except as an element in a mixed population, anywhere on
the western European continent. One is, therefore, led to conclude that
the Megalithic cult was not merely a complex of burial rites which dif-
56 The so-called river-bed skulls, dredged from the bottom of the Thames, are those
of low-vaulted Mediterraneans. These may include some examples from the Early Neo-
lithic, but the evidence is inconclusive. (Garson, J. G., JRAI, vol. 20, 1890, pp. 20-25.)
Three skulls from stone cists at La Motte, Jersey are similar. (Marett, R. R., Archae-
ologia, vol. 63, 1911-12, pp. 203-230. Keith, Sir A., Antiquity of Man, vol. 1, pp.
52-65.)
66 Childe, who read Chapters II to VII in manuscript before revision, comments at
this point: "I find it hard to believe that the bulk of the British population came by sea.
The Windmill Hill culture is predominant in the megalithic tombs, but arose earlier."
While Childe is undoubtedly correct as to the importance of the Windmill Hill people
culturally, there is little evidence of them in a physical sensf » This apparent contradic-
tion cannot be explained on the basis of present data. The fact that small Mediter-
raneans do appear in the living British population (see Chapter X) indicates that
Childe's observation may be well founded.
67 Morant, G. M., Biometrika, vol. 18, 1926, pp. 56-98.
THE NEOLITHIC INVASIONS 111
fused without visible carriers; and also that the bearers of this complex
avoided mixture by coming by sea.
In stature and bodily build, the Megalithic people belong to a large
variety of Mediterranean. The stature for a large number of males 58
from England ranges about a mean of 167 or 168 cm.; which is not con-
traverted by the meager evidence from Scotland and Ireland. Four male
skeletons from a single burial in Kent 69 may represent, more nearly than
most, the Windmill Hill group; they are somewhat shorter than the rest.
The Long Barrow skulls are large for a Mediterranean sub-race, but
not as large as those of the Upper Palaeolithic peoples. They are par-
ticularly long, moderately narrow, and of medium height. Unlike that of
the Corded skulls, the height is less than the breadth. In most instances,
the occiput projects far to the rear; the parietals are parallel; the forehead
is moderately sloping, and, in contrast to the restricted skull width, very
straight and broad.
The face is of medium length and of moderate width; the orbits are of
medium dimensions, and in many instances slope downward an4 outward,
as if the confines of the face were too narrow for them. The nasion depres-
sion is of medium depth, under browridges of medium development; and
the straight-profiled nose is leptorrhine. In its totality, the I^ong Barrow
type is both extreme and striking.
In looking for related populations of equal age, we may eliminate at
once the smaller, less dolichocephalic branches of the Mediterranean race
proper, including the Danubian. A few individual crania in Neolithic
Spain and Italy would qualify, but none of the series from these coun-
tries. The standard Egyptian crania, as groups, are all too small, as is
the single lady from Greece. In one particular feature, the nasal index, the
Long Barrow people resemble the Egyptians more than most of the more
northerly Mediterraneans, for the Long Barrow crania are leptorrhine.
In their extreme dolichocephaly, the Long Barrow skulls resemble the
Corded group, but the comparison does not hold for all features — the
Long Barrow skulls are slightly longer', considerably broader, and much
wider of forehead, than the Corded specimens, and, of course, the vault
of the Long Barrow skulls is much lower.60 As far as one can tell, the
88 Calculated by the Pearson formulae on femora from several series, including some
eighty-six individuals from England, of which many may be duplicates; three from
Scotland, and one from Ireland. Sources: Crania, Britamuca; Thurman, J.; Garson,
J. G.; Mortimer, J. R.; Keith and Bennett; Edwards, A. J. H., and Low, A.; Laing, S.,
and Huxley, T. H.; and Bryce.
69 Keith, Sir A., and Bennett, JRAI, vol. 43, 1910, pp. 86-100.
60 In this I am relying on Morant's mean of 135.5 tnm. for 25 male crania. Schuster
(1905) gives 137.8 mm. for 12; Garrison, 135.0 mm. for four from Howe Hill Barrow,
Yorkshire. On the other hand, 45 male crania of Thurman (1867) when seriated
« 143 mm., 59 from the Crania Britannica and Thurman = 142.1 mm.
112 THE RACES OF EUROPE
orbits in the two series are much the same, while in regard to the faces,
there is not enough evidence in the Corded group for a valid comparison.
A true and valid similarity, however, may be found between the Eng-
lish Long Barrow series and the early skulls from al 'Ubaid in Sumeria,
which, whether belonging to the fourth or third millennium B.C., are in
either case older than their British counterparts. The only difference,
which prevents identity, is that the Mesopotamian faces and noses are
somewhat longer.
The current idea that the Long Barrow people were directly derived
from the Upper Palaeolithic inhabitants of Britain is clearly erroneous.
The Long Barrow skulls are definitely smaller, shorter, and narrower than
those of the Upper Palaeolithic group, but of equal or greater height;
they have the same forehead breadth, the same upper face height, but a
smaller jaw, a much narrower face, and narrower orbits. There is prob-
ably a genetic linkage, over a long period of time, between the Long Bar-
row or Megalithic type and an early Galley Hill or Combe Capelle vari-
ety of European man, but the continuity could not, for historical reasons,
have taken place in England.
The few crania from the Scottish seashores belong to the standard Long
Barrow type, and the same may be said of the one surely Neolithic spec-
imen from Ireland — the male vault from Stoneyisland, Portumna, County
Galway.61 The male skull from Ringabella, County Cork,62 which is
perhaps also Neolithic, is likewise of Megalithic race, while the disputed
Kilgreany specimen, whatever its age, is, although low vaulted, also basi-
cally of a Galley Hill Mediterranean type.63 However, the large mandible
of the latter, and its low vault, make it atypical, so that it, like two skulls
from Phoenix Park, Dublin,64 which may be Neolithic or Early Bronze
Age, is not wholly characteristic of the Long Barrow race, and may derive
its peculiarities from either a Mesolithic or an Early Bronze Age source.
We must repeat, in view of these aberrances, that the only surely Neolithic
skull in Ireland is of Long Barrow race.
The Megalithic Long Barrow people must have come by sea, and they
probably came from somewhere in the Mediterranean. They did not
61 Martin, G. P., JSAI, vol. 64, June, 1934, pp. 87-89.
Movius, H. L., Jr., op. cit.9 vol. 65, Dec., 1935, p. 282. For dating by palaeobotany,
see Shea, S., JGAS, vol. 15, 1931, pp. 73 ff.
White, Miss J. M., INF, vol. 3, 1934, pp. 270-274.
62 Martin, G. P., in 6 Riordain, S. P., JSAI, vol. 64, June, 1934, pp. 86-87.
68 Fawcett, E., PBSS for 1928, vol. 3, #3, pp. 126-133.
Martin, G. P., as above.
Movius, H. L., Jr., as above.
Tratman, E. K., ibid., pp. 134-136.
*4Haddon, A. G., PRIA, vols. 3, 4, 1896-98, pp. 570-585. Also, Crania Britannica,
skulls 22 A and B.
THE NEOLITHIC INVASIONS 113
find the British Isles uninhabited, and their homogeneity, in a few re-
stricted localities, cannot mean that they caused the extinction of earlier
peoples. Nor did they, when still later invasions of another physical com-
plex reached the British Isles, become extinct.66 The mountains of Wales,
the hills of Cornwall and Devon, and almost the whole of Ireland, remain
a blank in our early skeletal map of the British Isles.
(11) WESTERN EUROPE AND THE ALPINE RACE
By this time we have studied all of the approaches by which Neolithic
food-producers invaded Europe, and have seen that in all known cases
these immigrants belonged to some branch of the Galley Hill stock or
wider Mediterranean race. We now come to the portions of Europe in
which the Mesolithic cultural tradition had a strong survival — as a blend
into the Neolithic economy, or as an absolute continuation. These por-
tions may be divided into three general groupings: (1) Western Europe —
that is, Switzerland, France, and Belgium; (2) Scandinavia, northern
Germany, and the eastern shores of the Baltic; (3) The forest belt which
stretches across northern Russia into Siberia. It is with the first of these
that we are immediately concerned.
Commencing with Switzerland, we find, in the so-called Lake Dwelling
culture of the Neolithic, a blending of the old with the new. The early
Lake Dwelling culture of western Switzerland, centered about Lake
Neufchatel, consists of the grafting of North African Neolithic agriculture
upon a local Mesolithic base, while that of eastern Switzerland represents
the same phenomenon to which a Danubian element may later have been
added. Toward the end of the Neolithic period, just before the introduc-
tion of metal, the Corded people invaded Switzerland from the north,
and at this time local, sectional differences were to some extent ironed
out.66
Under these circumstances, we may expect to find, in all Swiss Lake
Dwelling skeletal collections from the Early and Middle Neolithic, exam-
ples of the small Mediterranean race, representing the bringers of agri-
culture and animal husbandry to the hunting and fowling communities
of the lake shores; as well as survivors of the previous population, what-
ever, in a racial sense, they may have been.
Unfortunately, the archaeologists have yet to discover the cemeteries
in which the Lake Dwellers buried their dead; what few remains have
been found seem to have been for the most part those of persons who died
by accident, and especially of children. Schlaginhaufen states that seventy-
66 As suggested by Hooke, Beatrix, G. E., and Morant, G. M., in their article: Bio-
metrika, vol. 18, 1926, pp. 99-104.
66 Childe, The Danube in Prehistory, p. 186.
114 THE RACES OF EUROPE
three Lake Dwelling skulls, suitable for the study of the cranial index, are
known to exist, but few of these have been made available to the pro-
fession through publication. Schlaginhaufen could find but nine adult
crania with measurable faces.67
His conclusion is that in the earliest phase of the Swiss Neolithic,
brachycephals predominate; in the late stages, round and long skull
forms are about equal in number, with few intermediate forms; later, the
two blend, and there is a reinforcement of dolichocephals at the begin-
ning of the metal period. The brachycephals of the Early Neolithic were
short statured, low faced, low orbitted, and broad nosed; later, their face
form became longer and narrower, producing, by the end of the Neolithic,
disharmonic forms. The original combination of round heads with low
faces and orbits had been upset by mixture with the invading Mediter-
raneans.
One must remember that these conclusions on changes in linkage be-
tween head form and face form are presumably based on no more than
nine specimens. Five of these may be studied directly from readily avail-
able published data.68 Three of them are brachycephalic, two meso-
cephalic. The former have upper facial indices below 50, and nasal in-
dices above 50; while the latter fall on the other side in each case. In the
orbital index two of the brachycephalic crania fall below 80, and one
above it; while both of the dolichocephals are above. In these five exam-
ples, then, the round skulls have short faces, low or broad noses, and low
orbits, while the longer specimens are higher and narrower in face, orbit,
and nose form.
The dolicho- and mesocephalic Swiss Lake Dwelling crania seem to
belong without exception to some variety of small Mediterranean, such
as might have entered either from the east or the southwest, with agri-
cultural movements. The brachycephals, which are most numerous and
least mixed in the earliest levels, form the one element in the Lake Dwell-
ing racial complex which cannot be derived from known Neolithic sources,
and may, therefore, be circumstantially linked to the Mesolithic element
so important in Swiss Lake Dwelling cultures.
Besides the Lake Dwellings, with their meager supply of human re-
mains but rich yield of cultural objects which have perished elsewhere,
there are Neolithic sites of other kinds in Switzerland, including rock shel-
87 Schlaginhaufen, O., Die menschlichen Skeletr ester aus der Steinzeit des Wauwilersees.
68 Covering the following crania :
(1) Pittard, E., ASAG, vol. 7, 1935, pp. 118-122. One fjemale, Lake Neuchatel.
(2) Pittard, E., Anth, vol. 10, 1899, pp. 281-289. One female, Point, Lake Neuchatel.
(3) Schenk, A., REAP, vol. 15, 1905, pp. 389-407. One female, Lake Leman.
(4) Kollman, J., KDGA, vol. 29, 1899, p. 116. One female, Auvcrnier.
(5) Schlaginhaufen, O., op. at. One female, Greifensee.
THE NEOLITHIC INVASIONS 115
ters and cist graves. Most of these dry land burials, which were not, in
most cases at least, Lake Dwelling cemeteries, contain human remains
of Mediterranean type, although a few brachycephals have been found
in them.69
The most extensive single series is that from the cist cemetery of Cham-
blandes, with ten male and eight female skeletons.70 (See Appendix I,
col. 14.) These remains are those of small, light-boned Mediterraneans,
dolicho- to mesocephalic, mesorrhine, and shallow jawed, with very little
metrical sex differentiation. Basically, these Chamblandes people resem-
ble the smaller groups of predynastic Egyptians very closely, but are even
closer to Muge. There seems to be a perceptible negroid element in the
Chamblandes groups, which accentuates the African relationship. In
vault size and height, they do not resemble the Danubians.
The Chamblandes culture was mid-Neolithic, and probably represents
the northward intrusion of a semi-nomadic tribe or band from northern
Italy, where cist burials of the same type have been found.71 Since the
Chamblandes physical type is an excellent example of the small Mediter-
ranean race, that type must, therefore, have been prevalent in the Early
and Middle Neolithic of northern Italy. Its presence furthermore illus-
trates the complexity of ethnic movements in Neolithic Europe.
The racial prpblems exposed by the study of Neolithic man in Switzer-
land apply equally to France, which presents an even more complex
archaeological situation. Along the whole Atlantic coast, and most of all
in Brittany, dolmens and other kinds of megalithic monuments were built
in abundance. The north of France, especially the Paris Basin, formed the
westernmost reflection of the Danubian invasions from the east, through
the mixed cultures of southern Germany, but in the Paris Basin this culture
was mingled with megalithic elements, since many of the burials are in
hewn underground vaults and in dolmens.
The southeast of France contained a surviving cave culture, while the
whole eastern section of the country, in the valley of the Rh6ne and the
borders of Switzerland, was occupied by farmers with the same blend
of Mesolithic and Neolithic cultural elements which in Switzerland ap-
pear in the western Lake Dwellings. Both Dechelette and Menghin derive
the agricultural element in the French Neolithic south of the Paris Basin
from North Africa.72
Although, if one may judge by the number of finds made, France was
a densely populated country during the Neolithic, the distribution of
69 Schlaginhaufen, O., op. cit.
70Schenk, A., REAP, vol. 14, 1904, pp. 335-375.
71 Childe, The Danube in Prehistory, pp. 163, 174.
72 Dechelette, J., Manuel d'archaeologie prehistorique.
Menghin, O., Weltgeschichte der Stein^eit,
116 THE RACES OF EUROPE
people was very uneven. It is very likely that large areas, notably in the
Massif Central^ the mountain core of south-central France, where a thin
soil and granite base are inimical to agriculture, were still inhabited
throughout the Neolithic time span by scattered bands of Mesolithic
hunters and grubbers. The bulk of the population lived in the great river
valleys.
As an indication of the head form of the French Neolithic people, we
may turn to a compilation of 608 crania, out of which 43 per cent are
dolichocephalic, 38 per cent meso-, and 19 per cent brachycephalic.78
Although this distribution is not bimodal, there are at least two types
present, a long and a round one.
The long-headed type or types belong clearly to the Mediterranean
category. Although most series include brachycephalic crania, a few are
purely long headed. Some of them, such as the series from L'Homme Mort
and Loz£re 74 (see Appendix I, col. 15), are low dolichocephals, with means
of 72; these approach but do not quite approximate the British Long Bar-
row standards of size. The skulls from the corridor tomb of Vaudancourt,
Oise, are of full Long Barrow size, and the stature of the skeletons is tall.
Thus there was, apparently, here and there, a tall, large, and very long-
headed element in the French Neolithic, related to that which predom-
inated in the British Isles. It was rarely, however, pure.
The mesocephalic crania are, as a rule, larger in vault size than most
of the Mediterranean groups which we have studied, such as the Danu-
bians, the Chamblandes series, and the Mesolithic skulls from Muge. One
suspects that the mesocephaly so common among Neolithic French crania
may, in part, be due to a mixture between a Megalithic, rather than a
small Mediterranean, dolichocephalic type with brachycephals. This is
supported by the evidence of stature, for means of French Neolithic series
run to 164 and 165 cm., taller than the majority of Mediterraneans
proper.
In certain definite ways, the long-headed crania of the French Neolithic,
as a whole, show a western affiliation: the vaults are wider than they are
high, and the noses are leptorrhine or low mesorrhine. In these respects
they differ from the Danubians, as well as in size; and in the vault form,
they differ from the Corded group. These peculiarities further strengthen
the similarity between the longer and larger examples, and the British
Long Barrow type. We may conclude from this that most of the Mediter-
ranean racial element in France came from North Africa and the Mediter-
ranean, and little from central and eastern Europe.
78 Salmon, P., REAP, vol. 5, 1895, pp. 155-181. Series re-divided to agree with con-
ventional partitionment of cranial index.
74 Unpublished measurements by Mrs. Ruth Sawtelle Wallis.
THE NEOLITHIC INVASIONS 117
The geographical distribution of Neolithic crania by head form can be
partially determined from Salmon's study.76 In all, forty-one departments
are represented, covering less than half of France. Of these forty-one,
only fifteen departments, one-sixth of France, have ten or more crania
each. As far as we can tell from this fragmentary distribution, there were
two centers of high brachycephaly, one in the Auvergne region, crossing
the Rh6ne to Savoie, and fading out in the Massif Central; the second in
the north of France, from Paris over to the Meuse. The Atlantic coastal
region below Brittany, and the west central part of France, were dolicho-
cephalic strongholds during the Neolithic.
The range of indices in the French Neolithic extends from 63 to 97,
which is practically the normal range for the world. Whole groups of
over thirty skulls (as at Beaumes Chaudes), found in single caves, are
entirely long headed, showing that some purely dolichocephalic local pop-
ulations existed in Neolithic France, as they do in parts of the country
today 76 (see Appendix I, col. 16); while smaller interments contain wholly
brachycephalic clusters. Hyperbrachycephaly had already developed as
an evolutionary phenomenon, for twenty-five out of Salmon's six hundred
and eight crania have indices between 85 and 97. Others over 90 were
found in the Swiss collection. This extreme head form was not, appar-
ently, as common then as it is today.
Salmon's list luckily contains data as to mode of interment as well as
to cranial index and locality. Most of the crania come from either mega-
lithic tombs or caves. Rock shelters and caves contain the same head form
ratio as the total for France; and this is also true of the totality of mega-
lithic tombs. Brachycephalic crania are found in all kinds of interments;
there is nothing of an archaeological nature to distinguish them socially or
ethnically from the others. They were, therefore, an integral part of the
Neolithic population in all sections where they have been found. They
cannot have belonged to a separate, unified group of immigrants, but
formed rather a residual element in the total population, with a strong
genetic impulse for the perpetuation and increase of its peculiar head form,
regardless of other racial factors.
The further examination of this problem of western European brachy-
cephaly can best be pursued by a study of Belgium, which formed an
extension of the archaeological province of northern France during the
Neolithic. Most of the sites of this period come from the Ardennes hills,
from the present Walloon-speaking part of Belgium, for the swamps and
fens of the Flemish country offered little inducement to Neolithic farmers.
76 Salmon, op. cit.
76 Bonin, G. von, considers the Beaumes Chaudes series a Palaeolithic survival into
Neolithic times. HB, vol. 7, 1935, pp. 216-217.
118 THE RACES OF EUROPE
It is perhaps for this reason that Neolithic Belgians were even more
brachycephalic than their relatives in France — out of seventy skulls of
both sexes,77 one-half have cranial indices above 80. The largest series,
that of Hastiere,78 has a mean of 79.8; and a high variability.79
Among the readily available published crania one may senate eighteen
male specimens 80 for which adequate measurements have been given.
The eighteen adult male skulls divide themselves naturally into two sub-
groups, of eight and ten, respectively. The first ranges in cranial index
from 74 to 77; the second from 80 to 83. This natural division is so marked
that it would be futile to seriate the eighteen as a whole, for the mean would
fall at a point unrepresented by a single specimen. Seven female crania
which accompany this series likewise have none in the middle brackets.
The dolichocephalic group of eight male skulls belongs to a normal,
Mediterranean type, mesocephalic, and relatively low vaulted. The
brachycephals (see Appendix I, col. 17), the important group for our pres-
ent purpose, may serve, through comparison, to help elucidate the prob-
lem of western European Neolithic brachycephaly.
In Switzerland we had only a few individual crania for study; in France
the brachycephalic crania are mingled in individual series with dolicho-
cephalic ones. In the small Belgian group of ten males, however, we have
a purely brachycephalic series for comparative purposes.81
In searching for the prototype of these Neolithic Alpine skulls, one turns
naturally to the few Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic crania of brachy-
cephalic type for comparison.82 In vault diameters, the Neolithic skulls
correspond nearly to the Ofnet ones of the same sexes, but the female
examples are smaller than those from the Upper Palaeolithic. All speci-
mens, of all three periods, are low vaulted.
The Neolithic Alpine faces, insofar as we can judge, run somewhat
smaller and narrower than do most of the earlier ones; the orbits are
much the same, but the noses seem smaller in size. On the whole, the
Neolithic brachycephalic crania are less rugged and much smoother than
the earlier examples, more globular, and more infantile. The faces look,
in many cases, little different from those of the Mediterraneans which
accompany them. The stature of these brachycephals varies, but is greater
than that of the accompanying long-heads, reaching 165 or 166 cm. for
77 Including those on Salmon's list and others.
78 Salmon, 1895, 33 crania.
78 Range = 72-88, <r = 3.65.
80 Anvers, 3; Sandron, 10; Pr6alle, 4; Grotte du Docteur, Huccorgen, 1.
81 These crania come from the same series as the dolicho- dhes, Sandron and Pr£alle,
plus the Huccorgne cranium. There is no such thing as an exclusively brachycephalic
Neolithic group of any size from any one place.
«* Solutr6 #2, #5, Le Placard (1881). Solutr6 #1 and #3, and Le Placard F and B, are
high mesocephals. Among Mesolithic crania, Ofnet 1800, 1801, 1802, 1806, 1815.
THE NEOLITHIC INVASIONS 119
males in the few ascertainable instances. This correlation would favor the
Upper Palaeolithic comparison.
It is impossible, in an orderly and logical manner, to explain the pres-
ence of these ancestral Alpines during the Neolithic in Europe west of the
Alps, north of the Pyrenees, and south of the Rhine. But certain hypothe-
ses 83 merit discussion, and by elimination of lesser probabilities we may
narrow the field. The most important of these hypotheses are:
(1) The Alpine brachycephals came into the area in question during the Neolithic
period, as part of an agricultural invasion, from the east. This theory, which
has been accepted as fact by the majority of anthropologists for some
thirty or more years, may be practically ruled out. All the evidence in
existence serves to contradict it.
(2) The Alpine brachycephals came into the area in question during the Meso-
lithic, as part of a preagricultural invasion, from North Africa by way of the
Iberian Peninsula. This theory is based upon the discovery of allegedly
brachycephalic crania at Muge in Portugal. Vallois has recently shown
that the Muge crania are in reality of Mediterranean type, and that most,
if not all, of the alleged brachycephaly was due to the post-mortem de-
formation of a few skulls. Hence, in its usual form, this theory may also
be considered unlikely, although less improbable than the first.
(3) The Alpine brachycephals are Afalou type round- heads, carried up to western
Europe with the Mesolithic movements from North Africa, or from Asia by some
unknown Mesolithic movement. We have already suggested that the Ofnet
skulls might have had some such origin. But the Alpine crania are smaller,
and more globular. The faces are much smaller, though similar in propor-
tions. These differences may possibly be explained by mixture with small-
headed and short-statured Mediterraneans.
(4) The Alpine brachycephals represent a continuation of the Aurignacian brachy-
cephalic tendency found at Solutre. The Azilian culture was a blend of
Capsian and Magdalenian elements. It is possible that a brachycephalic
element from Palaeolithic France passed into this Mesolithic cultural
expression, and was carried over into the Neolithic, which retained many
Mesolithic cultural forms.
(5) The Alpine brachycephals are the result of a genetic tendency toward a globu-
lar skull form acting on a dolichocephalic group. Without reasonable doubt,
there has been a tendency toward an increase in brachycephaly in the
Alpine racial zone in modern times. We are as yet unaware of its true
cause and of its mechanism. But we cannot, for various reasons, suppose
that the Neolithic Alpines were merely brachycephalized Mediterraneans.
They were often taller, and had larger vaults, lower orbits, shorter faces,
83 The hypothesis that they were the ancestors of the Lapps serves in no direct way to
explain their origin, and will be dealt with later.
120 THE RACES OF EUROPE
and wider noses. Furthermore, the soft-parts of living representatives of
this type are distinctly un-Mediterranean.
The true answer to the question, "What is the origin of the western
European Alpines?" cannot yet be given, But we may be reasonably
certain that they are older than the Neolithic, that they may owe part, at
least, of their reduced size of vault and face to mixture with Mediter-
raneans, and that their round headedness possessed a strong genetic sur-
vival value. At the moment, the theory of an Upper Palaeolithic survival,
somewhat reduced in head and face size, seems the most reasonable.
(12) NEOLITHIC SCANDINAVIA
Let us next move to the center of the second area of maximum Meso-
lithic survival — southern Scandinavia. Here the Neolithic cultures and
techniques were late in arrival, and survived long enough to attain a
considerable complexity, flourishing long after most of the rest of Europe
was making common use of metal. The old Erteb^lle country of Denmark
and southwestern Sweden became the seat of a dense population of suc-
cessful farmers and cattle breeders, partly derived from the old fishing
and hunting stock, and partly from new immigrants who brought with
them new ways of living. This part of Scandinavia, in the Sub-Boreal
period, which followed the Litorina, and which witnessed the develop-
ment of the Neolithic, was eminently suited to agriculture and cattle
raising, for the climate was drier than at present, and four Fahrenheit
degrees warmer in mean annual temperature.84
Neolithic impulses, when they eventually reached Scandinavia, prob-
ably no earlier than 2500 B.C., came into this region from more than one
direction. It is possible that Danubian influences, transferred through
South German mediums, were felt by the Ertebjzflle moor-dwellers at the
beginning, and also that Neolithic cultural movements came directly to
Scandinavia from South Russia. However, the first movement which can
be traced with certainty was that of the Megalithic immigrants. These
came by sea from the south and west, probably for the most part from the
British Isles, although some may have come from Brittany as well. They
brought with them not only the habit of erecting impressive burial monu-
ments, but also agriculture and animal husbandry, which they may have
been the first to introduce as a basic source of food supply, although
Neolithic techniques may have come from the east and south before them.
The Megalithic invaders found a strong, settled population of fishermen
and hunters, located mostly on the coasts, who apparently did not prevent
them from establishing their farms and trading stations. The archaeo-
84 Shetelig, Falk, and Gordon, Scandinavian Archaeology, p. 53. Much of this intro-
ductory material is based on their book.
THE NEOLITHIC INVASIONS 121
logical record furthermore makes it certain that the aborigines were
neither driven out nor destroyed, but survived to form an important ele-
ment in the eventual Danish population.
The forms of the abundant megalithic monuments, in combination
with weapon types, provide a scale for Neolithic chronology. After a
tombless period characterized by round-poled axes, dolmens were built
first, followed by passage graves, under specific influence from Brittany
via Holland; and by Long Barrows brought, as a trait, from England by
sea.
In the later part of the dolmen period and the beginning of the passage
grave epoch, a new group invaded Scandinavia from the east and south-
east, probably initially attracted by the rich supply of amber in Jutland.
These were the so-called Battle-Axe people, who were simply our old
friends the Corded people under their alternate name. Their route lay
from Holstein up through Schleswig to Jutland, and only later did they
reach the Danish archipelago, and Sweden. Having come from Germany,
it is doubtful if they represented a pure Corded racial strain; this became
less pure through blending with their predecessors in Scandinavia, the
Megalithic and Kitchen-Midden peoples. The burial form of the resultant
amalgam was the stone cist, a Megalithic-Corded compromise, with the
corridor tombs and Battle-Axe single graves as prototypes.
During the entire Neolithic, almost all of Norway, as well as central and
northern Sweden, remained in a food-gathering stage of culture, although
Neolithic axes and other objects were traded to them from the south.
There can be little doubt that to. a large extent the northern hunters were
direct descendants of Mesolithic, and hence of Late Palaeolithic, man.
Many traits of their so-called Arctic culture have survived until recent
times.
Without the knowledge of Neolithic movements and continuities pro-
vided by the careful work of the Scandinavian archaeologists, and with-
out a previous study of the Neolithic racial situation in other parts of
Europe, it would be difficult to interpret the human remains from the
Danish and Swedish sites, since this is racially the most complex and most
mixed section of the continent. The concept of Scandinavia as the home
of a pure Nordic race or of any other single group during the Neolithic
is a completely false one.
The total of Neolithic skulls from Scandinavia is well over two hun-
dred; 86 of these nearly three-fourths come from Denmark. Only one repre-
85 Principal sources :
Fiirst, G. M., %ur Kraniologie der Schtvedischen Stein&it.
Nielsen, H. A., ANOH, 1905, 1911, 1915.
Retzius, A,, Crania Smcica.
122 THE RACES OF EUROPE
sents Norway, and this is a heavy-boned specimen, with strong browridges,
a mesocephalic vault, mesorrhine nose, and low orbits; apparently a par-
tial or complete Mesolithic survival.
In both the Swedish and Danish series, two main, mutually contrasting
types are found. One is a very long, quite narrow, cranium of moderate
height; with projecting occiput, parallel side walls, moderate browridges,
a moderately sloping forehead, which is usually quite broad; a moderate
upper face height coupled with a narrow breadth; mesoconch orbits of
square form sloping downward at the outer corners; and a mesorrhine or
leptorrhine nasal aperture. This type of skull, which comprises some
thirty-nine per cent of the Swedish series, and five per cent of the Danish,
was early recognized by Fiirst as a counterpart of the British Long Barrow
race, which occurs more frequently in Britain in unmixed form. In the
Danish Long Barrow tombs of purely British type, the skull form is also iden-
tically British.86 Most of the people of this type in Neolithic Scandinavia
must have come by the western sea route around Britain; some, however,
may have arrived overland from southern Russia in pre-Corded times.
This Megalithic form is not, however, the only long-headed type dis-
cernible among Scandinavian Neolithic long-heads; individual crania of
Corded type with longer faces and higher vaults are not uncommon. A
mean stature of 172 cm. for the long-headed skeletons87 shows that the
racial types involved were tall, taller than either the Long Barrow mean
from England or that of the Corded group from Silesia and Bohemia. But
this excess of stature cannot be taken to indicate a strong admixture in
this type of Palaeolithic long heads, for the dimensions of the vault are
not comparable, and the face is very narrow — as with both Megalithic and
Corded crania elsewhere.
Unfortunately, it is impossible to follow the progress of these long heads
through the different types and stages of Neolithic cultural development.
Dolmen burials and those in corridor tombs have been classed together
in Denmark — and may be contrasted with profit only with the skeletons
from the later cist graves. In both groups there has been much mixture
between long- and round-headed forms; a mean cranial index of 77 in
each case indicates an intermediate condition. Since the brachycephalic
element in each is probably the same, and apparently present in equal
quantities, we may compare the two groups with some validity. The cist-
grave crania are higher vaulted, longer and generally larger faced, and
longer nosed than the Megalithic ones. In all diverging characters, the
cist grave skulls differ from their Megalithic predecessors in a Corded di-
86 Five crania from Danish Long Barrows.
87 Pearson's formula, M ~ 172.4 cm. Nielsen's figure is 173.4cm., based on Ma-
nouvrier's tables.
THE NEOLITHIC INVASIONS 123
rection. Therefore, we are led to believe that a true Corded racial ele-
ment did play a perceptible part in the formation of the Neolithic Danish
population, and did not appear merely as sporadic individual specimens.
In Sweden, out of twenty-four male crania found in passage graves,
only one was brachycephalic; for the most part a pure Long Barrow type
is represented.88 In the later cist graves, a much stronger brachycephalic
element had entered. On the whole, the Swedish material runs more
strongly to both extremes than that from Denmark (see Appendix I,
cols. 18, 19); forty-nine per cent of the Swedish skulls are considered mix-
tures between the long- and round-headed forms; while in Denmark these
total eighty-seven per cent. In Sweden, the round heads are concentrated
in Skane, in the southwestern part of the country; in Denmark, they are
commonest on the islands of Zealand, Laaland, and Falster. The long-
heads were particularly prevalent in central Sweden and in Jutland and
the islands of Fiinen and Langeland. Brachycephaly, therefore, is centered
around the Copenhagen region, and particularly the islands, which would
naturally permit the greatest survival of people who derived their suste-
nance from the sea.
From every standpoint it seems indicated that this brachycephalic ele-
ment in the population is associated with the preagricultural midden
dwellers. Yet we know from our scanty list of Mesolithic remains that the
basic element of that time was probably a long-headed, Brunn-like Up-
per Palaeolithic European survival. Many skulls of large, square-jawed
brachycephalic type appeared toward the end of the Mesolithic or begin-
ning of the Neolithic in Denmark and northern Germany. Most of them
have been assigned, largely through caution, to the Neolithic rather than
to the preceding food-gathering period. Such are the skulls from Kiel,
from Plau, from Spandau, and numerous other sites.89
Whatever their date, they resemble the brachycephalic crania of un-
disputed Neolithic age very closely. The latter, in turn, are sufficiently
numerous for accurate racial evaluation. The Danish and Swedish brachy-
cephalic people were tall, with a mean of 168.2 cm.,90 and heavy boned.
Their skulls are large, high vaulted, and with lengths greater than those
common to most crania of equal index. The browridges are usually heavy,
the foreheads often sloping, the lambdoid region is flattened often, the
occipital region more rarely. The face is short and wide; the orbits square
and moderately low; the nasal skeleton often prominent; the nasal index
88 Furst, op. cit.
Retzius, op. cit.
88 Aichcl, O,, Der deutsche Mensch.
Clarke, J. G., The Mesolithic Age in Northern Europe.
Kossinna, Gustav, Ursprung und Verbreitung der Germanen, MannusB, #6a, 1928,
90 Pearson's formula, 170.7 cm. by Manouvrier's tables,
124 THE RACES OF EUROPE
usually leptorrhine or mesorrhine; the lower jaw heavy, wide, and angu-
lar. There seems little reason to dispute the conclusion that this type of
skull is closely related to that found at Ofnet, Bavaria, in the Mesolithic;
and that it is at least strikingly similar to the Upper Palaeolithic brachy-
cephals from Afalou bou Rummel in Algeria, to which the Ofnet crania
have already been compared. Individual Scandinavian crania can be
matched with others from Afalou.
Brachycephalic crania are not infrequent in the Neolithic graves of
central and southern Germany, in which we have already found them
mixed with long-headed varieties. The same is also true of Poland. In the
southwest, the Danish brachycephalic type, commonly given the name of
the site Borreby, is found as far from its apparent center as Belgium, where
the three crania of Sclaigneux are probably marginal representatives.91
In the absence of further knowledge, one cannot definitely state that this
brachycephalic type was the principal one of the Erteb011e kitchen-midden
period, or that it was not. But it seems most reasonable to suppose that it
was native to southern Germany during most of the Mesolithic, with ex-
tensions westward and eastward; and that at some time during the Late
Mesolithic or initial Neolithic it filtered into northern Germany and the
coastal zone from Belgium to Denmark and southern Sweden where it
survived the Megalithic and Corded invasions, and where it is still present
today.
It is interesting that in the whole stretch of the European continent in
which Neolithic invaders blended culturally with the previous Mesolithic
population, from southern France to Sweden, some form of brachycephal
should appear. This northern Borreby type is different from the Alpine of
France, Switzerland, and Belgium in a number of ways. The vaults are
higher, the orbits somewhat lower, the faces larger, the jaws heavier.
Whereas the French crania are usually globular, many of the Borreby
ones resemble modern planoccipital types in angularity of vault form.
The Borreby people, while shorter than their longer-headed companions,
were quite tall; the Alpines, frequently taller than theirs, were shorter
than the northern brachycephals. One is tempted to interpret the differ-
ence partly in terms of the types with which each mixed; a Megalithic and
Corded mixture with an Upper Palaeolithic brachycephalic type would
have a quite different result from that of a Danubian or Spanish small
Mediterranean strain with the latter. In either case, we still may ask:
What became of the long-headed Palaeolithic element which accompanied
the brachycephals both in western Europe and northern Africa?
But this problem is far from solution; we have established the presence
* Virchow, R., AFA, vol. 6, 1873, pp. 85-118. In Virchow's article skull #3 is the
subject of a misprint. The length should read 175 mm., the breadth 151 mm.
THE NEOLITHIC INVASIONS 125
of brachycephals in the earliest Neolithic horizons in various parts of
western Europe, in each case in connection with a strong Mesolithic cul-
tural survival. We must await further evidence from the mysterious
Mesolithic for an answer.
(13) NEOLITHIC INHABITANTS OF THE NORTHERN FORESTS
From the Baltic to the Urals stretches a belt of forests and swamps,
crossed by many rivers, which long formed a shelter for primitive hunters
and fishers, while the steppes to the south were overrun by successive
groups of farmers and pastoral nomads from the earliest Neolithic until
modern historical times. This northern cultural backwater forms environ-
mentally a westward extension of the vast Siberian expanse of tundra and
taiga; since early pre-Slavic days it has been the home of various tribes of
Finns, some of whom once led, on European soil, a life much like that of
the Siberian Ostiaks and Voguls of recent centuries.
In the Neolithic time-expanse, in the general European sense, the in-
habitants of these forests lived by hunting and stream-fishing, in a manner
reminiscent of their Maglemose predecessors. A few cultural innovations
filtered northward from the agricultural lands, and among these was pot-
tery, decorated by comb-impressions and other characteristic marks which
render it easy to identify. Within the last few years there has been much
discussion about this combed pottery, for it has been found in a more or
less continuous band from Finland across Russia into Siberia, and then
again at various points across the northern forest region of North America
to the Atlantic. A school is rapidly forming which believes that this type
is circumpolar and boreal, non-agricultural, and associated with the
hunting and fishing peoples of the entire north. An impressive roster of
archaeological authorities, including Kossina, Ailio, and Childe, believes
that in Europe it was associated with an early Finno-Ugrian forest people,
the direct ancestors of the various Finnish groups of today.92
The skeletal evidence from the Neolithic of this forest belt, while not
abundant, is sufficient to show that racial uniformity did not characterize
this widespread cultural province. Fifteen crania from the Neolithic of
the shores of Lake Ladoga 93 are almost equally divided into two types; a
normal South Russian dolichocephal, presumably of the extreme long-
headed type, with narrow face and nose; and a mesocephal which does
indeed have a Finnish appearance in the modern sense. Skulls of the latter
type are characterized by low orbits, short, broad noses, and wide faces,
which as individual examples exceed the accompanying brain case in
width. This face and head form bears a certain Cr6-Magnon-like
92 Childe, V. G.} "Adaptation to the Postglacial forest on the North Eurasiatic Plain,"
in McCurdy, G. G., Early Man.
* Bogdanov, A. P., 1882; from Sailer, K., AAnz, 1925.
126 THE RACES OF EUROPE
implication, and may indeed indicate descent from some eastern Upper
Palaeolithic form as yet undiscovered.
At Salis Roje, in Livonia on the Gulf of Riga, another collection of
thirty-one Neolithic crania is even more varied.94 This includes not only
the types present at Lake Ladoga, but also a short-statured, brachycephalic
form, with a long face, slight prognathism, high orbits, and a broad nose.
Morphologically, there is said to be a mongoloid appearance to these
crania. This adds, therefore, a third element to the northern forest popu-
lation during the Neolithic.
Farther to the east, at Volosovo on the bank of the Oka River, a sub-
brachycephalic skull from the same cultural horizon would apparently fit
into the Finn-like Ladogan category.95 Across the Urals in Siberia, the
essentially European character of the Comb-Pottery people comes grad-
ually to an end. A female skull from Bazaiha 96 in the Krasnoyarsk district
resembles the Salis Roje brachycephalic type, but has a narrow, prominent
nose. This specimen has been likened to a form typical of modern Turko-
Tartar women. Farther to the east, one encounters a hyperbrachyce-
phalic, fully mongoloid skull from Kokui on the Transbaikal railroad,97 and
beyond that the extensive and carefully studied Neolithic series from Lake
Baikal, the main type of which Debetz finds identical with the crania of
modern Tungus.98
In summarizing this material, we shall not dispute the opinion of the
archaeologists who have concerned themselves with this special field that
the participants in the comb-ceramic hunting and fishing culture of
northern Russia and the forests to either side were the cultural ancestors
of some, at least, of the modern Finno-Ugrian-speaking peoples. But the
racial aspect of the problem is far from simple; at least three elements were
present; an extremely long-headed Mediterranean form with southern
connections; a Cr6-Magnon-like broad-faced, low-orbitted mesocephal,
filling most closely the requirements of an ideal modern Finnish type; and
a small-statured brachycephal with a long face and high orbits, which in
some instances is at least partly mongoloid. As will be seen later, the sub-
brachycephalic element in the Danubian population was probably related
to these non-Mediterranean forest types.
(14) CONCLUSIONS
The survey of the white race during Neolithic times, which has required
the wholesale examination of a large number of skeletal remains and their
* Virchow, R., ZFE, vol. 9, 1877, p. 412. Also, Sailer, KV} AAnz, 1925.
96 Pavlov, A., RAJ, vol. 16, 1927, p. 56. See also Ouvarov, A. S., Archaeologie de la
Russie.
wDus, AF, vol. 1, 1923, pp. 72-78. Also, Sailer, K., AAnz, 1925.
wDus, ibid. Sailer, ibid. M Debetz, G,, RAJ, vol. 19, 1930, pp. 7-50.
THE NEOLITHIC INVASIONS * 127
placing in space, time, and cultural settings, has led to a number of definite
conclusions, some of which are as final as anything can be in the present
state of physical anthropology, and others which are admittedly both
tentative and tenuous.
The Neolithic manner of living differs radically from that of Palaeolithic
and Mesolithic man, since it involves the production of food by agriculture
and animal husbandry. The plants and animals themselves are not of
European origin, but are native for the most part to western Asia. Neo-
lithic civilization had probably begun in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and pos-
sibly the Indus Valley by 5000 B.C. The people who discovered or in-
vented this control over nature probably belonged to the purely sapiens
branch of the white race in the larger sense, including a group of related
dolicho- or mesocephalic types which did not form part of the more spe-
cialized European and North African Upper Palaeolithic group, although
they were closely related to such generalized forms as Galley Hill and
Combe Capelle.
Members of this larger racial group invaded Europe from several quar-
ters, starting in the latter part of the fourth millennium B.C. Their principal
avenues of approach were from North Africa through Spain, from the
Mediterranean to western Europe by sea, across the South Russian plains,
and up the Danube Valley. The Danubian migration may have been fed
by streams from north of the Black Sea, from Anatolia by way of the
Bosporus, from southern Anatolia and points farther south and east by
way of Greece, or by some combination of these three. The exact source
or sources of the Danubian migration remain to be determined. Another
avenue was to Greece and Italy from the east by sea.
The invaders may be divided into a number of sub-types. First, there is
a basic cleavage into a short-statured, sexually undifferentiated, relatively
small-headed and frequently mesocephalic variety which fits most closely
the specifications of the Mediterranean race in the more commonly used
sense of that term. There were three groups of Neolithic culture bearers
who belonged principally if not entirely io this type: the Danubians; the
farmers and swineherds who moved westward along the fertile coastal
regions of North Africa, and over into Spain and thence northward to
France and Switzerland; and the sea-borne settlers of Italy, and probably
also of Greece. The Danubians are distinguished by a particularly high
cranial vault and high nasal index; the western branch by a lower vault
and narrower nose. To the latter class belonged also the ancient
Egyptians.
The other half of the Neolithic Mediterranean race is noted for tall
stature and a more extremely dolichocephalic skull form. This variety
was found in East Africa; it was also common in early Mesopotamia and
128 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Iran, while the Egyptians belonged more nearly to the smaller Mediter-
ranean variety. This tall, longer-headed half of the race is longer faced,
narrower nosed, and less delicate in bony structure than the other. It also
seems to fall closer to such possible prototypes as Galley Hill and Combe
Capelle from the Palaeolithic.
This tall branch is again sub-divided. One sub-branch, with moderate
vault and face heights, travelled, in all likelihood, by sea from the eastern
Mediterranean to Gibraltar, around Spain, and up to western France,
Britain, and Scandinavia. In the last two countries, and especially in the
British Isles, it contributed an important element to the population. It is
not easy to find the prototype of this Megalithic group; some of the Meso-
potamians seem to have been very close to it metrically, and some East
Africans as well; we shall later find evidence of it on the shores of the Black
Sea. For the moment we can only postulate that it came from some as yet
unidentified part of southwestern Asia, southeastern Europe, or north-
eastern Africa.
The other sub-branch, characterized by an extremely high cranial
vault and a very long face and nose, moved westward from the plains of
southern Russia and Poland into central and western Europe. The mem-
bers of this group, who were culturally associated with Corded pottery,
performed a different part in Neolithic history from that of the Danubians.
They were not peasants, but traders and presumably warriors. Their final
destinations were southern and central Germany, especially Saxony and
Thuringia, and southern Scandinavia. From a late center in the Rhine-
lands, they were destined to play an important part in subsequent metal
age prehistory.
The Neolithic population of Europe did not wholly consist of these
various invaders just described, although they perhaps made up the more
numerous element in the whole. In the western and northern fringes,
away from the gates of entry, earlier peoples of Mesolithic and even
Palaeolithic tradition remained. In Spain, Portugal, and Italy small
Mediterranean types of pre-Neolithic or Early Neolithic dating may well
have blended with the invaders in large numbers, but since the two ele-
ments would have been much the same it is impossible to determine the
proportions of each.
In France, Switzerland, and Belgium a major survival of Mesolithic
cultural factors into the Neolithic is accompanied by a large brachy-
cephalic increment, which is indubitably related to, and in some degree
ancestral to, the modern Alpine race. Farther north, from Belgium to
Sweden and particularly in the Danish archipelago, one finds, under
similar circumstances of cultural survival, a numerous brachycephalic
element, called the Borreby type, which is somewhat different from the
THE NEOLITHIC INVASIONS 129
ancestral Alpine form farther south. The northern brachycephals
were larger headed and definitely higher vaulted and wider faced; with
taller stature, heavier limb bones, and in many cases heavy browridges,
wide jaws, and low orbits. The shape of the skull is sometimes angu-
lar, while that of the Alpines is perhaps more often globular, although
this difference does not apply to all individuals and should not be over-
stressed.
Both the Alpine and the Borreby types bear strong resemblances to the
few known brachycephalic examples of Upper Palaeolithic crania. The
Borreby type in particular resembles those from Afalou bou Rummel in
Algeria. Both also resemble the Mesolithic skulls from Ofnet in Bavaria.
There can be little doubt that brachycephalic man in western Europe
was not a Neolithic importation but a Mesolithic survival. It is pos-
sible that these two types evolved from Palaeolithic man by some process
which involved the disappearance or absorption of the normal, long-
headed and numerically more important element. It is also possible
that they came into Europe during the Mesolithic from some source
or sources unknown. The Mesolithic is still so much of a blank in the
racial sense that almost any movement might have taken place without
detection.
Northern Britain, parts of Ireland, Norway, and the north of Sweden
formed an area of isolation during the entire Neolithic, into which the
ideas and products of civilization gradually and only partially seeped. We
do not know, from contemporary evidence, that Palaeolithic man of the
type already indicated in the same regions during the Mesolithic, survived
in these spots through the Neolithic, but later evidence will make that
assumption reasonable.
The forests of northern Europe east of Scandinavia were inhabited by a
hunting and fishing people who formed part of a general circumpolar
cultural group which probably extended with little technical change
across Siberia to the Pacific, and may have influenced North America.
In the European and western Siberian segment of this belt, eminent au-
thority opines on cultural grounds that the Neolithic inhabitants were the
direct ancestors of an element in the modern Finno-Ugrians physically,
although not necessarily linguistically. The skeletal remains from this
region, while few, yet reveal the presence of at least three separate types;
a presumably Corded variety of Mediterranean; a Palaeolithic-looking
mesocephal with low orbits and a wide face, which does simulate an ele-
ment common among the modern Finns; and an incipiently or partially
mongoloid brachycephal, with high orbits, a long face, and a prominent
nose, resembling certain modern central Asiatic Turks.
The racial history of Europe in the Neolithic, therefore, is a problem in
130 THE RACES OF EUROPE
the balance between new racial streams of relatively uniform type which
poured in from the south and east, and older, residual elements which sur-
vived or suffered amalgamation in the west and north. It again reveals
the marginal character of Europe in the racial as well as cultural sense,
and shows the necessity of a greater knowledge of race in Asia and in
Africa if we are to understand our own origins.
Chapter V
THE BRONZE AGE
(1) INTRODUCTION
The dividing line between the Neolithic and the age of metal is difficult
to draw and essentially artificial. Like that of any other material, the in-
troduction of copper and bronze into Europe was a gradual process. In
much of the continent the use of this new substance was first implanted
on established agricultural peoples, and for this reason it is generally sup-
posed that the Bronze Age was a period of cultural diffusion but racial
quiescence. This supposition is only a half-truth. In the areas of high
civilization, in which metal was first notably used — Mesopotamia and
Egypt — the continuity of local branches of the Mediterranean race re-
mained quite constant in these thickly settled and well-established valleys.
That this was by no means equally true of the lands to the north and west,
we shall presently see.
The Bronze Age was a period of ethnic complexity. It is a unit only in
the common use of a single metallic alloy by a number of peoples who ob-
tained the technique of producing tools, weapons, containers, and orna-
ments of this substance from the lands of earliest civilization. Within its
span occurred major shiftings of population, if not equalling, at least com-
parable to those of the Neolithic.
In the East, where bronze was early and iron late, the Bronze Age lasted
for fifteen hundred years or more. In Mesopotamia and Egypt the efflores-
cence of high civilization occurred entirely within the Age of Bronze, and
by the time that the harder metal had come in, the highest cultural levels
had long been attained, and the two valleys had lost their cultural leader-
ship.
In Europe, however, bronze furnished in many regions but a brief inter-
lude of a few hundred years between stone and iron. Only in far pe-
ripheries, as in Britain, where iron arrived tardily, did the Bronze Age
flourish long. Here, as in Mesopotamia and Egypt, it lasted nearly fifteen
hundred years; but the two equal spans barely overlapped. A Neolithic
child in Denmark might have had a Bronze Age father; similarly a Bronze
Age child in Britain might have been begotten by a lonely Kelt trained in
the use of iron and visiting the western islands before his people.
Most authors make a distinction between the Ages of Copper and of
Bronze. In both Mesopotamia and Egypt there was an experimental
131
. ,
BRONZE AGE MOVEMENTS
AND CHRONOLOGY \
INCLUDING BELL
132
MAP
133
134 THE RACES OF EUROPE
period before the use of tin as an alloy, and the determination of the proper
proportions of the two metals, were known. Copper spread northward and
westward in these early days, and many of the weapons and ornaments of
western Europe in the so-called Chalcolithic or Aeneolithic (Copper Age)
period resemble early Egyptian or Sumerian forms. The earliest copper
and bronze objects were carried to outlying and barbarous parts by
traders, and could only be obtained by those who had something to offer
in exchange. The Aeneolithic Italian or Spaniard could no more produce
a metal dagger than a modern Arab can make a machine-gun. In the full
Bronze Age, however, imported ingots were cast locally into the desired
form, and there was a smith in every village of consequence.
During the Neolithic, the farmer or herdsman could shape most of the
tools and containers which he needed from local materials. Trade was
carried on more in luxury objects such as sea-shells, than in primary neces-
sities. But during the Bronze Age, trade affected everyone, for the metal
with which ordinary tools and weapons were made came from relatively few
places. Copper came from Spain, the Carpathian region, and the Caucasus.
Tin was found in Bohemia, Cornwall, and again in Spain. Extensive trade
necessarily arose to bring the products of these mining regions together.
In order to possess bronze objects, the European peoples needed some
valuable commodity to give in exchange. In the north, this was of course
amber. The principal amber road ran from Denmark to Saxony and
Thuringia, to Bohemia, to the Inn River in Austria, and over the Brenner
Pass to the Po. The people of Bohemia acted as middle-men, buying amber
from the Danes with gold which they had obtained from Transylvania in
exchange for tin. Thus, even in the Bronze Age, European culture rested
upon a basis of interchange of local products.
This extensive trafficking in material objects must have implied con-
siderable travel on the part of a large class of merchants. Such travel neces-
sarily meant exchanges of populations in some degree. Childe believes
that the earliest Bronze Age objects made in central Europe were cast
by artisans who had emigrated from southern Russia or Asia Minor,
forming little colonies in the barbarous European villages.
The Neolithic period in most of Europe fell in a wet, warm climatic age
during which much of the continent was covered with forest, and this pro-
fusion of vegetation had hindered migrations and the development of
pastoral nomadism. During the Bronze Age, however, the Sub-Boreal
climate,1 which then prevailed, was more continental and drier; and re-
gions which had formerly been forested now became parkland, or in many
cases open steppes.
1 Much of the Neolithic of Scandinavia, where the Bronze arrived late, fell also in the
Sub-Boreal.
THE BRONZE AGE 135
In many parts of the north European plain the drought may have been
great enough to discourage agriculture and to force some peoples to rely
wholly on their flocks and herds, thus changing their habit of life from
farming to pastoral nomadism. Droughts of this kind also fostered tribal
migrations, and political disturbances in Mesopotamia and Anatolia, in
the early part of the second millennium B.C., indicate that widespread
movements of economic origin were prevalent at this time.
About the middle of the Bronze Age we find the first definite evidence
of the domestication of the horse as an animal of traction. Horse-using
nomads invaded Mesopotamia and brought about the Babylonian Dark
Age. Others, the Hyksos, appeared in Egypt, where they first conquered
the Delta, and then obtained control over the entire kingdom. In the
absence of definite information, it has been supposed that these inroads
were the indirect result of desiccation farther north, where the steppes had
become too dry for cultivation, and the erstwhile farmers had turned to
pastoral nomadism.
Although all movements on the eastern European plain were by no
means westward, we may find, in later times, significant parallels to the
Bronze Age migrations which brought the Hyksos to Egypt, the Nasili-
speakers to Asia Minor, and other barbarians to Mesopotamia. The west-
ward migrations of the Scyths, Huns, Turks, and Mongols were simply
consecutive events in a reciprocal sequence which may have commenced
long before the days of Herodotus.
All Bronze Age movements were not entirely overland, however. Metal
seekers from the eastern Mediterranean followed the megalith-builders
along their sea route from the Aegean to the Italian islands, thence to
Spain, and around Gibraltar to Britain and the north. During the Late
Bronze Age movements of peoples may be established archaeologically,
but the racial interpretation is complicated by the adoption of that un-
fortunate practice, cremation, which destroys the evidence which physical
anthropologists require.
(2) THE BRONZE AGE IN WESTERN ASIA
The age of metal began in Egypt and Mesopotamia early in the fourth
millennium B.C., and by 3000 B.C. it had spread to the Aegean and to
Anatolia. Crete probably received metal age influences from Palestine and
Egypt before most of the Anatolian mainland. Cyprus, which bears the
same name as copper, was another early center, In the diffusion of early
metal age culture westward along the Mediterranean and northwestward
up the Danube, the peoples of Asia Minor, Cyprus, Crete, and the Aegean
played an important r61e, acting as transmitters of impulses which had
originated in Egypt and Sumeria.
136 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Let us first examine what Bronze Age skeletal material there is in Asia
Minor. So far, all of it comes from two sites, Alishar Hiiyiik, which, in its
later periods, was a Hittite city, and Hissarlik, the seventh level of which
was Homer's Troy. Both were important centers in the Bronze Age. At
Alishar, fifty-three skulls have been studied, from seven archaeological
periods, ranging from the earliest Copper Age, dated from between 2600
and 2300 B.C., to the Osmanli invasion.2
Ten crania from the earliest period (two "Chalcolithic," eight Copper
Age) are uniformly Danubian in type, both metrically and morphologi-
cally. The small, high-vaulted, somewhat infantile dolicho- and meso-
cephalic form, with small face and mesorrhine to chamaerrhine noses, is
no different from that found at roughly the same time at Anau, at Mariu-
pol, in the Kiev Government, and in the Danube Valley, in association
with Neolithic cultures. Two others, which are longer, may belong to a
Megalithic or Corded variety. The unity of the early food-producing peo-
ples on both sides of the Caucasus and Black Sea is therefore indicated, and
from the racial standpoint, the Danubians could have come to central
Europe from either South Russia or Anatolia, or both.
In the second and third periods at Alishar, dated between 2300 and
1500 B.C., and called the Early Bronze Age, brachycephalic skulls ap-
peared, and these persisted through the period of the Hittite Empire, for
several centuries after 1500 B.C. The crania are large, low vaulted, and
only moderately brachycephalic, with lambdoid flattening, and moderate
browridges. The faces are of medium length, and narrow, although some-
what broader than those of the earlier Danubian type. The stature of the
one male observed was tall, 174 cm.3
Not all of the Hittite Empire crania are brachycephalic. A long-headed
variety, which seems to have replaced or outnumbered the brachycephals
by the time of the Phrygian invasions, is both longer and lower vaulted
than the Danubian type of the Copper Age; it is characterized by a very
prominent nasal skeleton of true Near Eastern form, with little nasion
depression. Bas-relief sculptures of historic Hittites reproduce this hook-
nosed, open-eyed type of countenance.
The sequence of racial types in Asia Minor during the metal ages prob-
ably runs somewhat as follows: the earliest food-producing people were
the same as those in western Turkestan and southern Russia. The latter
probably came in earlier times from the highland belt of which Anatolia
2Kansu, Shevket Aziz, TAM, vol. 6, #10, 1930, pp. 25-30; ibid., vol. 10, #15-16,
1934 pp. 105 seq.; BTTK, vol. 1, #1, 1937, pp. 192-202.
Krogman, W. M., POIC, #20, 1933, app. #4, pp. 123-138; "Cranial Types from
Alishar Huyiik," in H. H. von der Osten, The Ahshar Huyuk, POIC, #30, Chicago,
1937, Partiv, pp. 213-293.
8Kansu, Shevket Aziz, 1937, Skeleton #3.
THE BRONZE AGE
137
forms a part. Shortly before 2000 B.C., a moderately brachycephalic type,
with tall stature, entered Anatolia from regions yet to be determined,
followed by a low-vaulted, hawk-nosed Mediterranean form, which we
have named "Cappadocian," and which is well known in the present day
Near East. True Armenoids or Binaries were not, apparently, common
in early times.
During the third millennium B.C., the city of Troy, located strategically
on the eastern shore of the Bosporus, grew from a village to a city, and
acted as the most important center of diffusion for Bronze Age culture to
the north and west, especially to the Danube Valley. Troy II, the first
real city, lasted through much of the
third millennium, and was razed soon
after 2000 B.C. The skull of one
young female . from this level 4 seems
to represent the same brachycephalic
type found at Alishar, with which it
was probably contemporaneous. If
craftsmen and immigrants were pass-
ing over the Bosporus at that time,
carrying metal techniques to central
Europe, we may, therefore, suppose
that some of the few round-heads
found in sites in the Balkans, who
were at last entering Europe from the
east, came from this quarter.
Toward the end of the second mil-
lennium was built the Ilium which
the fair-haired Achaeans were later
to lay waste; and the settlements be-
tween the important third millennium city and that of Homer's heroes
were but minor villages. Troy III (Schliemann's sequence), which existed
through the first century or more of the second millennium, has yielded two
male and one female skulls.6 These three belong to one type; a large doli-
chocephal, with low to medium vault, and a face of moderate size. In gen-
eral, they resembled the " Eurafrican" type prevalent in Mesopotamia at the
same time, and the Long Barrow or Megalithic Neolithic form. Homer's
Troy, which falls wholly within the Bronze Age, is sterile of skeletons.
In Palestine, at the city-site of Megiddo, twenty-seven skulls have been
taken from the Copper Age or Chalcolithic level, dated before 3000 B.C.,
and five more from the immediately following Early Bronze Age horizon,
4 Schliemann, H., Ilios, City and Country of the Trojans, pp. 270-272.
* Schliemann, H., op. cit,, pp. 509-512.
FIG. 26. HITTITE.
After Schafer, H., and Andrae, W.,
Die Kunst des alien Orients, 1925, p. 554.
138 THE RAGES OF EUROPE
which lasted until about 2600 B.C.6 The crania from both levels are small
dolichocephals, of a Mediterranean type; they are delicate and feminine
in aspect, and sexing is difficult. The nose is prominent, with a high root,
which often springs directly from glabella without nasion depression. Yet
in many cases a break in the lateral profile is formed by a bulbousness of
the forehead above glabella. The occipital development is great, and
prognathism is not uncommon.
The high-nosed Cappadocian element found in Alishar Hiiyuk from the
time of the Hittite Empire onward was also, therefore, the prevailing
racial type of at least one important city of Palestine during the same
period. Four Bronze Age skulls, two each from the Mount of Olives and
Am Jebrul, may be included in the same category.7 One br achy cephalic
skull, however, has been found in Bronze Age Palestine; in the cave of
Umm Qatafa, in the Wady Khreitum.8 This belonged to an adolescent,
presumably a male, with a vertical forehead, small browridges, and a ver-
tical occiput. With him was a large, prognathous dolichocephal. These
two were not buried in the cave, but had been trapped by a fall of rock.
Returning to Megiddo, we are told that "the skulls from the Hyksos and
Late Bronze Age burials differ markedly from the Early Bronze and Chal-
colithic specimens, and altogether appear to form another major physical
group." 9 What the features of this later group may have been, we cannot
determine without further information. But we have one other indication
of racial types in the Bronze Age Near East, and that is the pictures on
Egyptian monuments, which almost without exception show western
Asiatics as white-skinned, bearded, and aquiline-nosed. Some are blond,
but most are brunet.
After Alishar, our next good series of Near Eastern Bronze Age crania
comes from Cyprus. The Bronze Age culture which flourished in this
island is divided into three periods; Early, Middle, and Late Cypriote;
from 3000-2100, 2100-1600, and 1600-1000 B.C.10 Three skulls from the
early period include two brachycephals, which are too fragmentary for
further study, and one high-vaulted mesocephalic example. In the early
and middle periods combined, twenty skulls have been studied. Of these,
forty per cent, mostly from the middle period, are brachycephalic.11 (See
Appendix I, col. 20.) The population was clearly mixed, with a long-
6 Ehgberg, R. M., and Shipton, G. M., Notes on the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age
Pottery of Megiddo, pp. 44-46.
7 Henckel, K. O., ZFMA, vol. 28, 1930, pp. 238-243.
s Neuville, R,, and Boureau, R., BSAP, ser. 8, vol. 1, 1930, pp. 33-36.
9 Engberg and Shipton, p. 46. '
NFttrst, C. M., LUA, N. F. Bd. 29/6, 1933.
11 Furst's 3 EG and 2 MG crania, and Buxton's 15 EC + MC. See Fiirst, op. cit.;
Buxton, L. D., JEAI, 1920, vol. 50, pp. 183-235; Massari, C., APA, vol. 59, 1929,
pp. 65-75.
THE BRONZE AGE
139
headed hook-nosed Hittite-like element, and a brachycephalic one. In
the Late Cypriote period, seventy per cent of forty-seven skulls were
brachycephalic. The round-headed element was clearly on the increase
during the Bronze Age, and it may have begun entering the island at any
time between 3000 and 2100 B.C. Judging from the evidence of Asia
Minor and Palestine, we may suppose that this took place nearer the late
than the early date. At the end of the Bronze Age, iron-using invaders re-
established dolichocephaly.
The long-headed element in Bronze Age Cyprus was, apparently, the
typical Cappadocian, or Near Eastern variety of Mediterranean. In the
FACIAL TYPES IN BRONZE AGE CYPRUS
FIG. 27 FIG. 28
Gjerstadt, J.; Lindros, J.; Sjoqvist, E.; Wcstholm, A.; Swedish Cyprus Expedition,
Stockholm, 1935. Vol. ii, plates CCXVI and CLXXXIX.
Late Cypriote period, during the prevalence of brachycephaly, an attempt
was made through artificial deformation to lengthen the head form, pro-
ducing the so-called "Hittite" style of deformation. In Egypt, Ikhnaton's
head was similarly deformed, as were those of his two daughters.
The round-headed element in Cyprus, which appears identical with that
from Alishar, is numerous enough to warrant statistical comparisons.
Fiirst calls the skulls Armenoid, and they do resemble Iron Age and
modern Armenians quite closely in vault size and proportions, but the
faces and noses of the Cypriotes are smaller in both height and breadth.
140 THE RACES OF EUROPE
At the same time, they resemble modern Alpines in vault size, while the
faces are narrower. The bloc of early brachycephals of western Europe
and North Africa which includes Afalou, Ofnet, and the Borreby skulls
is quite different, being much larger in vault size and in facial dimensions
as well. The Cypriotes notably lack the heavy mandible of western Euro-
pean brachycephals.
The position of the Cypriotes in the modern racial scheme falls into the
brachycephalic group of moderate vault size, including Alpines, Arme-
noids, and Dinarics; the most notable feature is the small face, notable for
its narrowness, and the light jaw. It is more like the modern Dinarics than
anything else, since it diverges from the Armenian standard in the same
way as do modern Albanians. The stature 12 was tall, as with modern
Dinarics, and the long bones slender. The brachycephalic people who
entered the Anatolian — Eastern Mediterranean region in the latter part
of the third millennium B.C. were, therefore, ari early form of Dinaric; as,
one suspects, were the so-called "Armenoids" who came into Mesopo-
tamia at the same time. This is our first meeting with the Dinaric race.
Its appearance in western Asia seems quite abrupt, but was probably the re-
sult of a gradual development, followed by an overflow or evacuation from
the seat of its characterization. Where this may have been is still unknown.
Nevertheless, we may eliminate a number of possibilities. It did not
come from Egypt or Mesopotamia, and it could not have come from the
northern steppes, which were occupied by dolichocephals. Its place of
origin was probably not far from Cyprus. Despite the Anatolian evidence,
it may have developed somewhere in the highlands of Asia Minor or in the
mountains of Syria, for it is especially numerous in both these places today.
It could not, presumably, have been an unreduced and unmixed Upper
Palaeolithic survival. It lacks the size of vault, the width of face, and the
lowness of orbit which characterize all groups so derived. In face and nose
form and in size, it resembles the common Mediterranean types of Asia
Minor, Mesopotamia, and the Irano- Afghan plateau. It may, therefore,
have been a local and specialized Near Eastern form, brachycephalized
by some agency and mechanism which will be explained later.13 From
its point of dispersal at the eastern end of the Mediterranean, it spread by
sea into far distant lands.
(3) THE MINOANS
The earliest land to receive metal which is considered part of Europe
was Crete, and there the Bronze Age Minoan civilization began a century
18 Mean for 13 males =168 cm.
18 The biological status and origin of the Dinaric race will be explained in the chap-
ters on the living, particularly in Chapter VIII, Section 6, and Chapter XII, Sec-
tions 11, 12, and 17.
THE BRONZE AGE 141
or two before 3000 B.C. Crete had been occupied in earlier times by Neo-
lithic peoples, of whom unfortunately no physical traces remain. The
Metal Age was introduced by immigrants from two directions — from the
Egyptian Delta, about the time that Menes was extending his power north-
ward, and from the mainland of Asia, presumably from Palestine. The
Cretan manner of metal-working was largely of Asiatic rather than of
Egyptian inspiration.14
Although Neolithic remains are absent, the Minoan Age is represented
by one hundred and more skulls, and a smaller number of long bones,15
as well as a considerable body of very realistic fresco painting and sculpture
in the round.
The Cretan skulls found at various sites on the island belong to a fairly
uniform type; this is a small Mediterranean variety with a mean cranial
index of about 72. Metrically, they could fit perfectly into a number of
Egyptian collections, from the Naqada predynastic to the Middle Empire.
On the whole, these Cretan crania are a little smaller, shorter-faced, and
less leptorrhine than the majority of the Egyptian series, and show leanings
in the direction of the Copper Age skulls from Alishar, and the Early
Bronze Age ones from Palestine. The mean type was somewhere between
Danubian, Cappadocian, and Egyptian forms.
That this was a short-statured variety of Mediterranean race is shown by
the long bones; local means vary from 156 to 162 cm. Hence, the Cretans
were shorter than the Egyptians as well as lower faced. The bodily build
of the Cretans is well known from fresco painting and sculpture; the local
ideal of a small waist and wiry, light, but vigorous musculature, which
occurs so constantly in the Minoan art, must have been based to a large
extent on reality. Nevertheless, there was a variant minority with broad
bodies, and, in the women, large breasts;16 this departure from the usual
Mediterranean form was also seen in Egypt, and does not necessarily
imply the presence of an alien race.
The Minoans were prevailingly brunet in hair and eye color, but in Late
Minoan times, at least, blondism was known, but apparently not com-
mon.17 The skin is represented by Minoan painters as a deep terra cotta
for men, and white for women. This exaggerates the difference between
outdoor and indoor habits of life. It again reflects Egyptian influence. The
i* Ghilde, V. G., The Bronze Age, pp. 19-20.
16 Evans, Sir A., Palace of Minos at Knossus, vol. 1, pp. 7-13.
Duckworth, W. L. H., ARBS, vol. 9, 1902-03, pp. 344-355.
Hawcs, G. H., and H. B., Crete, the Forerunner of Greece, pp. 23-26.
Luschan, E. von, ZFE, vol. 45, 1913, pp. 307-393.
Rosinski, B., Kosmos, vol. 50, 1925, pp. 584-637.
Sergi, G., AJA, second ser., vol. 5, 1901, pp. 315-318.
M Myres, J. L., Who Were The Greeks? pp. 74-76.
» Myres, J. L., op. cit.9 pp. 198-199.
142 THE RAGES OF EUROPE
Egyptians, however, rarely colored the wall paintings of their women
purely white; except in the case of goddesses and such rare mortals as
Hetep Heres II, the usual color is a pinkish yellow.
The facial features of the Cretans, if one discounts the conventions of
the artists, were purely Mediterranean; the straight, prominent nose, with
its high root, the smooth profile of the forehead, and the lightness of the
mandible are all clearly shown. The hair form is wavy or lightly curled,
and the beard, usually clean shaven, was apparently scanty. A variant
racial type, which may indicate an Alpine element similar to that found in
Greece (see following section), is seen in a broad-faced fofm, associated
with a lateral bodily habitus, and an occasional snub nose. Although the
physical type of the Cretans has changed somewhat since the fall of the
Minoan power, the features of the happy and athletic people shown on
the frescoes at Knossus, and the preoccupied frown of the snake goddess,
are still familiar to us, for they reflect the common heritage of the Mediter-
ranean race elsewhere.
Most of the Early Minoan skulls belong to the Mediterranean type just
described, which shows a blending between the usual Neolithic variety
and the convex-nosed type prevalent in the Near East. In some sites, as at
Hagios Nikolas and Patema, the population was exclusively Mediter-
ranean. In others, a few brachycephalic examples occur, and these ap-
parently belong to the same type found at Cyprus.
In the later Minoan periods the brachycephals increased in numbers,
but never formed more than a minor element in the population, probably
not more than a sixth at most. Since 70 per cent of the population of Cy-
prus may have belonged to this type, the Cretans must have kept them-
selves fairly free from eastern admixture after the initial establishment of
their national culture and power. At the time of the Dorian invasions, as
today, the Cretans were still predominantly Mediterranean.
Toward the end of the Early Minoan period, somewhat before 2100
B.C., strong Cycladic influences entered Crete, and it is possible that some
of the Middle and Late Minoan skulls of unusual size and Megalithic con-
formation may be derived from this movement. The present population of
Crete belongs largely to a tall Mediterranean type, which may partially
antedate the Dorian arrival.18
(4) THE GREEKS
The question of the origin of the Greeks has long been an apparently
insoluble enigma. For centuries, before the development of archaeology
18 Our data on which is based the assumption that all Cretans were of short stature
are not numerous. The Philistines, presumably Cretan relatives in Palestine, are
thought to have been tall, while some of the Mycenaeans in Greece were of large stature.
THE BRONZE AGE 143
as a scientific discipline, history began with Herodotus, and Homer was a
small window permitting tantalizing glimpses into the most distant past.
In recent years, however, great advances have been made toward the
solution of this problem, by the linguistic and historical researches of
Myres,19 and by the publication of skeletal material by Fiirst and Kou-
rnaris.
The historical reconstruction may be briefly summarized as follows:
During the Neolithic, Greece was culturally connected with North Africa
and the rest of the Mediterranean basin. The one skull which is known
is of normal Mediterranean racial type. In the early Metal Age, immi-
grants from the Cycladic islands, of Asia Minor origin, introduced copper
to Greece, with the mother goddess cult, and settled on either side of the
Isthmus of Corinth. In the meanwhile, Painted Pottery people of Danu-
bian cultural origin came down to Greece from the north, driven by
Corded people. Thus, by 2000 B.C., there were, from the cultural stand-
point, three elements in the Greek population: (a) local Neolithic Medi-
terranean; (b) Danubian from the north; (c) Cycladic people of eventual
Asia Minor origin.
Between 2000 B.C. and the period of Homer, Greece was invaded three
times more; (a) by Corded people (Myres calls them "Kurgan" people),
who came from the north about 1900 B.C., and who, Myres thinks,20 may
have brought the Indo-European basis of Hellenic speech; (b) by Minoans
from Crete, who founded the "long genealogies"; dynasties of rulers at
Thebes, Athens, Mycenae, and elsewhere. Most of these entered Greece
about 1400 B.C., although some may have dated back to 1700 B.C.; (c) by
"divine born" foreigners, such as Atreus, Pelops, etc., who came from
across the Aegean in ships, learned Greek, usurped thrones, and married
the daughters of the kings of Minoan ancestry.
These foreigners, whom Myres likens to the Normans in English history,
begat the heroes of the Trojan war. The war itself reflects the close re-
lationship between these adventurers and Priam's Troy. In the wars,
the Homeric heroes formed the nuclei of small groups of "companions";
these were homeless adventurers, refugees, and poor relatives, who had
attached themselves to the heroes in a close personal bond. The bulk of
the Greek army was composed of local conscripts from the various king-
doms of Greece, who were of a different ethnic origin and who, like
Thersites, had no especial interest in destroying Troy.
The post-Homeric and Iron Age Dorians, long regarded as fresh in-
vaders from the north were, according to Myres's reconstruction, but
19 Myres, J. L., op. cit., 1930.
20 In view of evidence to be presented later, it is more likely that the Danubiaiis
brought it (Chapter VI).
144 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Greek speakers who had been isolated in the Mt. Olympus region by the
warlike activities of the Thebans, and who had obtained iron from Asia
Minor.
The Greeks of the great period of Athenian civilization were thus the
product of much mixture from diverse ethnic sources, as the study of the
origin of the Greek language also reveals.
The skeletal record can, in part, supplement the evidence of recon-
structed history. Six skulls from Hagias Kosrnas near Athens represent
the period of amalgamation of Neolithic Mediterranean, Danubian, and
Cycladic elements, between 2500 and 2200 B.C.21 Three are dolicho-
cephalic, one mesocephalic, and two br achy cephalic. The faces of all are
narrow, the noses leptorrhine, the orbits high. One may conclude that
a Cretan type of Mediterranean and the Cypriote Dinaric form were both
present.
Twenty-five Mid-Helladic crania represent the period after the arrival
of the Corded or "Kurgan" folk from the north, and during the seizure of
power by the Minoan conquerors from Crete.22 Of these, twenty-three
come from Asine, and two from Mycenae. Needless to say, the population
of this time was very mixed. Only two skulls are brachycephalic; they
are both male, and both associated with very short stature. One is of
medium size, high- vaulted, and narrow-nosed and narrow-faced; the other
extremely broad-faced and chamaerrhine. They seem to represent two
different broad-headed types, both of which can probably be found in
Greece today.
The long heads are not of uniform type; some, with large vaults and
strong browridges, with deep nasion depressions, remind one of the larger
varieties of Neolithic dolichocephals, of both Long Barrow and Corded
types; and Fiirst feels that a number of them are very similar to the Late
Neolithic crania from Scandinavia, of about equal age. Needless to say,
both Corded and Megalithic people were present in Denmark and Sweden
at about this time.
The rest of the long-headed crania, which are probably more truly
representative of the bulk of the Mid-Helladic population, are of the slight-
browed, high-nosed type familiar in Crete and Asia Minor during the
same epoch. They, too, are short statured, while the few examples of the
larger-headed variety are, as is expected, taller. It is impossible, with
present data, to isolate from the main body of these crania a Danubian
type, although the latter may well have been present.
Forty-one Late Helladic skulls, dated between 1500 and 1200 B.C., and
coming likewise from Argolis, may include those of some of the "divine-
21 Koumaris, J., RA, vol. 44, 1934, pp. 248-251.
^Ftirst, C. M., LUA, N. F., vol. 26, #8, 1930; VHPA, vol. 4, 1930, pp. 3-14.
THE BRONZE AGE 145
born" invaders. Among these, one-fifth are brachycephalic, and appar-
ently largely of the Cypriote Dinaric type. Of the long-headed skulls, a
large number belongs now to the larger, more heavily marked varieties,
and fewer to the smaller Mediterranean. The similarity to the northern
types, and especially to the Corded, is even stronger than before. This
increase in a non-Minoan direction may perhaps be attributed to the
arrival of the ancestors of Homer's heroes.
This survey carries us through the Bronze Age. The racial history of
Greece in full classical time is not as well documented as that of the periods
just studied. Until the inception of the slave trade 23 in Athens and other
centers of manufacture and export, there can, however, have been little
population change. In Argolis, the Mediterranean racial element is the
only one clearly shown in six pro to-geometric and "Hellenic" crania.24
According to Koumaris's compilation of cranial indices,25 mesocephaly
reigned everywhere in Greece during the classical period, and into Hellen-
istic and Roman times. The mean index for Athens in the great period was
75.6, on 30 crania. This mesocephaly probably conceals the presence of a
varied racial amalgam, with Mediterranean strains predominant. The
Greek colonies in Asia Minor show much the same combination of types
which we have seen in Greece itself.26 Mixture with Asiatics must have
been masked by the essential racial similarity of the populations on either
side of the Aegean.
Greek literature and Greek art furnish an abundance of evidence as
to the pigmentation and the characteristic facial features of the ancient
inhabitants of Hellas. The Olympian gods, ancestors of the semi-
divine heroes, were for the most part blond, with ivory skins and golden
hair. Athene was gray eyed. Poseidon, however, was black haired.
These gods were little different, if we may believe Homer, from their
descendants the heroes, most of whom were white limbed and golden
haired.27
Odysseus's herald Eurybates was dark skinned and curly haired;
Achilles's son Neoptolemos, perhaps by a brunet mother, was rufous. The
Spartans were said to be blond, and in fifth-century Athens women
bleached their hair with an herb which turned it golden yellow, in pur-
suance of a blond ideal. Vase painters of the sixth to fourth centuries were
able to distinguish blond and brunet color by conventional glazes, and
23 Zaborowski, S., ARSI for 1912, 1913, pp. 597-608.
^Furst, G. M./LUA, vol. 26, #8, 1930, pp. 92-95.
26 Koumaris, J., ACAP, 1931, pp. 218 seq.
26 Schumacher, O., ZFMA, vol. 25, 1926, pp. 435-463.
Zaborowski, S., BSAP, ser. 4, vol. 3, 1881, pp. 234-238.
27 Myres has conclusively demonstrated that the much disputed word f av36s actu-
ally did mean "yellowish" or "sandy." Pp. 192-194.
146 THE RACES OF EUROPE
applied this distinction to representations of living models as well as of
heroes.
Greek terminology included words for blue and brown eyes, and for
green ones, the color of an olive leaf, as well; in skin color it recognized
rosy vascularity, a pallid hue resembling cream cheese or the skin of un-
ripe apples, a honey color, and a deep brunet. To Phoenician merchants
and tanned sailors of other nationalities, they gave the name "phoinix,"
comparable to the color of a ripe date, or a bay horse. Thus within the
Greek commonwealth as without it, all variations of pigmentation known
to modern Europeans were probably to be found.
The Minoan convention of a high-rooted nose and a lithe body passed
over into classical Greece as an artistic ideal, but the portrait busts of in-
dividuals show that it cannot have been common in life. Villains, com-
ical characters, satyrs, centaurs, giants, and all unpleasant people and
those not to be admired, are often shown in sculpture and in vase painting
as broad-faced, snub-nosed, and heavily bearded. Socrates, who belonged
to this type, was maliciously compared to a satyr. This type may still be
found in Greece, and is an ordinary Alpine. In the early skeletal remains
it is represented by some of the brachycephalic crania.
On the whole, one is impressed, after looking at the portrait busts of
Athenians, and the clay masks of Spartans, with their resemblance to pres-
ent-day western Europeans. This resemblance becomes less marked in the
art of the Byzantines, however, where modern near Eastern faces are more
frequent; but the Byzantines lived mostly outside of Greece. As will be
shown later (Chapter XII, section 14), the modern inhabitants of Greece
itself differ surprisingly little from their classical predecessors.
(5) COPPER AND BRONZE IN THE WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN
In early Metal Age times influences from Crete and the Aegean, in-
cluding those from the second city of Troy, spread westward to Sicily,
Sardinia, Italy, and Spain, reaching also the smaller islands of the western
Mediterranean. This maritime diffusion was probably carried by sea-
farers in search of new sources of metal as well as markets for their products,
and the traders and adventurers followed the old Megalithic routes. In
the beginning the bringers of metal and the Late Megalithic colonists may
well have been the same people.
The evidence of the racial composition of the Copper Age sailors who
reached Italy and the Italian islands is simple and direct. The moderately
tall, long-headed, and narrow-nosed Megalithic people who were im-
planted, during the Late Neolithic, upon the smaller Mediterranean type
which had preceded them, were followed, during the Aeneolithic, by others
of the same kind, in the company of equally tall brachycephals. The latter
THE BRONZE AGE 147
resembled the people of the same Dinaric head form in Cyprus, Crete,
and the Aegean, and without doubt formed a westward extension of the
same movement.
In Sicily, which probably received metal earlier than most of the main-
land or the islands farther west, Copper Age skulls of one series from
Isnello28 are all of general Mediterranean type, with the Megalithic
variety predominant, as shown by excessive skull lengths, moderate vault
heights, and narrow noses. The mean stature for twenty-four males, pre-
sumably of this type, was 169 cm. Other Sicilian series, however, do in-
clude brachycephals, as at Chiusella and Villafratti, with cranial indices
ranging as high as 9 1.29 These form, however, no more than one-third of
the total Aeneolithic series from Sicily. In the true Bronze Age which
followed, the incidence of these brachycephals increased.
In Sardinia a large series of sixty-three Copper Age skulls from Anghelu
Ruju 30 includes sixteen per cent, or ten individuals, of the new brachyce-
phalic type, while the others resemble the long heads of Sicily, The group
as a whole, irrespective of head form, was tall.81 The racial composition
of Corsica during these periods is known only through the presence of one
small, short-statured, long-headed female skeleton of either Neolithic or
Aeneolithic age, and two brachycephalic crania from the Bronze Age.32
It would be interesting to supplement this survey of the Italian islands
with a study of the crania found in the elaborate burial chambers of Malta,
of late Neolithic or early Metal Age date, but the excavators of these
vaults, professional and otherwise, literally threw away what was probably
the longest unified series of human crania ever found, numbering over
seven thousand. We are told that these early Maltese were "Mediterra-
neans," and know little else about them.33
On the mainland of Italy, Aeneolithic skeletons, which are found mostly
on the western side of the central portion of the peninsula, belong to the
same types found on the islands, but brachycephals are more abundant,
being equal in number to the dolicho- and mesocephals.84 Some of the
Aeneolithic Italians of the Campagna and of Latium were very tali and
large headed, with both mesocephalic and brachycephalic forms.85 In
28 Giuffrida Ruggeri, V., ASRA, vol. 11, 1905, pp. 56-103.
Zaborowski, S., BMSA, ser. 5, vol. 6, 1905, pp. 196-199.
29 Sergi, G., Grant Preistorici della Sicitia; Europa, pp. 270-289.
80 Sergi, G,, Crani Antichi della Sardegna,
81 Bruni, E., RDAR, vol. 26, 1924-25, pp. 235-250.
82 Bloch, A., BSAP, ser. 5, vol. 3, 1902, pp. 333-363.
83 Tagliaferro, N., Man, vol. 11, 1911, pp. 147-150.
84 Sabatini, A., RDAR, vol. 29, 1930-32; pp. 577-582.
Sergi, Europa , loc. cit.
Mochi, A., APA, vol. 42, 1912, pp, 330-347.
36 Genna, G. E., PICP, 1932, pp. 60-64; RDAR, vol. 30, 1933-34, pp. 235-262.
148 THE RAGES OF EUROPE
Istria, at the head of the Adriatic, the Dinaric population which is dom-
inant in that peninsula today had begun to arrive in the Copper and
Bronze Ages,36 judging by a series of six female crania which bear definite
indications of this type, such as flattening of the occiput, narrow face,
and projecting nasal bones. The new invaders may, therefore, have
travelled up the Adriatic as well as over the Tyrrhenian Sea.87
Reviewing the Italian material, on both metrical and morphological
grounds we may determine that the round-headed racial type which came
into the middle Mediterranean with the introduction of metal was of a
general Dinaric character, and without doubt came from Asia Minor
and the Aegean, where it first appeared in the last centuries of the third
millennium B.C. Since the metal ages of the middle and western Mediter-
ranean were later than those farther east, the chronological aspect of this
theory presents no contradictions.
The Balearic Islands, Spain, and Portugal were, of course, the next
stops in the westward spread of the metal-carrying seafarers through the
Mediterranean. During the Early Copper Age in Spain, the distinctive
Bell Beaker culture arose, which was soon to spread northward and east-
ward into central Europe, and eventually to Britain, as an important
racial movement; and another culture of equal local importance, that of
Los Millares in Almeria, developed from eastern beginnings, with an em-
phasis on the importation of Egyptian and Near Eastern materials, such
as hippopotamus ivory, ostrich egg shells, and actual Near Eastern
pottery.88 The center of Early Bronze Age civilization again lay in Al-
meria, with el Argar as the principal site, and began about 2000 B.C.
During this period, which lasted until the Iron Age, there was again
much Egyptian and Aegean influence.
Unfortunately, in the Iberian Peninsula, as elsewhere, the human
record is not sufficient to support the complexity of the cultural. The
craniologist cannot keep pace with the archaeologist; we cannot, without
more numerous and more accurately correlated skeletons, tell in all cases
what physical types went with each archaeological entity.
In the Balearic Islands, for a beginning, a few dolichocephalic crania,
and one brachycephal, have been found in the talayots, or corbelled stone
towers resembling the Sardinian nuraghes and Scottish brochs, which
were first built in the Copper Age but which were used until the advent of
iron.39 Fifty-eight adult and five juvenile crania with long bones from a
86 Battaglia, R., PICP, 1932, pp. 57-60.
87 Unless these particular Binaries came overland from Central Europe.
88 Childe, The Bronze Age, pp. 146-153.
89 Aranzadi, T. de, BAC, vol. 1, 1923, pp. 134-140.
Cameron, John, The Skeleton of British Neolithic Man.
Comas, Juan, Aportaciones al Estudio de la Prehistoria de Menorca.
THE BRONZE AGE 149
naveta> or long barrow, in Menorca, are said to have represented a homo-
geneous group of people with short stature, long-heads (all cranial indices
being under 75), low faces, prominent, aquiline noses, and projecting
chins. The form of the scapulae and humeri of the males showed that
they had developed great shoulder and arm muscles from slinging, the
activity from which the islands derived their name. Three other skulls
from an ossuary at Biniatap are brachycephalic.40
In the Copper Age groups from mainland Spain and Portugal, the old
long-headed types overwhelmingly prevail: out of one hundred and thirty-
four crania, which represent all that could be assembled for this survey,
only fifteen, or nine per cent, were brachycephalic.41 If one includes
Ariege, Basses Pyrenees, and Aveyron in the south of France, twenty-eight
crania may be added, of which only two are brachycephalic.42 One of
these, from a site near the city of Narbonne, possesses all of the cranial
and facial features typical of the Bronze Age brachycephals of Cyprus,
Italy, and the Italian islands. In few of the Spanish instances are extensive
details given, but it is probable that the brachycephalic crania there are
also of the same type.
Many of the dolichocephalic Copper Age skulls are of Megalithic or
Long Barrow type, while others are of a smaller, less rugged, Mesolithic
or Neolithic Mediterranean variety. Among the mesocephalic crania,
some may again be small Mediterraneans, while others, with larger vault
dimensions, may in many instances be mixtures between Megalithic and
brachycephalic types. The statures of the large dolichocephalic group
average about 167 or 168 cm.; taller than most living Spaniards and as
tall as the Neolithic Long Barrow population in Britain. Other dolicho-
cephalic crania go with short stature, with a mean of about 160 cm. Un-
fortunately, it is not possible to determine the approximate proportions
of Megalithic and Mediterranean types, but the former seem to be at
least one-half of the total.
A special development of the Copper Age in Spain was the Bell Beaker
culture, about which more will be said later, since its chief influence in the
racial sense fell upon areas in other parts of Europe. It is at present the
general belief of archaeologists that the Bell Beaker culture arose in central
40 Cameron, John, PICP, 1932, p. 60.
41 Aguilo, Juan C., AMSE, vol. 1, 1922, pp. 23-36.
Aranzadi, T. de, BAC, vol. 3, 1925, pp. 177-206.
Barras de Aragon, F. de las, AMSE, vol. 12, 1933, pp. 90-123; vol. 9, 1930, pp. 59-64.
Batista i Roca, J. M., BAC, vol. 1, 1923, pp. 104-133.
Mendes-Correa, A. A., Os Povos Primitives da Lusitania.
Tormo, I. Ballester, APL, vol. 1, 1928, pp. 44-53.
*2H616na, Th. and Ph., BAC, vol. 3, 1925, pp. 1-35.
Lapouge, G. V. de, Anth, vol. 2, 1891, pp. 681-695.
Vallois, H., Anth, vol. 37, 1927, pp. 277-303, 473-489.
150 THE RAGES OF EUROPE
Spain, shortly before 2000 B.C., from local beginnings.43 A North African
origin is rendered unlikely by the supposed absence of a Bronze Age
south of Gibraltar, although recent work in Morocco has revealed some
supposedly early metal.44 Where Bell Beaker burials are found in central
Europe, the skeletons are almost always of the same tall brachycephalic
type which we have already studied in the eastern Mediterranean and
Italy. In Spain, however, they are frequently of the Megalithic race.
The basis for the belief that the Bell Beaker people of Spain were Binaries
rests largely upon three cranial fragments from the type site of this culture
at Ciempozuelos, near Madrid, and upon one complete mesocephalic
skull from Cerro de Tomillo some forty miles away.46
The measurements of the three fragments are uncertain, and their
allocation to a definite type impossible.46 However, all three fragments
appear to be brachycephalic, and one to have a high vault. One has
strong, another weak, browridges. One seems to have a slight lambdoid
flattening. In the only fragment which possesses facial bones, the orbits
are high and the nose narrow. The Cerro de Tomillo skull is not, however,
a pure dolichocephal, and does resemble, in a partial sense, the Dinaric
brachycephalic variety which was common in the Mediterranean at
that time.
Although there seems to be little doubt in the minds of the archaeologists
that the Bell Beaker culture developed in Spain, and although eastern
Mediterranean brachycephals came there at about the same time, the
manner in which the physical type and the culture became identified with
each other is still obscure.
During the Early Bronze Age, after the efflorescence of the Bell Beaker
people, Spain became a great center of metallurgy and trading activity,
rivalling the Aegean in importance. The colonists from the east, who
had originally located themselves in Spain merely as miners and forward-
ing agents of metal, now settled down to producing the finished products
of the Bronze Age in Spain itself, for local sale, since disorders in the
Mycenaean and Minoan realms had apparently cut them off from their
homelands.47 Furthermore, the introduction of fresh cultural elements
from the east suggests that new people had joined them.
The principal site of the Early Bronze Age, el Argar in the province of
Almeria, is located near the silver mines of Herrerias, which were worked
in ancient times. From some thirteen hundred flexed urn burials, seventy
48 Bosch-Gimpera, P., Real, vol. 4, pp. 345-362.
"Ruhlman, A., Hesp^ris, vol. 15, 1932, No. 1, pp. 79-119.
45 Childe, The Danube in Prehistory, Chapter X, pp. 190-201.
46 Anton, M., BRAH, vol. 30, 1897, pp. 267-283.
Deslaers, M. H., BRAH, vol. 71, 1917, pp. 18-38.
47 Childe, The Bronze Age, p. 146.
THE BRONZE AGE 151
skulls have been recovered, of which twenty-nine are those of adult males,
and forty of adult females,48 The el Argar series shows quite definitely
that the Early Bronze Age people of Almeria were not descendants of
previous inhabitants, but to a large extent a new population, with definite
Near Eastern relationships, as one might suppose from the cultural in-
dications.
The series as a whole is one of small people, with a mean male stature
of 1 58 to 1 60 cm. ; the earlier Copper Age immigrants, for the most part,
were ten centimeters taller. The skulls gravitate around the indices of 76
and 77; for sixty per cent of male and fifty-eight per cent of female crania
are mesocephalic. Of the remaining skulls, long heads outnumber round
heads two to one. The series is not very homogeneous, and the cranial
index and most other criteria of form show modalities which make it
certain that the el Argar people included at least two types which had
not become completely amalgamated.
The principal cranial element is a normal, rather small variety of Med-
iterranean, which seems to resemble, both metrically and in description,
predynastic or early dynastic Egyptian forms, or at the same time, ele-
ments which entered Spain in the Neolithic. Prominence of the brow-
ridges at glabella, and a considerable nasion depression, make this type
of Mediterranean rather unlike the Cappadocian variety common in
Asia Minor, although metrically there is nothing to prevent such a rela-
tionship.
The second type is the new brachycephalic element, which seems to
have been the dominant one politically, in that two female skulls found
wearing silver crowns both belonged to it. It was apparently some form
of Near Eastern brachycephal with which we are already in a general way
familiar — the skull is short, rather than broad; the vault is medium or
low; the forehead is narrow, the lambdoid region often flattened, while
the greatest breadth of the vault comes well to the rear. The nose is high
and narrow, and the nasal bones join the frontal with little depression,
while a smooth glabella heightens the impression of a high-bridged, Near
Eastern type of nose. Although the orbits are high and rounded, the face
is rather low, but the mandible is surprisingly broad, often with everted
gonial angles. There is also a perceptible amount of alveolar prognathism,
Although this is not exactly the brachycephalic type which we met in
the Copper Age, and which became identified with the Bell Beaker people,
it is, nevertheless, definitely a Near Eastern variety of brachycephal which
is familiar in Asia Minor and Syria today. The el Argar people represent
a mixture of elements which could be duplicated in the modern Near
East, but not one with which, in our ignorance of most of that end of the
« Jacques, V., BSAB, vol. 6, 1887-88, pp. 210-236.
152 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Mediterranean, we are already familiar. Some of the Mediterranean
racial contingent may well have been of earlier Spanish derivation, but
if so the absence of Megalithic and Copper Age forms is surprising.
In other parts of Spain no such change of population as that of Almeria
is manifest. Mediterraneans, both large and small, are carried over from
the Neolithic and Copper Ages, while the larger variety of brachycephal
also continues,49 Out in Mallorca and Menorca, the dolichocephalic ele-
ment seems to remain as the exclusive or predominant one, for the most
part tall and of Long Barrow vault form.50
The westward migrations of peoples from the Aegean and the eastern
end of the Mediterranean, during the Late Neolithic, the Aeneolithic, and
the Early Bronze Age, must have affected the populations of Italy, Sicily,
Sardinia, Corsica, the Balearics, and the Iberian Peninsula to a consid-
erable degree. These were real colonizations which added new racial
elements to the Mesolithic and Early Neolithic Mediterranean sub-stratum.
By the middle of the Bronze Age, the central and western Mediterranean
lands had assumed the racial characteristics which they still, for the most
part, bear. Except for northern and central Italy, later migrations were
to bring little that was new.
(6) BASQUES, PHOENICIANS, AND ETRUSCANS
Since the western Mediterranean lands have changed little racially
since the end of the Bronze Age, it may perhaps be forgiven us if we break
the continuity of the present chapter, as was done earlier in the cases of
Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Greece, to discuss, at this point, the origins and
racial characteristics of certain non-Indo-European-speaking peoples who
are or were in later times known by specific names — the Basques, the
Phoenicians (as Carthaginians), and the Etruscans.
In regard to the Basques, it has been observed that the skeletons from
dolmens of Guipuzcoa, probably of Early Metal Age, resemble those of
the modern Euskarians of the same province, in stature, in head size and
form, and in characteristic facial peculiarities.61 Since the northern shore
of Spain, in the country occupied by the Basques since the beginning of
history, is rich in metal ores and was a favorite haunt of Copper and
Bronze Age sea migrants, it is very likely that a numerically strong western
Asiatic element, including both Megalithic and Dinaric types, became a
permanent factor in the local population. When we come to discuss
the physical anthropology of living Basques, the probability of such an
influence will be of assistance.
49 Aranzadi, T. de, Excavacio de Sepulcres Megalitics, pp. 31—39.
Ban-as de Aragon, F. de las, various articles in AMSE, 1921, 1926, 1930.
60Barras de Aragon, F. de las, AMSE, vol. 9, 1930, pp. 38-51.
11 Serra i Vilaro, after Mendes-Correa, 1924.
THE BRONZE AGE 153
The second people, the Phoenicians, who established their principal
colony at Carthage at the end of the second millennium B.C., and posted
trading garrisons at various points on the North African coast, both on
the Mediterranean and Atlantic sides, also settled along the eastern coast
of Spain, where they founded the city of Cartagena. Except for the Greeks,
they formed the last of the groups to migrate westward from the eastern
Mediterranean by sea, but the first to do so in full historical light.
The physical type of the Phoenicians is well known from the skeletal re-
mains found in tombs at Carthage.52 A series of 117 skulls, of which 68
are male, belong for the most part to one characteristic type; dolicho- to
mesocephalic, with the cranial index at 75; fairly long vaulted, and hence
moderately broad; with a very low vault, a moderately broad forehead, a
short face, high orbits, and a narrow, projecting nose which often springs
directly from the frontal bone with little or no nasion depression. These
skulls are in many ways similar to the Megalithic or Long Barrow type of
the preceding millennium; but, as is to be expected in view of their late
eastern Mediterranean origin, show modifications toward a shortening
and widening of the vault, and a beaking of the nose.
A few related brachycephals, of Dinaric form, are incidental to this
type, while a number of less characteristic skulls, with lower orbits and
less prominent, wider noses, may be those of North African natives. The
Carthaginians were apparently rather tall, with a mean male stature of
168 cm. The Greek evidence, already quoted, indicates that they were
brunet.
There can be no doubt that the majority of the Carthaginians who were
buried in these tombs were either the descendants of seafarers from Pales-
tine and Syria, or at least immigrants from the east of similar race. Nine
skulls of important men, taken from elaborate stone sarcophagi, belong
to exactly the same type as the majority of the others, except that these
representatives of the privileged classes had larger heads in all or most
dimensions than those of the masses. This correlation between size and
status, or size and opportunity, is a familiar human trait wherever there
are social and nutritional differences, and has no coincident racial signifi-
cance. Single Phoenician skulls from two points in the western Mediter-
ranean, Melilla in the Moroccan Rif, and Ibiza in Spain,53 conform exactly
to the standard set by the Carthaginians.
The last of the three non-Indo-European speaking ethnic groups, the
Etruscan, probably came to Italy as early as the first quarter of the tenth
62 Bertholon and Chantre, Rtcherches Anthropologiques dans La Berberie Orientale, pp. 251-
266. Also:
Gollignon, R., Anth, vol. 3, 1892, pp. 163-172.
Mantegazza, P., APA, vol. 6, 1876, pp. 17-29.
68 Barras de Aragon, F. de las, AMSE, vol. 9, 1930, pp. 35-64; 79-105.
154 THE RACES OF EUROPE
century B.C. Another wave is said to have arrived in the eighth century.
The colonists apparently kept up contacts with their homeland until
about 650 B.C. This homeland, according to the classical tradition, main-
tained by all Greek and Roman historians from Herodotus to Pliny, was
Lydia in Asia Minor. That this tradition is accurate is the belief of most
modern classical scholars.54
The cranial evidence from Etruscan tombs 55 substantiates the belief
that these non-Indo-European, non-Semitic speakers were typical ex-
amples of the earlier Bronze Age population of the eastern Mediterranean.
As with the earlier el Argar people of Spain, a mesocephalic mean for
the cranial index covers the presence of pronounced long heads and round
heads, with the two extremes, in this case, forming about equal propor-
tions. Actually, the metrical characteristics of the two series are much
alike, but the Etruscan skulls were a little larger, which is not surprising,
for the el Argar crania were for the most part rather small.
The Etruscan skulls are notably smooth in surface relief, with little in
the way of browridges; the side walls of the vaults, seen from above, are
not parallel, as with the longer Mediterranean forms, but converging,
with the greatest breadth in the parietals and a narrow forehead; the
orbits are high and rounded, and the nose narrow. The Etruscans, with
a typically Near Eastern cranial form, resemble both the Cappadocian
type found in the Hittite period at Alishar, and the planoccipital brachy-
cephals which appeared in the Bronze Age cemeteries of Cyprus. By
Roman times these two varieties had blended, to a large extent, into a
variable mesocephalic form, to which the Phoenicians as well largely be-
longed.
It would be difficult to overemphasize the importance of the migrations
of eastern Mediterranean peoples by sea to Italy, Spain, and the islands
between these two peninsulas in protohistoric as well as in prehistoric
times. Especially in Spain and Italy, large numbers of peoples immi-
grated, who added, to the basic Mediterranean population of Neolithic
origin, Near Eastern elements which may still be discerned among Italians
and Spaniards today. The debt of the Romans to the Etruscans, genet-
ically as well as culturally, was especially great.
(7) THE COPPER AGE IN EUROPE NORTH OF THE MEDITER-
RANEAN LANDS: DANUBIAN MOVEMENTS AND BELL BEAKERS
While the earliest Metal Age culture was being carried westward
through the Mediterranean by sea, other agencies conveyed it overland
into central Europe. As before, the main highroad was the Danube Val-
64 Schachermeyer, Fritz, Etmskische Fruhgeschichte.
68 Sergi, G., AFA, vol. 41, 1915, pp. 309-313 ff.
THE BRONZE AGE 155
ley, but this time the center of earliest diffusion was not Bohemia, but Hun-
gary. A series of crania from Bodrogkeresztur in that country M are uni-
formly dolichocephalic, with the highest individual cranial index, out of
more than fifty examples, only 76. This is too low for Danubians of the
usual Neolithic type, and one suspects a movement from the northeast of
peoples of Corded origin. The common presence of copper battle-axes, red
ochre, tumulus burials, and other south Russian cultural traits in Copper
Age sites in Hungary 57 would tend to confirm this deduction. In the west
Corded people brought the first metal to Switzerland, and in this case
crania of definitely Corded type are involved.58
The inhabitants of Yugoslavia during the Copper Age were, like those
of Hungary, also uniformly dolichocephalic.59 Unfortunately, here also
we have no further information of racial significance. As one approaches
the mouth of the Danube, however, this dolichocephalic uniformity dis-
appears. Four skulls from Russe, in Bulgaria, include one male of Corded
type, a mesocephalic male, and two brachycephalic females.**0
From this evidence, such as it is, we may deduce that the people who
brought copper into the Danube Valley at the close of the Neolithic period
came from two centers, southern Russia and the Caucasus, and Anatolia,
by way of Troy. The chief carriers were the Corded people or some
others equally dolichocephalic, while brachycephals from Asia Minor
were of little importance from the racial standpoint.
While Copper Age civilization was thus spreading westward along the
Danube and the lands to the north, a countermovement in the form of the
Bell Beaker invasion travelled eastward from the Rhine to the Danube,
and as far as Poland and Hungary. The remains of these Bell Beaker peo-
ple occupy single graves or groups of graves, rather than whole cemeteries;
they were apparently wandering traders, trafficking in metals, for their
gold spirals have been found in Danish graves of the corridor- tomb period.
They were thus in all likelihood rivals of the Battle-Axe people in their
search for amber.
It is not known how they went from Spain to central Europe. Sporadic
finds in France and northern Italy suggest the Rh6ne-Rhine and the
Brenner Pass routes as alternatives.61 In neither case is the evidence very
satisfactory, and neither excludes the other. From the Rhine Valley as a
M Bartucz, L., MAGW, vol. 57, 1927, pp. 126-130.
67 Hillebrand, J., AH, vol. 4, 1929, pp. 1-51.
68 Virchow, R., ZFE, vol. 17, 1885, p. 288. (2 adult female, and I juvenile, skulls
from Vinelz).
B» iupanifc, N., RA, vol. 29, 1919, p. 28.
60 Drontschilow, K., Mitt. Arch. Inst. Sofia, 1924, pp. 187-201, quoted by Sailer, K.,
ZFAE, vol. 77, #5/6, 1925, pp. 515-571.
61 Childe, The Danube in Prehistory, p. 196.
156 THE RACES OF EUROPE
center, Bell Beaker expeditions moved eastward into Bohemia, Austria, Po-
land, and Hungary; those who took part in these movements were even-
tually absorbed into the local populations. The Bell Beaker people who
remained in the Rhinelands, however, came into intimate contact with the
Corded people, who had invaded from the east and northeast, and with the
corridor-tomb megalithic population to the north, whose domain ex-
tended down into the Netherlands. These three, of which the Bell Beaker
element formed perhaps the dominant one, amalgamated to form an
Early Bronze Age cultural unit, the so-called Zoned Beaker people, who
invaded England and Scotland as the first important carriers of metal.
The Bell Beaker physical type is known to us from sixty or more skulls
from scattered burials in Germany, Austria, Poland, Czecho-Slovakia, and
Hungary.62 Of these, about one-third are truly brachycephalic, while
the others are, almost without exception, mesocephals. In the Rhine
country around Worms, three-fourths or more of the Bell Beaker crania are
brachycephalic; in Austria, one finds an equally high ratio; but in Bo-
hemia and Poland the high brachycephaly becomes less frequent, and at
Tokol in Hungary, in a series of ten crania, four are mesocephalic and
six are dolichocephalic.63
So high is the mesocephalic ratio, and except for Hungary, so infre-
quent the truly long-headed crania associated with this type, that the
mesocephals are clearly one branch of the main type, and not the product
of local mixture with long heads. Morphologically, the mesocephals are
essentially Bell Beaker.
The series of skulls from the Rhineland, including nine adult males, is
the most suitable for comparison (see Appendix I, col. 21). It is identical
in the cranial index mean with that of Furst's forty-four male Bronze Age
skulls from Cyprus, which have already been studied, and which have
been called Dinaric. The Rhenish crania are a little larger in vault dimen-
sions, and particularly in height; but are almost identical facially. Mor-
phologically, the two groups are also similar, but the Bell Beaker group is
more extreme in many ways; the browridges are often heavy, the general
ruggedness frequently greater. The faces are characteristically narrow, the
orbits medium to high, the nasal skeleton high and aquiline; the occiput
frequently flat. The stature for six males reached the high mean of 177 cm.
«2 Bartels, P., PZ, vol. 5, 1912, pp. 67-82.
Jankowsky, W., AAnz, vol. 8, 1932, pp. 104-115.
Palliardi, J., WPZ, vol. 6, 1919, pp. 41-56.
Sailer, K., ZFAE, vol. 77, #5/6, 1925, pp. 515-571.
Schliz, A., AFA, vol. 35, 1908, pp. 239-267.
Sedlaczek-Komorowski, L., BAPS, ser. B, vol. 2, 1932, pp. 253-257.
Stocky, A., and Matiegka, J., AnthPr, vol. 3, #2, 1925, pp. 138-155.
Trauwitz-Hellwig, J. von, MAGW, vol. 53, 1923, pp. 251-265.
«8Bartucz, L., MAGW, vol. 57, 1927, p. 128.
THE BRONZE AGE 157
The deviation of the Rhenish Bell Beaker skulls, such as it is, from the
Aegean and eastern Mediterranean Dinaric form, lies in a Borreby direc-
tion. It is, therefore, more than likely that the invaders mixed with the
descendants of the earlier Neolithic brachycephals, whose territory
stretched along the North Sea coast from southern Sweden to Belgium.
On the whole, however, at the period represented by the Worms crania,
the eastern or Dinaric element was the more important.
The Spanish Bell Beaker problem now stands in a somewhat clearer light
than before. The Dinaric type, with which the Rhenish Bell beakers are
associated, is one which entered the western Mediterranean by sea from
the east, and eventually moved, by some route yet to be determined in
an accurate manner, to the north, and eventually to central Europe.
The paucity of brachycephals in Spain may be due to the paucity of re-
mains of this culture in general. It is still possible, one might add, that
certain North African elements became involved in the Bell Beaker racial
type, but such an accretion is unnecessary and hardly likely.
The Bell Beaker people were probably the first intrusive brachycephals.
to enter the Austrian Alps, and the mountains of northeastern Bohemia,
for the push of Lake Dwelling Alpines southeastward toward the Balkans
happened later in the Bronze Age. It is, therefore, possible that the present
Dinaric populations of the Dinaric Alps and the Carpathians may be
derived in part from this eastward invasion. The small numbers and scat-
tered burial habits of the Bell Beaker people on the more densely popu-
lated plains of Europe must have made them of much less ethnic impor-
tance there than in the mountains.
In their Rhineland center, the more numerous Bell Beaker people had
constant relationships with the inhabitants of Denmark, who were still
burying in corridor tombs. Furthermore, the Corded people, one branch
of whom invaded Jutland and introduced the single-grave type of burial,
also migrated to the Rhine Valley, and here amalgamated themselves
with the Bell Beaker people, who were already in process of mixing with
their Borreby type neighbors. The result of this triple fusion was a great
expansion, and a population overflow down the Rhine, in the direction
of Britain.
(8) THE BRONZE AGE IN BRITAIN
The consideration of the Bell Beaker problem leads naturally to that of
the Bronze Age in the British Isles, where the Beaker people found their
most important and most lasting home. Coming down the Rhine and out
into the North Sea, they invaded the whole eastern coast of England and
of Scotland, and also the shore of the Channel.
The Beaker invasion of Britain was not a simple affair. Not only did the
158 THE RACES OF EUROPE
newcomers land in many places, but they brought with them somewhat
different traditions. Although most of them brought zoned beakers and
battle axes, in consequence of their blending with the Corded people in
the Rhinelands, others, with the older type of bell beakers and with stone
wrist-guards of Spanish inspiration, seem to have entered unaffected by
Corded influence.
Like their predecessors the Long Barrow people, the new invaders who
went to England chose open lands for settlement, and eschewed the forest
of the Midlands, and the Weald of Surrey, Sussex, and Kent. Yorkshire
with its moors was a favorite spot, while other centers were Wiltshire and
Gloucestershire in the south, and Derbyshire and Staffordshire in be-
tween.64 On the whole, the Beaker people chose the same regions which
had attracted the builders of the long barrows, except that the concen-
tration in Yorkshire was an innovation. The Beaker people did not ex-
terminate the Long Barrow people, who continued for a while to build
their characteristic earth-covered vaults, in some of which Beaker pots
have actually been found. The remains of the newcomers, however, are
always buried singly under round barrows, of a type which the Corded
people contributed to the Zoned Beaker complex.
In comparison with the Continent, Great Britain contains a great plenty
of Beaker skeletal material. The invasions which reached this island
brought the wholesale migration of a large population. Over two hundred
and sixty crania from England alone have been preserved and studied.
Out of a series of one hundred and fifty exhaustively analyzed by Morant,
the brachycephals exceed the pure long heads in the ratio of three to one,
while the intermediate forms are about equal in number to the latter.
This segregation would indicate that the blending between the Corded
racial element and its round-headed companions was incomplete at the
time of invasion, as well as afterward. In all the regions from which a
considerable number of skulls have been taken, the proportion between
round heads and long heads is constant, and this would indicate that the
survivors of the Long Barrow people were not buried in the tombs of the
invaders.
The Bronze Age people of England, as represented by this Beaker
series, were clearly heterogeneous. The three ancestral elements which met
in the Rhinelands may be distinguished easily. All three were tall, and
the mean stature of the whole group was about 174 cm.68 The Corded ele-
ment, however, was the tallest, and the Borreby element, about 170 cm.,
the shortest. On the whole, the heavy-boned, rugged quality of the
454 Morant, G. M.» Biometrika, vol. 18, 1926, pp. 56-98.
65 Obtained by applying Pearson's formula to 27 adult male femora listed by Thur-
man. Thurman, J., MASL, vol. 1, 1865, pp. 120-168, 459-519; vol. 3, 1867, pp. 41-80.
THE BRONZE AGE 159
Borreby type seems to have influenced the bodily build of the total group.
The Beaker skulls as a whole are large, long, and high vaulted, whatever
their shape. They form one of the rare groups in the world with a cranial
length of 184 mm. and an index of over 80. This peculiarity they share
with the few known brachycephalic crania of the Upper Palaeolithic.
Again reminiscent of Upper Palaeolithic skulls is the ruggedness of muscu-
lar markings, the prominence of browridges and occipital lines, and the
depth and breadth of the mandible.
In the Crania Britannica are engravings of seventy- three male crania
of this group; by observing them morphologically it is possible to segregate
them into their component elements. Twenty-four, or one-third of the
whole, are planoccipital. This ratio is probably about the correct propor-
tion of the original Bell Beaker element in the blend, with the Corded
group one-fourth, and the rest Borreby. The planoccipital skulls are, as
one would expect, the most brachycephalic; for over sixty per cent of all
crania over the index point 83 possess some posterior flattening.
When seriated by index groups and occipital form, the planoccipital
brachycephalic male crania (see Appendix I, col. 22) approach metrically
the series already discussed from Worms, as well as that from Bronze Age
Cyprus. The British planoccipitals are larger vaulted, in all three dimen-
sions, than their continental and Near Eastern prototypes; they are also
wider faced; but in total and upper face heights and in nasal dimensions,
they are much the same. The curvoccipital brachycephalic crania (see
Appendix I, col. 23) are much larger; and it is this element which contrib-
utes the combination of a truly long vault with a high index. They like-
wise have large faces, of great width, and of great mandibular size. One
of the most striking differences between the two brachycephalic British
sub-groups lies in the disproportion of face heights. Both have the same
upper face height; but the total face height, from nasion to men ton, is five
mm. greater in the curvoccipital group. The lower jaw of the planoccipi-
tal skulls is more nearly of a normal Dinaric form, while that of the Borreby
element is nearly equal to Upper Palaeolithic standards.
The dolichocephalic crania (see Appendix I, col. 24), forming the least
numerous of the three elements, are of pure Corded type, and furnish an
opportunity to study this form in greater numbers than elsewhere. The
vault is very long, and extremely high, with a breadth-height ratio of 105,
and extremely long faces, with deep, narrow mandibles. There can be no
question that these most extreme variants from the fundamental Mediter-
ranean stock came to England as part of the Zoned Beaker racial complex,
and do not represent accretions of megalithic Long Barrow survivors,
although both elements, in England as in Scandinavia, entered into the
ultimate composition of the living population.
160 THE RACES OF EUROPE
In Scotland the progress of events in the Early Bronze Age was quite
different from that in England, and more complicated. The Beaker peo-
ple who arrived on the eastern shore came in part directly from Holland,
and in part from England. A few may have approached from the west,
by way of Wales. At the time of the Beaker arrival, or not long after it,
another group of people, named after the so-called Food Vessels which
they placed in their tombs, seem to have arisen in the west, or to have
arrived there from Ireland, where they were also prevalent during the
Early Bronze Age. These Food Vessel people buried their dead in in-
dividual cists, as did the Beaker people, but often incinerated, for which
reason their skeletal remains are relatively rare. The two groups — Beaker
and Food Vessel — had close relationships and interchanged material pos-
sessions and ideas. In many Scottish cist graves, neither type of pottery is
present, and it is not always possible to tell to which original complex the
burial belongs.66
The short cist skeletons of Scotland have been lumped together regard-
less of original cultural affiliation, which in many cases may have been im-
possible to determine. By this means a series of seventy-seven crania has
been assembled for study.67 (See Appendix I, col. 25.) In general, the
Scottish Short Cist people resembled the Beaker invaders of England, but
were by no means identical with them. The means of the cranial dimen-
sions are in many cases smaller, and the larger elements in the blend seem
to be less in evidence. Furthermore, the stature seems to have been shorter,
with a mean of 165.0 cm.68 for seventeen males. The group as a whole is
more purely Beaker in the continental sense, or Dinaric, than is that in
England; metrically, the Scottish series resembles the non-Borreby brachy-
cephalic element in the British Beaker population, and also approximates
the skulls from the Rhineland. In several features, such as a lower vault, it
comes closer to the Cypriote Bronze Age group than does any wholly
Beaker series which we have studied.
The reasons for the difference between the Scottish and English series
are not difficult to discover. The Borreby element is less prominent in
68 Childe, V. G , The Prehistory of Scotland, pp. 81-95.
67 Morant, G. M., and Reid, R. W.} Biometrika, vols. 3-4, 1928. Later publications,
mostly in the PSAS scries, would swell this number by at least twelve, but would in no
way alter the conclusions.
** Calender, J. G., PSAS, vol. 58, 1924, pp. 23-27.
Callander, J. G., and Low, A., PSAS, vol. 64, 1930, pp. 191-199.
Craw, J. H., and Low, A., PSAS, vol. 67, 1933, pp. 308-311.
Edwards, A. J. H., PSAS, vol. 65, 1931, p. 421.
Edwards, A. J. H., and Low, A., PSAS, vol. 66, 1932, pp. 418-426; vol. 67, 1933,
pp. 164-176.
Gordon, J. T., and Waterston, D., PSAS, vol. 67, 1933, pp. 354-361.
Low, A., PSAS, vol. 67, 1933, pp. 176-186.
Ritchie, J., and Dow, D. R., PSAS, vol. 69, 1935, pp. 401-415.
THE BRONZE AGE 161
Scotland, and the same is true of the Corded. In fact, three out of four
dolichocephalic male crania from short cists seem to be of a Megalithic
type, while only one has the characteristic vault form of the Battle-Axe
people. Long heads are less frequent here than in England, and the orig-
inal eastern Mediterranean brachycephalic type is in the majority. Log-
ically, one would expect that the Food Vessel people belonged to this racial
variety.
It is impossible, however, to determine with any certainty the physical
type of the Food Vessel people in Scotland, for only four complete skeletons
have been associated with this pottery form. Three, however, which are
males, are all brachycephalic and of medium stature, and belong, in the
totality of their features, to a small Beaker variety,69 as does the single
female. Two other individuals, represented only by long bones, were,
respectively, 166 and 173 cm. tall. Little is to be learned, unfortunately,
from the members of this small group, except that they were no different
from the Beaker people who occupied the same type of cist.
There is, however, one far better way to discover the physical affinities
of the Food Vessel people, and that is by a study of the Bronze Age remains
from Ireland. As far as we know from published evidence, the Beaker
people never went to Ireland at all. The thirty odd known Irish skeletons
of the Bronze Age, taken from short cists, were associated with food ves-
sels in most cases, or at least when there is known to have been any pottery.
The series as a whole 70 (see Appendix I, col. 26) is tall and slender
boned; the skulls, almost exclusively brachycephalic, are often thin walled;
the bony relief is rarely as prominent as in the British specimens. Metri-
cally, the Irish crania are narrower headed and narrower faced than the
Scottish, and are almost identical with the Adlersburg group in Germany,
and quite close to the series from Cyprus. Their most notable difference
from the British group, which confirms their similarity to the skulls from
Cyprus, is in their narrow facial breadth. In this and in many other ways,
the Scottish skulls are intermediate between the English and the Irish.
«9Dow, D. R., PSAS, vol. 69, 1935, pp. 401-415.
Low, A., PSAS, vol. 64, 1930, pp. 191-195; vol. 65, 1931, pp. 418-426. PAAS,
1904-06, pp. 133-142.
Waterston, D., PSAS, vol. 67, 1933, pp. 354-361.
70 A composite group from the following sources :
Haddon, A. C., PRIA, vols. 3-4, 1896-98, pp. 570-585.
Martin, C. P., JSAI, vol. 62, 1932, p. 55; vol. 64, 1934, pp. 87-89.
Martin, C. P., Price, L., and Mitchell, G. F., PRIA, vol. 63, 1936, sec. C, #7.
Movius, H. L., PRIA, vol. 61, 1934, pp. 258-284; JSAI, vol. 59, 1929, pp. 99-115;
vol. 64, 1934, pp. 73-85; vol. 65, 1935, pp. 213-222.
Shea, S., JGAS, vol. 12, 1925, pp. 13-22.
See also:
Martin, C. P., Prehistoric Man in Ireland.
Morant, G. M., JRAI, vol. 66, 1936, pp. 43-55.
162 THE RACES OF EUROPE
The Irish Bronze Age people who were buried in association with food
vessels were, therefore, members of the racial type which was originally
linked with the Beaker complex, without the associated Borreby and
Corded elements. Childe finds possible prototypes of the food vessels both
in Germany and in Spain.71 Without doubt, in any case, there were move-
ments from northern Spain and the western end of the Pyrenees during
the Bronze Age, which brought halberds to Ireland, and thence to Scot-
land, along with other cultural innovations. These movements were quite
late, but so, in all probability, was the spread of the Food Vessel people,
who often incinerated.
It is necessary to choose between two routes of invasion for the Food
Vessel people, for they were obviously not indigenous. The first, from
Germany and Holland, would be somehow separate from the Beaker in-
vasions, but yet would bring the most basic Beaker physical element. The
second is from Spain, where the Beaker people were probably only one of
a number of related brachycephalic groups. The latter seems the more
likely, purely on racial grounds; furthermore, on the Scottish food vessels
there are often cord impressions, on the Irish there are none. The direc-
tion, therefore, was probably from Ireland to Scotland and not vice versa.
(9) THE BRONZE AGE IN CENTRAL EUROPE
In the Early Bronze Age there were, aside from the Aegean, three im-
portant cultural centers in Europe — southeastern Spain, Britain, and cen-
tral Europe. We have already dealt with the first two and studied the
racial derivations of their peoples. In central Europe, the center of civili-
zation was again on the Danube; in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Lower
Austria, and Saxo-Thuringia. The Bronze Age culture of this Danubian
region is called Aunjetitz (Unetice) after an important site in Bohemia.
The origins of this Aunjetitz culture were multiple. The elements of
which it was composed include: the basic local Neolithic and Copper Age;
northern influences which were mostly Corded; the Bell Beaker invasion;
and metallurgy from Anatolia and the Aegean, coming directly over-
land.72
The evidence as to the racial composition of this culturally heteroge-
neous population is fortunately abundant and clear. A number of large
and well-analyzed series makes it possible to determine its nature without
much doubt. On the whole, the group is moderately varied. Three major
elements are involved: the short, moderately dolichocephalic, high-
vaulted, small-faced Danubian Neolithic type; the?' familiar Corded form,
and some brachycephals, in moderate numbers, which are probably for
n Childe, The Prehistory of Scotland, pp. 89-95.
72 Childe, The Bronze Age, pp. 139-140.
THE BRONZE AGE 163
the most part of Bell Beaker origin, although the same racial type may
have come up the Danube from the Black Sea and the Aegean. Dinaric in-
fluence is most evident in the earliest Aunjetitz sites of Lower Austria, as at
Hainburg-Teichtal,73 but it disappeared shortly through absorption.
One of the most fruitful groups for examination is that of the skeletons
from the Lower Austrian cemetery of Gemeinlebarn.74 Here fifty-one
adult crania were found which were in condition for study, to which have
been added twenty-five others from smaller sites in Lower Austria and
Moravia, making a total of forty-seven male and fifty- two female skulls,
as well as a large number of associated long bones.
The mean stature of the males is 165 cm., a moderate figure, lying
between that of the earlier Neolithic Danubians and the Corded people,
as represented in the larger series in which the latter appear, in Scandi-
navia and England. The limb proportions show a greater length of the
distal segments in both arms and legs than is the case with most historic
Germanic or Nordic skeletons — the Lower Austrian Aunjetitz people
resembled their Neolithic ancestors in this respect. The bones, however,
are quite heavy and powerful, and show that they must have had wide
and heavy shoulders.
The crania (see Appendix I, col. 27) belong metrically about half-way
between the Corded and Danubian Neolithic means in almost every
character; the only exception being a slight addition in the head breadth
dimension which might be attributed to the inclusion of a few brachy-
cephals. The cranial index, which varies individually from 64 to 85,
centers about a mean of 74; and dolichocephaly is the prevailing form.
The profile of the skull as seen from above usually takes one of two forms —
a long oval with almost parallel sides, which is the Corded type, and a
pentagonoid, or "shield shape," which is the Neolithic Danubian. The
vaults are high, in most cases higher than the breadth, a feature which is
derived from both of the principal ancestral types. The face is quite long
in both segments, and narrow. Although, the mean nasal index is mesor-
rhine, a little less than half of the series is leptorrhine. The orbits, like
those of both earlier strains, are of moderate height.
In the male series, only four crania have indices over 78, and all of these
are curvoccipital. One of them, with heavy browridges, a wide interorbital
distance, a wide, deep jaw with everted gonial angles, and no canine fossa,
looks like some intruder from the northern European forests, such as we
have already met in the Neolithic; while another, which is hyperbr achy-
cephalic, has an extremely narrow face and jaw, and may be either an
Anatolian or a Beaker remnant.
78 Geyer, E., MAGW, vol. 60, 1930, pp. 65-140.
w Szombathy, J., MAGW, vol. 64, 1934, pp. 1-101.
164 THE RACES OF EUkOPE
The group as a whole has a normal to excessive development of the
browridges, and a narrow-rooted form of the nasal bbnes, which spring
prominently from a considerable nasion depression. The continuous
fron to-nasal profile of Near Eastern Bronze Age skulls is apparently alien to
this composite type.
The above discussion could be applied without much change to other
Austrian Aunjetitz series, notably that from Stillfried,76 which includes
nine males. Here the ratio of factors involved may be slightly differ-
ent, for the cranial index mean is mesocephalic, and the nasal index
purely leptorrhine — however, the group contains no brachycephals.
Nearly a hundred crania from Bohemia, collected from a number of
sites 76 (see Appendix I, col. 28), are on the whole extremely dolichocephalic,
with a mean index of 71. A series of thirty-two males 77 (see Appendix I,
col. 29), like the Austrian group, is again intermediate in most if not all
measurements between the Corded and Danubian Neolithic means. As
with the Gemeinlebarn series, the longest crania are the highest, and
possess the longest faces. A Corded-Danubian cross, with a very little
Dinaric (since the highest indices go up to 83) is indicated. This hybrid
form, as will be seen later, may be given the name "Nordic" in the skeletal
sense, since it seems identical with that of historic Nordic peoples living
in the same area.
The stature of Bohemian and Moravian Aunjetitz males, as with those
from Lower Austria, is about 167 cm.78 This is considerably less than the
Corded stature for Scandinavia, and that of the British Bell Beaker long
heads, but more than that recorded in the central European Corded series
of Neolithic date. Either our groups are too small for accuracy, which is
quite probable, or else the Corded people of central Europe were not as
tall as those who invaded the far northwest. At any rate, the Aunjetitz
people of central Europe are less exaggerated in head and face dimensions
than those whom we have previously studied, and anticipate the " Nordic"
peoples of the Iron Age.
Around the peripheries of the Upper Danubian center, modifications of
the standard Aunjetitz racial amalgam occurred. In Saxony and Thu-
ringia, where there was an especially strong Corded cultural element, the
coincident type was of course equally strong.79 But on the Rhine, the Bell
Beaker -cultural influence continued, and brachycephals also persisted.80
In the Tyrol and Upper Austria, Binaries of the Bell Beaker type re-
™Schurer von Waldheim, Hella, MAGW, vol. 39, 1919f pp. 247-263.
TC Stockf, A., AnthPr, vol. 9, 1931, pp. 225-275.
77 Hellich, B., Praehistorickl lebky v &cMch & Sbirky Musea Kralovstvi Ceskeho.
7« Matiegka, J., MAGW, vol. 41, 1911, pp. 348-387.
TOHcberer, G., VGPA, vol. 8, 1937, pp. 59-68,
» As at Rheinsheim. Easier, A., MAGW, vol. 55, 1925, pp. 261-266.
THE BRONZE AGE 165
mained firmly ensconced,81 where their survival in this mountain refuge
was destined to be permanent.
About forty skulls are known from the Bronze Age sites of Switzerland.82
The most important fact to be deduced from them is that the old Neolithic
elements persisted with little change. An infiltration of Aunjetitz culture
was accompanied by the addition of some Corded types to the group, and
in the meanwhile a few planoccipital brachycephals of Bell Beaker type ap-
peared. On the whole, the Swiss seem to have become slightly longer
headed during this period, probably due in large part to Aunjetitz in-
fluence.
It is impossible to carry this survey of the Early and Middle Bronze Age
racial types in central Europe much farther to the westward. We have
already seen that brachycephals of the type which spread through the
Mediterranean during the Bronze Age entered the southern departments
of France, near the eastern end of the Pyrenees and the Gulf of Lyons
(page 149). Aside from this Spanish overflow in the south, the French
Bronze Age was largely confined to two other peripheral points-r-Savoie
and Franche Comt6 — and Brittany in the extreme west.
On the northeastern flank of France, in Franche Comt6, a number
of skeletons have been taken from tumuli which apparently date from
the Middle Bronze Age, a time at which invasions spread over the
upper Rhine and Jura from the Bavarian highlands into northeastern
Gaul.88
Seven out of eight skeletons of this period were those of tall, planoccip-
ital, brachycephals,84 who belonged, as far as one can tell, to a Bell Beaker
type familiar in earlier times in the Rhinelands. Two tumuli of later
date contained high-vaulted dolichocephalic crania, belonging to small-
statured individuals, like the single dolichocephalic example from the
earlier group. Thus, as far as we can tell, a Bell Beaker type, associated
with an older Danubian Neolithic element, entered northeastern France
in the Middle Bronze Age from the highland belt of southern Germany,
south of the central Aunjetitz range.
In Brittany, the earliest metal industry was mostly of the Middle Bronze
Age; round barrows were built apart from the megalithic tombs, which
were still used by the descendants of the bringers of that cult to the Atlantic
seaboard. In one cemetery, that of Saint-Urnel en Plomeur in Finist&re,
si Meyer, A. B,, MAGW, vol. 15, 1885, pp. 99-106.
82 Pittard, E., Anth, vol. 10, 1899, pp. 281-289; vol. 17, 1906, pp. 547-557; ASAG,
vol. 7, #1, 1934, pp. 1-7; RA, vol. 45, 1935, pp. 5-12.
Schenk, A., BMSA, ser, 5, vol. 8, 1907, pp. 218-228; REAP, vol. 15, 1905, pp. 389-407.
Schlaginhaufen, O., BSGA, vol. 2, 1926, pp. 15-24; MAGZ, vol. 29, 1924, pp. 220-241.
w Childe, The Bron& Age, p. 174.
84 Piroutet, M., Anth, vol. 38, 1928, pp. 51-60.
166 THE RACES OF EUROPE
tall, dolichocephalic people with large heads, narrow noses, and robust
jaws were buried throughout the Bronze Age.85 There were Beaker people
in Brittany as well, and one may suppose the presence, in addition, of the
usual Beaker physical type.
Aside from these instances there are no Bronze Age remains from
France which give us a definite picture of the population of any specific
part of the country.. France, for the most part, failed to participate in the
great cultural movements of the Bronze Age, and was a backwater in
which Neolithic and even Mesolithic peoples survived with little change
in their manner of living.
(10) THE BRONZE AGE IN THE NORTH
During the Early Bronze Age, Scandinavia and the eastern Baltic coun-
tries had been unable to obtain enough metal for tools and weapons, and
hence had enjoyed the Late Neolithic efflorescence which we have already
studied. Their first real metal period, therefore, was the Middle Bronze
Age, later than the first Beaker settlement in England, or the Aunjetitz
development in central Europe.
The Scandinavian Bronze Age probably began about 1500 B.C., and
lasted for nearly a thousand years. It was a period of great prosperity, for
Jutish amber brought bronze and gold objects to the north in trade. The
limits of this cultural center, however, were restricted. Most bronze has
been found in Denmark, since in Sweden and southern Norway metal
was dear, and seldom discarded in graves. North of the sixty-eighth
parallel of north latitude, the Arctic stone age prevailed throughout this
period on the coasts of the Arctic Ocean and in the forests and mountains 86
of Norway and northern Sweden, as well as in Finland.
During the Middle Bronze Age, cremation, which had begun elsewhere
as early as Danubian Neolithic times, gradually crept in as a major sub-
stitute for the earlier inhumation, and by the beginning of the Late Bronze
Age, it had become the only method of disposing of the dead. For this
reason skeletal material from the five hundred year stretch of the Middle
Bronze Age becomes progressively scarce.
In Sweden we are limited to some twenty-one skulls, of which thirteen
are those of males.87 They belong to types already familiar to us from the
Neolithic, and show no change of population. If anything, however, the
long-headed elements are even more in evidence, and the head form is
prevailingly dolichocephalic. In Denmark again, -twenty seems to be the
86 Le Pontois, Bernard, Le Finistire prSkistorique.
88 Shetelig, Falk, and Gordon, pp; 170-172.
wArbo, G., FVO, 1901.
Hillebrand, B. E.f ATS, 1864.
Retzius, G., Crania Suecica; Ymcr, 1900.
THE BRONZE AGE 167
limit; 88 and here the old Neolithic population survived without per-
ceptible alteration. The Bronze Age men were as tall as their predecessors,
with a mean stature of 172 cm.; and the blend of long- and round-headed
types struck the same high mesocephalic mean.
There is evidence that some of the Danes of this period were blond, since
the hair, teeth, and clothing of a young woman, buried at Egtved, Jut-
land, were perfectly preserved by the tannic acid from the oak coffin in
which she lay, under a mound. This hair, cut short on the forehead and
hanging in a long bob at the rear, was apparently straight as well as fair.
Unfortunately, the bones were not also preserved, and it is impossible to
tell to which of the prevalent Neolithic and Bronze Age Danish racial
types she belonged.89
On the whole we may be reasonably confident that the Middle Bronze
Age in Scandinavia involved no important racial change. The same blend
of at least three peoples, who had combined to create a brilliant Late
Neolithic, were carried over into the age of metal.
In the far north of the Scandinavian Peninsula, out of reach of all but
the most remote Bronze Age influences, we are led, on archaeological
grounds, to believe that the older peoples continued to lead their simple
existence. Although there is as yet no direct skeletal evidence of their sur-
vival, a body of collateral evidence from across the Baltic makes this, by
parallel inference, certain.
At various points near the Esthonian coast of the Gulf of Finland, a re-
markable group of skeletons has been found in cists under tumuli, prob-
ably dating from about 1200 B.C., near the beginning of the Middle Bronze
Age, although they may possibly have been as much as seven hundred
years later.90 (See Appendix I, col. 30.) Ten male and five female skulls
belong to one homogeneous racial type, extremely dolichocephalic, with
a mean cranial length of 195 mm. The faces are very long, and also
wide; the nose is of great height. The browridges are in many cases heavy,
and the nasal bones high and projecting, but deep-set under a strong
glabella. These skulls are similar in many respects to the Corded racial
type, especially as exemplified by the dolichocephalic element in the
British Bronze Age population. Like the latter, they are associated with
long bones which indicate tall stature. The males, in fact, averaged 172
cm.; the females 165.
Unlike the Corded group, however, these Esthonian skulls are as large
in vault and face size as the Upper Palaeolithic group from central Europe,
88 Nielsen, H. A., ANOH, II, vol. 21, 1906; III, vol. 5, 1915, pp. 360-365.
Virchow, R.} AFA, vol. 4, 1870, p. 55.
» Coutil, L., BSPF, vol. 27, 1930, pp. 187-189.
M Friedenthal, A., ZFE, vol. 63, 1931, pp. 1-39.
168 THE RACES OF EUROPE
and equal the latter in a number of telltale dimensions, including cranial
length, orbital width, and bizygomatic diameter. In the height dimen-
sions of the vault and face, the Esthonian crania exceed all known Euro-
pean groups of any age.
This is a clear case of the blending of Upper Palaeolithic survivors, who
had preserved a hunting life in their northern forest, with Corded horse-
men and cultivators who had penetrated their fastness, bringing them
their first direct contact with food-producing civilization. If the Upper
Palaeolithic group survived in Esthonia, it could have done so in Norway
as well. It is worth noting the exaggeration of the Corded facial and
cranial heights in the Esthonian mixture, along with the Upper Pa-
laeolithic retention of gross vault size and of face breadth. This will later
be encountered in several living North European populations.
(11) THE BRONZE AGE ON THE EASTERN PLAINS
The remaining portions of Europe, for which there is skeletal docu-
mentation of Bronze Age date, may be studied as a single unit. This con-
sists of the grassy plain which extends from northern Germany and the
Baltic states, south of the forests, across Poland and southern Russia into
Siberia. It must be remembered that during the Bronze Age this plain
was drier than at present, and that the agriculture of the Neolithic farmers
had been discouraged to a large extent both by drought and by the in-
cursion of Battle-Axe people who had first appeared in the Late Neolithic
in central and western Europe.
The evidence from Poland, although meager 91 shows that the Corded
concentration which had taken place some centuries earlier on Polish
soil had yielded to the smaller dolichocephalic blend already observed
in Austria and Bohemia. During the earlier Bronze Age, there had been
a number of Bell Beaker settlers in Poland as well, who may also have left
descendants.92
The Bronze Age Ukrainians, again, belonged to the same "Nordic"
type, with a mean cranial index of 74,93 without the excessive vault height
of the Austrian and Bohemian groups. In Russia the height is less than
the breadth in most instances.
In the parts of southern Russia immediately north of the Black Sea,
from the Kiev government eastward, Bronze Age remains have not been
studied in a manner sufficient to permit the formation of adequate conclu-
91 Nine Bronze Age crania have been published by:
Czortkower, S., AiUhPr, 1932, pp. 212-218.
Stojanowski, K., PAr, vol. 3, 1925-27, pp. 52-53.
Tur, Jan, Swiatowit, vol. 3, 1901, pp. 85-93.
92 Sediaezek-Komorowski, L., BAPS, ser. B, vol. 2, 1932, pp. 253-257.
MDebetz, G., AntrM, vol. 4, 1930, pp. 43-105.
THE BRONZE AGE 169
sions. What information is available shows that the population was pre-
sumably long headed and of tall stature.94 The same is true of the popula-
tion of the northern slopes of the Caucasus, where the crania are for the
most part characterized by exceptionally long faces, narrow noses, and
vaults of considerable height, like the Corded crania farther west,95
although some Megalithic forms may also have been present. Some of the
Caucasian crania, however, are those of small dolichocephals, and a few,
for the most part females, are brachycephalic. In the latter part of the
Bronze Age, the people on the northern slopes of the Caucasus practiced
cranial deformation of the Hittite variety, which reached, in its southward
diffusion, to Egypt.
To the east of European Russia, in western Turkestan and south-
ern Siberia, there was a nucleus of Bronze Age civilization, which had
cultural connections with the Danube, the Caucasus, Iran, and China.96
That the participants in this Bronze Age were men of European racial
type is very apparent from the remarkable series of one hundred and
fifteen adult crania from kurgans in the Minussinsk district of southern
Siberia97 (see Appendix I, col. 31), near the headwaters of the Ye-
nisei.
This country, which is now the home of nomadic tribes of Kirghiz and
Kalmucks, was, as early as the second millennium before Christ, occupied
by a population of purely European character. The series, coming mostly
from the first millennium B.C., while reasonably homogeneous, shows as
much variability as do most modern groups. The range of the cranial
index includes all head forms, among which are a few planoccipital brachy-
cephals, but the mean is dolichocephalic; similarly the faces are prevail-
ingly long, the noses narrow. In general, although individual crania
are as large and as long as the most extreme Corded form, the vaults are
of moderate size, and the height is considerably less than the breadth.
In lowness of vault and breadth of face, the Minussinsk skulls resemble
the Ukrainian Bronze Age group. On the whole, they form a far eastward
wing of the typical Bronze Age population which reached from Austria
and Bohemia to central Asia — and the term "Nordic," in the skeletal
sense, is as applicable in the east as in the west. One must expect regional
differences in a racial type covering such an extensive area. In this case
94 Gochkevitch, quoted by Tallgren, A. M., ESA, vol. 2, 1926.
Rau, P., ESA, vol. 4, 1929, pp. 41-57.
8« Broca, P., BSAP, ser. 2, vol. 8, 1873, pp. 572-578.
Chantre, E., RDAP, ser. 2, vol. 4, 1881, pp. 247-254.
Sinirnov, M., BSAP, vol. 12, 1877, pp. 541-553.
Virchow, R., ZFE, vol. 22, 1890, pp. 412 ff.
M Tallgren, A, M., ESA, vol. 2, 1926.
97 Goroshchenko, K., Kurgannie cherepa Minusinskago Okruga, OMM, #2, 1900.
Debetz, G. F., AZM, #2, 1932, pp. 26-48.
170 THE RAGES OF EUROPE
the difference is simply that the vaults are higher and the faces narrower in
the west, as far as Poland, and the reverse from the Ukraine on eastward.
The Andronovo or Minussinsk Kurgan culture lasted from about
1000 B.C. to 1 A.D., and was followed by other cultures, which lasted until
the eighth century, when the Kirghiz came in.98
These later peoples introduced iron, and the habit of making plaster
death masks. Not only do these masks represent in many cases a long-
headed, narrow- nosed and often aquiline, and narrow-faced people, but
the plaster contains in some instances blond hairs pulled out of the beard.
The head hair, often preserved on the corpses, is usually brown.
During the fourth century A.D., the physical type definitely changed,
as one can tell from the masks — the face is now wide and flat, the nose
broad and flat, with a very low bridge. Eye slits are painted blue — and
the hair blue with black lines." Thus not until after the time of the Huns
were the Nordics of southwestern Siberia replaced by mongoloids.
(12) THE FINAL BRONZE AGE AND CREMATION
The two or three centuries immediately preceding the 1000 B.C. mark in
central Europe, and a little later in more backward parts, witnessed
several cultural innovations which mark the beginning of the Late or Final
Bronze Age. To the physical anthropologist, the most important of these
was cremation, on account of which our knowledge of race during this
most important period is nearly at the zero point. This hiatus is especially
unfortunate, since the findings of the archaeologists make it clear that
the Late Bronze Age was a time of considerable shifting and expansion of
peoples.
In most of Europe, the Sub-Boreal climate gave way to the Sub- Atlantic,
which brought an increase in cold and dampness, and fostered the growth
of forest on former grasslands. The area of soil suitable for cultivation grew
smaller, while the number of people had increased; these factors alone
were enough to cause displacements of population. Across the plains of
Asia as well as of Europe, large movements took place; the migrations of
the Aryan ancestors into northern India through Afghanistan, and into
the Iranian plateau, were Late Bronze Age phenomena.
Cremation had begun in Europe, as an alternate funeral rite, early in
the Bronze Age, and had gradually increased in popularity in the plains
north of the Alpine mountain barrier. Its chief center of expansion seems
to have been the central and eastern grasslands, from eastern Germany
over to Russia, where it was particularly useful fdt nomadic peoples faced
with the problem of disposing of their dead on frozen ground.
98 Golomshtok, E., AA, vol. 35, 1933, pp. 319-322.
wGolomshtok; E., BUMP, vol. 2, #4, 1933, pp. 40-45.
THE BRONZE AGE 171
The vehicles which diffused this trait over most of Europe during the
Late Bronze Age are called Urnfields cultures, which arose on the plain
north of the Carpathians, from Silesia to the Ukraine. From this center
they spread in all directions. Some went southward over the Alps to Italy,
while cremation was introduced into Greece before the time of the Trojan
war. From a secondary center of expansion in the Alpine highlands, a
special Urnfields diffusion entered the British Isles as a major invasion.
For obvious reasons, the skeletal remains associated with the Urnfields
cemeteries may be disposed of very briefly. Cremated bones which have
survived the rite are usually so fragile that little in the way of racial
identification has been attempted, although it has been shown by ex-
periment that they shrink little or none in the fire.100 Those from the
British Isles indicate in general that the invaders of this time may have
been smaller and slighter than their predecessors. A small series of crania
from southern England which escaped cremation were those of Alpines
of the brachycephalic Lake Dwelling type,101 brought from the secondary
Urnfields center in Switzerland. On the other hand, eight Late Bronze Age
skulls from northwestern France 102 are all meso- or dolichocephalic; and
may have come directly from Germany with the vanguard of the Keltic
migrations. Eight other skulls, from the Ukrainian urnfields,103 are long
headed, and similar to the immediately preceding "Nordic" type of the
same region.
Some of the south Russian and Caucasian remains already studied are
of Late Bronze Age date, as are those from Siberia, both having escaped
cremation. The general time scale of cultural phenomena in central
Asia as compared with Europe would indicate that important ethnic move-
ments were not passing from east to west at that time. By the end of the
Middle Bronze Age, the ethnic elements which were to form the popula-
tion of Europe at the beginning of the Iron Age had all arrived; during the
period of cremation, no new ingredients were added, but those already
there participated in a considerable readjustment and recombination.
(13) SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The Bronze Age covered, in most of Europe, the brief span of some six
centuries, as compared with an expanse three times as long in Egypt and
Mesopotamia. During these six centuries, however, important racial
changes took place in many parts of the European world, while in the
two valleys from which European civilization emanated, the personnel
100 Movius, H. L., Jr., PRIA, vol. 61, 1934, pp. 282-283.
101 Keith, Sir A., JA, vol. 11, 1931, pp. 410-418.
102 Bouchet, Dr., Anth, vol. 16, 1905, pp. 309-316.
Piroutet, M., Anth, vol. 38, 1928, pp. 51-60.
i« Debetz, G., AntrK, vol. 4, 1930, pp. 93-105.
172 THE RACES OF EUROPE
remained constant. The parts of Europe most affected by Bronze Age
movements of people were the north and west; and hence these activities
may be interpreted as a late phase of the displacements initiated by the
retreat of the last glacier, and continued by the discovery of the principles
of food production. By the end of the Bronze Age, the centers of civiliza-
tion had begun their movement northward and westward, toward Greece
and Italy, movements which were later to push much farther in the same
direction. It is perhaps no coincidence that, since the beginning of the
Neolithic, people from the east and south had migrated to the north and
west ahead of this progression.
Among the problems left over from the Neolithic which the evidence
of the Bronze Age has helped to clarify is that of the immediate origin of
the Danubians. In the Neolithic Danubian-like peoples cultivated the
rich soil of southern Russia and of western Turkestan. We now know that
they must have formed a large bloc of agriculturalists occupying Asia
Minor as well, and probably also the Caucasus. Thus they may have
come into the Danube Valley from either southern Russia or Anatolia,
or both; and their earlier derivation from the agricultural highlands is
established.
A second problem, which arose only during the Bronze Age, is the origin
of the new racial type which appeared, shortly before 2000 B.C., apparently
from nowhere, in Asia Minor, Palestine, and Cyprus. This new type was
tall, round headed and frequently planoccipital; its nose was prominent
and narrow; its face triangular and of moderate length. In its associated
morphological features, it forecast the appearance of the Dinaric race.
Brachycephals of this type followed the old Megalithic sea route to
Italy, the Italian islands, and Spain. In Spain some of them seem to have
associated themselves with cultural phenomena known as the Bell Beaker
complex. As the Bell Beaker people, these newcomers travelled from Spain
to the Rhinelands and to central Europe, where they were the first dis-
seminators of metal. Having appeared in the Rhineland in considerable
numbers, they mixed with the older Borreby sub-stratum which had re-
mained there since the Mesolithic, and with Corded people coming from
the east. This triple combination moved bodily down the Rhine and
across the North Sea to Britain. Thus, during the Early Bronze Age,
England and Scotland were invaded by people of entirely new types,
who came in numbers sufficient to change the population of these coun-
tries in a radical manner. At the same time, other movements of these
brachycephals from the eastern Mediterranean passed by sea from Spain
to Ireland and from Ireland across to Scotland.
The appearance of these early Binaries on the Asiatic and European
scene marks the advent of the third important brachycephalic racial type
THE BRONZE AGE 173
which we have encountered in our survey of the post-glacial prehistory of
the white race. Unlike the Borreby and Alpine types, it cannot be easily
or plausibly explained as a simple Palaeolithic survivor. Facially it is
basically Mediterranean; it seems to be a Mediterranean type brachy-
cephalized by some non-Mediterranean agency.104
These Binaries did not come from central Asia, nor from Mesopotamia
or Egypt. Facially, they resemble the dolichocephalic residents of Asia
Minor and the eastern Mediterranean coast lands of the period during
which they first appeared, in that both have in common a high-bridged,
high-rooted nose, high orbits, and a sloping forehead. Until further evi-
dence is found, it is safer to hold that the culture-bearing Binaries of the
Bronze Age developed in the Syrian highlands, where a similar type of
brachycephaly is now present, than to try to bring them from a distance.
Another Bronze Age event of racial moment was the gradual disappear-
ance through amalgamation of the Corded people and of the Banubians,
and the emergence of an intermediate long-headed form. This latter,
which inhabited the immense stretch of territory from Germany and
Austria to the Altai Mountains, occupied an intermediate position in the
total roster of greater Mediterranean racial variations.
In Austria and Bohemia the high vault and narrow face of both Corded
and Banubian strains persisted, but from southern Russia over to the
Altai, the vaults were lower and the faces broader. Two variants thus
appeared, a western and an eastern. There is evidence that the eastern
group, at least, was partly if not prevailingly blond. Both eastern and
western divisions may with some confidence be compared to the "Nordic"
peoples who appeared historically during the Iron Age.
At the end of the Bronze Age, for a period of two or three centuries, the
pall of cremation falls over the racial history of Europe. When the smoke
has lifted during the Early Iron Age, we shall see what changes have taken
place during this period of darkness.
104 The principle of Dinaricization will be explained in Chapter VIII, section 6,
and Chapter XII, sections 11, 12, and 17. See also legend, Plate 35.
Chapter VI
THE IRON AGE
(1) RACE, LANGUAGES, AND EUROPEAN PEOPLES
In the preceding chapters, we have found it necessary to use archaeol-
ogy as a system of landmarks by which to chart the movements of human
groups and their relationships with one another; this study of race in
terms of culture was essential. Ideas are originated, diffused, and con-
served by people, and people interbreed. A complete and sudden re-
placement of one culture by another implies a drastic change of per-
sonnel, while a gradual merging of a new culture with an old one must
equally imply the survival, at least in part, of the older population. By
following these rules we have seen that racial and cultural movements
are truly connected, and in no instance in which the skeletal record is
adequate could any contradiction be seen.
The subject of this book, however, is race, not culture; although culture
in the archaeological sense has been a valuable guide. But once we arrive
at the period of history it is no longer necessary to deal exclusively with
pots and axes and methods of burial; we may consider people as linguistic
and political groups, with known names and ethnic relationships. This
has already been possible with the civilized nations of preclassical antiq-
uity, such as the Egyptians, the Sumerians, the Babylonians, and to a cer-
tain extent with the Cretans and Hittites, whose writings have so far fur-
nished little or nothing in the way of documentary information, as well as
with the early ancestors of the Greeks.
The peoples of central and northern Europe did not learn to write
until relatively recent times — in most instances well after the beginning of
the Christian era, and in some cases only within the current millennium.
But their identities are in many instances known to us from the writings
of the classical geographers and historians, and, in the Dark Ages, from
Arabic sources as well. Farther east, in central Asia, the diligence of
Chinese historians has been of great assistance. In our study of the early
part of the Iron Age, archaeology will still be needed; but by the time of
the Christian era it will be possible, for our purposes, to dispense with it
almost completely, for in treating fully historical and living cultures,
language serves as the best-known, most easily designated, and most con-
venient framework available for the creation of units suitable for racial
study.
174
THE IRON AGE 175
Heretofore, we have said little about language. The speech of the
peoples with whom we have dealt has been unknown to us in almost all
instances. The exceptions are few: The Egyptians, as we well know, spoke
a language of the Hamitic stock, with considerable Semitic influence. The
Babylonians and Assyrians spoke Semitic, while the Sumerian language,
although it can be read, has not yet been related with certainty to any
other known tongue or linguistic family.1 During the third millennium,
therefore, Hamitic and Semitic languages were used by civilized peoples,
as was the still unclassified Sumerian.
Besides these known linguistic groupings found in antiquity, there was
another group or rather collection of languages spoken in the eastern
Mediterranean and Asia Minor. These included Lydian, and its probable
derivative Etruscan; languages of the Caucasus, some of which still sur-
vive; a few languages of the Himalayas, such as Burushaski;2 and a whole
group in Greece and the Aegean Islands, if not farther west, known to us
almost entirely by place names. Cretan may possibly have also belonged
to this class of languages.
A school of linguistic experts headed by the late Professor Marr, and
championed in the English-speaking world by Dr. Ephraim Speiser,3
would group all of these languages together, including a whole row of ex-
tinct tongues stretching around the so-called "Fertile Crescent" from
Syria to Elam. The name given this group is "Japhetic," coined to com-
plete, with Hamitic and Semitic, a Biblical trinity. The living examples
of this alleged class or family of languages, notably Georgian and Circas-
sian, employ a number of sounds unfamiliar to the Indo-European, Se-
mitic, and Hamitic families, and reminiscent of American Indian languages.
No one denies the wide distribution and importance of these languages
in ancient times, but there is serious doubt that they may be united into
a single stock comparable to Semitic, Hamitic, Indo-European, etc. It is
more likely that this grouping includes a number of independent families,
but at present it is too early to say what these may be; especially since
most of them are extinct and will never, in all likelihood, be resuscitated.
At any rate, it is probable that some of the seafarers of the Late Neolithic
and of the Bronze Age who migrated westward along the Mediterranean
1 The supposed kinship between Sumerian and Finno-Ugrian cannot easily be eval-
uated, owing largely to the gap of over three millennia between the known forms of each.
Both groups are agglutinative, but the grammatical structure of Sumerian also has ver-
bal prefixes, often with personal tone, unknown in modern Finnic or Ugric. Sumerian,
like modern Finnic, Ugric, and Turkish, seems to have vowel harmony. In vocabulary
there are few similarities. On the whole, this relationship cannot at the moment be
proved or disproved. — Personal communication from Dr. J. Dyneley Prince. See also
the Prolegomena of his Materials for a Sumerian Lexicon.
2 Lorimer, D. L., The Burushaski Language.
8 Speiser, E., Mesopotamian Origins.
IRON AGE RACES
OP EUROPE
BEFORE HUNS AND
B m e a Borreby \
Mordic oooo Alpine
+KJWW*,. . ,..,. A^AAQjnaric
^,^,,^1^16^11^10
(Mediterranean
.*. -Northern /
. ; Forest people/
MAP
176
177
178 THE RACES OF EUROPE
to Italy, the Italian islands, and Spain, and thence to Britain, France,
and Scandinavia, spoke languages derived from the eastern Mediter-
ranean. It is furthermore possible that modern Basque may be the only
survivor of this linguistic migration; but this suggested relationship,
referred to in the preceding chapter, must by no means be accepted as a
certainty.
We do not know the languages of the Early Neolithic swineherds who
introduced a food-producing economy to Spain and western Europe, in-
cluding the lake shores of Switzerland, and we are not likely to find out.
We do not, furthermore, know what medium the Danubians who per-
formed the same pioneering function in another quarter used. The
speech of the Corded people is equally unknown, and the oldldioms of the
Palaeolithic survivors in the far north, of the midden dwellers of Denmark,
and of the Azilian survivors in Switzerland, are far past reconstruction. In
Europe we must start as late as the Iron Age in our attempt to allocate
languages to cultural or racial groups.
Today the members of the white race speak languages of the following
linguistic stocks: Semitic, Hamitic, Indo-European, Ural-Altaic,4 Euska-
rian (Basque), and various languages of the Caucasus and Himalayas,
which it would be futile to attempt to classify here. At present the two
most important are Indo-European and Ural-Altaic. Yet in antiquity,
while civilization of the first water was in the hands of Hamites, Semites,
and Sumerians, all Indo-European and probably most Ural-Altaic speak-
ers, if they existed as such, were illiterate barbarians.
Indo-European languages are spoken by more white people today than
are all of the others put together, several times over. People speaking
Indo-European languages have monopolized the cultural advances of
modern science; but it must not be forgotten that, as late as the Middle
Ages, Semites, Turks, and Chinese were more advanced than the majority
of Indo-European speakers. The linguists tell us that the Indo-European
speakers did not initially domesticate one useful animal, or one cultivated
plant.
Linguistically, Indo-European is probably a relatively recent phenom-
enon, which arose after animals had been tamed and plants cultivated.
The latest researches find it to be a derivative of an initially mixed lan-
guage, whose principal elements were Uralic, called element A, and some
undesignated element B which was probably one of the eastern Mediter-
ranean or Caucasic languages.5 The plants and animals on which the
»
4 Concerning the question of Ural-Altaic unity, see Chapter VII, p. 223.
6 Uhlenbeck (AA *37) refuses to identify element B, or to call it specifically Caucasic.
Nehring, however (Nehring, A., WBKL, vol. 4, 1936, pp. 7-229), feels certain that B
is one of the group of which Caucasic may form a part.
THE IRON AGE 179
economy of the early Indo-European speakers was based were referred to
in words derived mainly from element B. Copper and gold were known,
and the words for these commodities come from Mesopotamia.
Somewhere in the plains of southern Russia or central Asia, the blend-
ing of languages took place which resulted in Indo-European speech.
This product in turn spread and split, and was further differentiated by
mixture with the languages of peoples upon whom it, in one form or other,
was imposed. Some of the present Indo-European languages, in addition
to these later accretions from non-Indo-European tongues, contain more
of the A element than others, which contain more of the B. The unity of
the original " I ndo- Europeans," could not have been of long duration, if
it was ever complete.
They split, perhaps very early, into two groups, designated by the treat-
ment of the palatal explosives of the K group. Among one branch, the
so-called Satem, this was changed to spirants (5); the other, called Cen-
tum, preserved the original form of this sound, which also prevailed
in the A or Finno-Ugric element. Centum speech became divided into a
number of branches, of which surviving members are Keltic, Germanic,
Italic, and Hellenic; Satem includes Slavic and Baltic, Armenian, Indie
and Iranian, and probably Thracian,6 in the sense of a contributing factor
in modern Albanian. Others, such as Ligurian, Illyrian,7 and Tokharian
B (all Centum), have long been extinct.
On the whole, the Indo-European languages have been spoken by
people who combined agriculture with animal husbandry, who were
organized into a patrilineal society with at least the germs of a differential
class system, and who worshipped an Olympian pantheon of Gods. The
initial formation of the Indo-European linguistic stock by blending does
not antedate the age of metal; the common culture of the earliest Indo-
European speakers, insofar as it existed as a unit, had much in common
with those of both the peoples of the Aegean and Asia Minor on the one
hand, and of central Asia on the other. The mythology of the Altaian
Turks, for example, is so nearly identical with that of the early Scandina-
vians that some close association in the not far distant past is necessary.8
Furthermore, the ritual of the horse sacrifice 9 is so integral a part of the
religion of both Indo-European and Altaic-speaking peoples that recent
diffusion alone cannot explain the identity.
Indo-European languages as we know them must have come from east-
ernmost Europe or western central Asia at no very remote time. Their
6 Lowman, G. S., Language, vol. 8, 1932, p. 271.
7 This may also be a factor in modern Albanian.
s Chadwick, Nora K., JRAI, vol. 66, 1936, pp. 75-112.
'Koppers, W., Anthropos, vol. 24, 1929, pp. 1073-1089; WBKL, vol. 4, 1936,
pp. 279-411.
180 THE RACES OF EUROPE
spread over most of Europe, and subsequently over the western hemi-
sphere, Australia, and large segments of Asia in which they were origi-
nally not at home, is part of a general movement of expansion in which
both race and culture have played their r61es. Yet we cannot with com-
plete assurance associate any one culture earlier than the Iron Age with
any specific form of Indo-European speech. Although Homer's heroes
fought with bronze weapons, we are not sure exactly when and by what
agency the pre-Dorian Greek dialects arrived in the racially and culturally
composite Hellenic world; nor do we know exactly who brought Nasili
speech to Asia Minor.
One whole school of European archaeologists and linguists associates
the Corded people with the diffusion of Indo-European speech.10 Nehring,
in a recent work of great detail and authority, would make the Danubians
the original Indo- Europeans.11 He would explain the Altaic cultural
similarities by dividing the Indo-European culture and vocabulary into
two elements: (1) an early horizon in which the ox was the most important
domestic animal economically, and agriculture of primary importance;
(2) a later horizon of indirect Altaic inspiration, in which the horse was
supreme and agriculture secondary.
At the moment the evidence is growing that certain forms of Indo-
European speech were very ancient in more than one part of the Mediter-
ranean basin. Whatmough has definitely identified Ligurian as Indo-
European,12 and Ligurian was very old in Italy and in the Rh6ne Valley.
Sapir sees in Philistine a form of Indo-European; 13 and would make the
ark of the covenant a spirit-placing on wheels like the portable wicker
shrines of the later Mongols. But neither of these identifications need carry
us back earlier in history than the time of the troubles in Mesopotamia at
the end of the third millennium, when northerners caused restless nights to
the Babylonian kings, and the Hyksos invaded Egypt. It was after these
disturbances that the chariot first appeared in Libya; hence, the first
southward burst of horse-nomads may have affected both shores of the
Mediterranean, whatever languages they brought with them.
The dates of the earliest certain appearances of Indo-European are
about 1900 B.C., when the Nasili dialect which was incorporated into
Hittite entered Asia Minor. The earliest Greek probably entered Hellas
at the s^me time. About 1400 B.C., the ancestors of the Aryans of India
were crossing the passes of Afghanistan into the Indus Valley, and some
six hundred years later, their relatives the Iranian ancestors were founding
10 That headed by Kossinna, who would likewise derive Indo-European speech from
the Baltic. See Kossinna, G., Vr sprung und Verbreitung der Germanen.
" Nehring, A., WBKL, vol. 4, 1936.
12 Whatmough, J., The Foundations of Roman Italy.
™ Sapir, E., JAOS, vol. 56, 1935, #2, pp. 272-281.
THE IRON AGE 181
the Persian empire. From roughly 1000-900 B.C. onward, as the earliest
possible date, the bearers of the Hallstatt culture in central Europe were
spreading the use of iron, and the Hallstatt people almost certainly spoke
lllyrian. In Italy, the Villanova people were without reasonable doubt
diffusing Italic speech in the peninsula, while some forms of lllyrian were
introduced by a number of peoples, among whom were probably the
Veneti.
All of these Indo-European speakers, from 900 B.C. onward, were asso-
ciated in some way with the diffusion of iron metallurgy from a center
which is still to be determined. The most commonly proposed location
is northern Anatolia and the Caucasus; u whatever the history of the
diffusion of Indo-European speech in the past, with the advent of iron,
certain branches of it seem to have spread with great rapidity. The
Hallstatt period in central Europe was followed by that of La Tene, the
Late Iron Age, which lasted from 500 B.C. to the time of Christ; and this
was the period of Keltic expansion and Keltic dominance, earlier than
but parallel to the spread of Roman power and of Latin in the Mediter-
ranean. After the phenomenal and immoderate scattering of the Kelts,
who were destined to survive linguistically only on the western European
fringe, far from their center of dispersion — the Germanic peoples began,
in the days of the Roman empire, their swelling and pushing, from Den-
mark, southern Sweden, northern Germany, Holland, and the Norwegian
coast. This reached every country in Europe and also North Africa. Un-
like the spread of the Kelts, it was to achieve, in many quarters, linguistic
and cultural permanence.
The expansion of the Germans was followed by that of the Slavs, the
youngest of the Indo-Europeans to effervesce in an orgy of numerical
increase and of migration. This took place in full historic time, in the
seventh and eighth centuries of our era, but, unfortunately, the light of
history was dim in the part of Europe in which most of their expansion
occurred.
The foregoing digression into the field of comparative linguistics has a
direct bearing upon the problem of the racial complexion of present day
Europe. While it is not our primary purpose to discover the physical type
or types of the undivided Indo-European ancestors, if they were ever
actually undivided, it will be possible to find the common racial denom-
inator, homogeneous or mixed, of the Iron Age spreaders of Indo-
European speech and the accompanying cultures over Europe and parts of
Asia. Once we have isolated the common factor, we may hope to locate
its position in the roster of racial types previously known to us — for it
must have been some type or types with which we have already become
" Wainwright, G., Antiquity, vol. 10, 1936, pp. 5-24.
182 THE RACES OF EUROPE
familiar in the earlier part of our study, and not a deus ex machina con-
jured up by linguists and politicians.
(2) THE ILLYRIANS
In beginning our survey of Iron Age Indo-European peoples, it may
be well to choose the earliest instance in which we can definitely identify a
language with a culture and a racial entity. This is true of the so-called
Hallstatt culture associated with the Illyrian branch of Indo-European
speech. Although usually classified with Centum, Illyrian, like Tokharian
B, belonged to an ancient form of Indo-European which perhaps ante-
dated the clear segregation into Centum and Satem.15
This culture arose in central Europe, with southern Germany and
Austria as a focus, sometime shortly after the beginning of the first millen-
nium B.C. It developed out of local Bronze Age origins carried over from
the Urnfields, and in turn from Aunjetitz. Other Middle and Late Bronze
Age influences reached it, particularly that of the tumulus culture of the
south German highlands; likewise both cremation and the use of iron were
introduced from outside. Still, whatever the complexity of archaeological
detail, the Hallstatt civilization may be considered primarily the work of
the indigenous central European population, with little if any accretions.
The Hallstatt culture spread in many directions, including the south-
east, where it penetrated Bosnia, and eventually Albania. It moved slowly
northward, until it reached the Scandinavian and North German area,
bringing iron to these regions relatively late; while to the southwest, it
crossed France and penetrated Catalonia. To the immediate south, it
likewise spread over the Alps into Italy, where the invading Illyrians split
into a number of local tribal groups, including the Veneti. It would be
foolish to claim that every site with Hallstatt cultural remains carries the
bones or ashes of Illyrian speakers. This may only with certainty be as-
serted for the central area, and for the regions immediately adjacent, while
in the west it is fairly certain that some of the peoples in a Hallstatt level of
culture were actually Kelts.
The Hallstatt crania from Austria, including those from the type site
itself, form a reasonably homogeneous, entirely long-headed group.16
(See Appendix I, col. 32.) This group is the legitimate, local successor to
the Aunjetitz, and like the latter it resembles the Danubian Neolithic
16 Whatnaough, J., The Foundations of Roman Italy > p. 177.
16 Through combining several series, 24 adult male crania may be assembled.
Hochstetter, F. von, MAGW, vol. 7, 1878, pp. 297-318.
Rosensprung, L. M., MAGW, vol. 66, 1936, pp. 338-344.
Schliz, A., AFA, vol. 37, 1910, pp. 201-251.
Schurer von Waldheim, Hella, MAGW, vols. 48-49, 1919, pp. 247-263.
Weisbach, A., MAGW, vol. 18, 1888, pp. 51-52.
Zuckerkandl, E., MAGW, vol. 13, 1883, pp 89-118.
THE IRON AGE 183
series in many respects. In certain characters, however, it leans in a
Corded direction, and these include a heightening of the orbits and a
narrowing and lengthening of the nose. Certain of the individual crania
are of definitely Corded type. Morphologically, as well as metrically,
most of these skulls may without difficulty be designated as "Nordic55; the
browridges are moderate, the foreheads moderately sloping, the occiputs
protruding, the parietals flattened, the malars compressed, the mandibles
deep. The stature was apparently moderately tall.17
The Austrian Hallstatt series has close connections in two directions:
first, with the local Bronze Age and Neolithic populations of central
Europe which preceded it, and second, with the Germanic "Reihen-
graber" people who followed it after a Keltic interruption. The similarity
between Hallstatt and Germanic crania is a commonplace; and if the
Reihengraber people were "Nordic," as is generally conceded, then so, in
all likelihood, were the Hallstatt people.
The significance of this double continuity is great. It traces the Nordic
racial type, in its skeletal form, back to the Early Iron Age, and derives
this with little alteration from the preceding Age of Bronze. The Bronze
Age population which was thus the ancestral Nordic one was in turn de-
rived from a mixture between the local Danubian Neolithic people, who
came from the east, and the later Corded invaders. The complexity of
the Middle and Late Bronze Age, therefore, and the disturbances caused
by the introduction of cremation, during the latter part of the epoch, did
not interrupt the racial continuity of central Europe, where racial move-
ments, during the Late Bronze Age, seem to have been somewhat simpler
than those of culture.
Let us return to the specific problem of the Illyrian racial composition.
So far, we have been dealing entirely with the Hallstatt remains from
Lower Austria. The Hallstatt cemetery itself dates from the middle and
later thirds of the period; but the neighboring Early Hallstatt site of Stat-
zendorf, from which a series of five crania have been taken, contains noth-
ing but long-headed examples, and these are the same as those from the
type site itself. So the Hallstatt site is racially typical of the entire period.
When we move to southern Germany, however, which was equally
involved in the development of this culture, we find no such racial uni-
formity. Crania from Wurttemburg, Bavaria, and the Bavarian Palatinate
include, with the usual Austrian Hallstatt type, a large minority of brachy-
cephals which may be considered as survivals from the Bronze Age.18
J7 Matiegka, H. (MAGW, vol 41, 1911, pp. 348-387), fails to segregate Hallstatt from
Aunjetitz long bones, implies that both are the same, with a mean stature of 168 cm*
18 Schliz, A., AFA, vol. 37, 1910, pp. 202-251.
Schultz, B. K., VGPA, vol. 3, 1929, pp. 5-12.
184 THE RACES OF EUROPE
These include both planoccipital crania of the original Bell Beaker type,
and a curvoccipital brachycephalic type which shows a Borreby relation-
ship. It would appear, then, that in southwestern Germany, Hallstatt Nor-
dics had invaded the region and had mixed with the Bell Beaker Binaries
and the old Borreby sub-stratum.
A large series from the Spreewald, situated to the north of this area
and on flat land, consists entirely of purely dolichocephalic crania of the
regular Austrian Hallstatt type,19 which was apparently at home in the
lowlands of central Europe, but not in the highlands, which had already
given shelter to a tenacious brachycephalic population. In Bohemia and
Silesia, as one would expect, Schliz finds typical Hallstatt dolichocephalic
forms in small collections from each of these regions. One out of five Bo-
hemian crania was brachycephalic, and none in a series of four from
Silesia.
The generalization announced in the preceding paragraph applies like-
wise to Switzerland, where the Hallstatt culture, like that of the Bronze
Age, penetrated slowly, while the older economy and technique which
had survived in part from the Neolithic persisted in large measure. Both
long-headed skulls and those of brachycephals are found, as is to be ex-
pected. In the available Swiss Hallstatt material, the majority of crania
are brachycephalic.20
Let us turn southeastward and follow the Dinaric Alpine chain in the
direction of the Balkans. In the mountainous section of southern Austria,
the Hallstatt Nordic type is in the minority. Out of six skulls from Carniola,
three are round headed and one is mesocephalic. The brachycephalic
types seem without question to be predominantly Dinaric. In Croatia,
however, seven adult skulls are all long headed, of the usual Hallstatt type,
while two infantile skulls show brachycephaly.
In Bosnia, we come to the famous site of Glasinac,21 where a compar-
atively large series of relatively late Illyrian remains contains again a
mixture of types. The majority of the skulls are long headed and these
show the same mixture of Danubian and Corded elements which we have
already seen at Hallstatt itself. A few of the individual crania are very
large, and reproduce the Corded prototype quite accurately. The brachy-
cephalic skulls, although in the minority, are numerous enough to permit
one to determine their racial affiliation with some accuracy. Almost all
19 G6tze, A., PZ, vol. 4, 1912, pp. 264-350. This cemetery, unfortunately, was used
at two periods; from 1000 to 500 B.C. when it was a Halls^att graveyard, and from
500 A.D. on, when it was occupied by Slavic Wends. It is impossible to state how many
of the crania belong to the Hallstatt people, and how many, if any, to the Slavs, but in
either case the series represents one unified physical type of Hallstatt affinity.
20 Schlaginhaufen, O., VNGZ, vol. 79, 1934, pp. 220-270.
» Weisbach, A., WMBH, vol. 5, 1897, pp. 562-576.
THE IRON AGE 185
belong to what might be called a modern Dinaric racial type. The skulls
are moderately large with flattened occiputs, straight side walls, rather
broad foreheads, and a very prominent nose, in the one instance in which
the nasal bones were preserved.22 The jaws are very broad with an ex-
cessive bigonial diameter, but not noted for their depth.
Metrically, these brachycephalic crania resemble the Bronze Age series
from Cyprus, but are, on the whole, a little larger. They fall, as a matter
of fact, into an intermediate position between the Cyprus series and the
Bell Beaker group from the upper Rhineland, but in morphology are iden-
tical with both. There is no doubt that we are dealing in this instance
with a form of Dinaric which anticipates the modern population of Bosnia.
This is the first occurrence of crania of this type in the Dinaric Alpine
region in any considerable numbers. We have already seen, however,
that this same type had entered these mountains by the beginning of the
Bronze Age, in connection with the eastward movement of the Bell Beaker
peoples. The round-heads at Glasinac and in Carniola may have been the
descendants of these Bell Beaker refugees. It is also possible that this
racial type may have been reenforced by migrations from the southeast,
but there is no archaeological evidence to favor such a theory.
As the Illyrians spread southwestward along the Dinaric Alps into
Montenegro and Albania, they apparently blended with an indigenous
brachycephalic mountain population which may have been more numer-
ous than the invaders; for, with some additions and modifications, it per-
sists as a predominant element today. In a small series of early Christian
crania from a site near Split on the Dalmatian coast,23 both Dinaric
brachycephals and a few long-headed crania are represented. In Albania,
a country which is almost completely unknown archaeologically, a single
skull which belonged to a Romanized Illyrian group has been found in
an Iron Age site in the tribe of Puka.24 This skull is mesocephalic, and
seems, insofar as we may judge, intermediate between the Illyrians of the
old type and Dinarics.
The significance of our study of the Illyrian peoples is as follows: on the
plains of south central Germany and Lower Austria, where the Hallstatt
culture arose, the racial type involved was skeletally a Nordic one. By
this term we must understand that the Illyrian central type was similar in
crapial dimensions, proportions, and general form to that of the Germans
of the Volkerwanderung period. Historical evidence as to the pigmen-
tation of the Illyrians is conflicting,25 and insufficient to warrant the
22 In all of the Glasinac crania the facial bones are missing
2» Horvath, A., MAGW, vol. 36, 1906, pp. 239-248.
* Lebzelter, V., AFA, vol. 45, 1919, pp. 143-146.
" Lebzelter, V,, MAGW, 1929, vol. 59, pp. 61-126,
186 THE RACES OF EUROPE
formation of an opinion on this matter. This "Nordic" type is no special
or separate race, but merely a variant of the larger Mediterranean family,
of an intermediate metrical position.
It finds a ready prototype in the Bronze Age population which stretched
from Austria to Siberia, and which was in turn the product of mixture
between Danubian peasants and Corded invaders. It seems most likely
that the Illyrians were largely the descendants, more specifically, of the
Aunjetitz people, through an Urnfields medium, or of some similar
physical blend composed of identical racial ingredients.
(3) THE KELTS
One of the most controversial subjects in the whole of European history
is the physical composition of the Keltic peoples. The name Keltic has
been applied to many racial types, real and imagined, from short, brunet,
round heads to blond brachycephals and Nordics. Many modern prehis*
torians take the stand that the Kelts were everywhere a small minority of
aristocrats and conquerors, and that no special racial type accompanied
their expansion in Europe. This position, however, becomes invalid when
we examine the actual skeletons of Keltic speakers. There was a Keltic
physical type, which the Kelts carried to their primary areas of coloniza-
tion, and which will be described shortly.
Although earlier identifications, however likely, are still questionable,
we may state that the Kelts as such first appeared in the European historical
setting about the year 500 B.C., with the beginning of the La T£ne civiliza-
tion. The home of the Kelts, or at least the country in which they devel-
oped this brilliant Iron Age culture, lies without reasonable doubt in south-
western Germany, in the upper drainage of the Rhine,26 a country which
had formed the western section of the original Hallstatt area. The eastern-
most outposts of the early Keltic domain were Bohemia and Galicia,
while, on the west and south, it touched the territory of the Ligurians and
of the Rhaetians. The Kelts, therefore, were situated northwest and west
of the Illyrians proper, and south of the Germans, who at the time were
confined to Scandinavia and northwesternmost Germany.
The Keltic languages are very closely related to the Italic group, of
which Latin was a derivative. The period in which the Keltic languages
became differentiated from other forms of Indo-European speech must,
therefore, be as old as the departure of the ancestors of the Italici for Italy,
and therefore must lead back to the Bronze Age.27 Keltic, like Italic, is
divided into two branches — P-Keltic and Q-Keltic. |t is considered likely
26 Hubert, H., The Rise of the Celts, p. 147.
27 Although one school of Italic scholars derives the P-Italici from north of the Alps
.n Iron Age times, all admit the Bronze Age dating of the Q-Italic arrival. For the de-
tails of this controversy, see Whatmough, J., The Foundations of Roman Italy.
THE IRON AGE 187
that the phonetic separation which split both of the linguistic groups took
place independently in each, and that the tendency for such a division was
inherent in both Keltic and Italic at the time of their separation from one
another. We do not know at what time the Goidelic or Q-Keltic dialect
split off from the Brythonic or P dialect, but this cleavage again must have
occurred at a reasonably early period, since the division was complete at
the time of our earliest knowledge of these languages. Q-Keltic has sur-
vived only in Ireland, Scotland, and on the Isle of Man. All other known
dialects, living and extinct, from Asia Minor to Wales, have been of the
P variety.
The Keltic expansion, which began about 500 B.C., was a rapid and
extensive one. The Kelts were an extremely mobile people who conquered
and wandered far, and at the time of their expansion were apparently
numerous as well. Their well-known migrations carried them over the
Alps into Italy, down into southeastern Europe where they invaded
Greece, and even over into Asia Minor where they established the short
lived Galatian colony. Their main expansion, however, lay to the west.
Belgium and northern France became great Keltic centers, from which
some of them migrated down into northern Spain. This westward move-
ment carried them also into the British Isles, where the Q-Keltic people
settled Ireland, and their P-Keltic brethren established themselves in
England and Wales. Large sections of Scotland were to remain free for
the most part from these Keltic invaders until after the time of Christ,
when the Goidels crossed over from Ireland.
The question as to the linguistic identity of the previous inhabitants,
the Picts, is an open one. At present, the tendency is to consider them, and
the pre-Goidelic Cruithni of Ireland, as speakers of some early form of
Keltic. The further question as to whether or not the Goidels crossed Eng-
land in their journey to Ireland is likewise open, but the prevailing tend-
ency is to bring them over the old sea road from northern Spain, which
they had previously entered by way of France, and to deny that they so-
journed in England at all.
In their period of development in southwestern Germany, the relation-
ship between the Kelts and Illyrians must have been intimate, for the
Kelts received iron from a Hallstatt source, and were actually, during the
Early Iron Age, participants in a Hallstatt form of culture. The major
factor which served to differentiate La T&ne from Hallstatt culture was
the incorporation, by the former, of many elements derived from the clas-
sical Mediterranean world. The Kelts were situated at a favorable spot
for the reception of such influences; Greek influences moved up the Rh&ne
and Sadne from Marseilles, while those from Rome crossed the Alpine
passes into Bavaria and Switzerland and thence into the Keltic homeland,
188 THE RACES OF EUROPE
In addition to the Hallstatt Iron Age base and classical accretions, we
must further acknowledge the influences of some eastern European grass-
land culture, for the Kelts rode astride as well as in chariots, and the
P-Kelts introduced trousers to western Europe. This garment was central
Asiatic in origin, and was typical of the Scyths, whose period of cultural
efflorescence in the east was contemporary with and parallel to that of the
Kelts in the west. Philologically, there are a number of close linguistic
connections between the Kelts and the Indo-Iranians, which may reflect
this or an earlier cultural contact. It is most likely, however, that the
principal contact between the Keltic-speaking peoples and the Iranian
horsemen of the eastern European plain took place during the early years
of the great Keltic expansion.
Turning back from Keltic expansions to Keltic origins, we find no
cultural disturbances in southwestern Germany which would permit the
arrival of the Kelts from elsewhere between the Hallstatt epoch and the
early La Tene. Before the Hallstatt, however, the spread of the Late Bronze
Age Lausitz culture into this region from eastern Germany may conceiv-
ably have brought a large number of people, impossible to identify because
of their practice of cremation. These people may well have been the
bearers of Keltic speech. Since the related Italici were themselves Urn-
fields cremators before they succumbed to indigenous burial rites in Italy,
this identification is rendered more than likely. Hubert has, indeed, postu-
lated an earlier Ligurian-speaking population in the Keltic cradle-area.28
The derivation of the Kelts from a Hallstatt cultural horizon, in part of
the earliest region of Hallstatt development, while the main current of
Hallstatt cultural expansion was borne by Illyrian speakers, seems incon-
gruous. One must remember, however, that the Nordic skeletal type with
which the Illyrians were identified in Lower Austria was confined, in its
purely dolichocephalic form, to the lowland country north of the Bavarian
foothills, while the Keltic area of development was, in its strictest limits,
within the highland zone. Here the Kelts developed their own culture
independently of the Illyrians and retained their own language.
Keltic cranial material from the southwest German center of Keltic
development is surprisingly scarce. Schliz has described six skulls, and
notices of three others have appeared in more recent publications.29 Of
these nine, one is dolichocephalic, four are mesocephalic, and four are
brachycephalic. Although this small group is far from sufficient to dis-
close the racial type of the Kelts in their homeland, it is enough to show
us that a round-headed element played a considerable part in the develop-
28 Hubert, H., The Rise of the Kelts, p. 159.
29 Jacob, G., AFA, vol. 20, 1891-92, p. 181.
Ortmann, R., JVST, vol. 15, 1927, pp. 56-59.
Schliz, A., AFA, vol. 37, 1910, pp. 246-251.
THE IRON AGE 189
ment of this ethnic group. The brachycephals involved are large headed
and powerfully built, with long faces, and rather high orbits; the foreheads
are sloping and only slightly bowed at the junction of the facial and cranial
planes. The inference is that these brachycephals were derived from the
older combination of Bell Beaker and Borreby types which was formed in
the upper Rhine country at the beginning of the age of metal, and which
persisted into the Hallstatt period. These seem to have mixed with the
expected intrusive Nordics. We must really wait until we examine larger
series of Keltic crania from elsewhere, however, before passing judgment
on the final result of this blend.
A better picture of the La Tene type may be obtained from the study of
its early eastern extension. Hellich's series from Bohemia 30 (see Appendix
I, col. 33) is the only single group of central European La Tene crania of
any consequence. This includes 27 male crania, most of which are dolicho-
cephalic, but which contain a significant minority of brachycephals. In
general, the La Tene skulls are not in any important metrical way distin-
guishable from those of the preceding periods of which we have clear
knowledge — that is, Aunjetitz and Hallstatt. They represent merely a sub-
variety of the same general combination of types, with a brachy cephalic
accretion which makes the total series rnesocephalic.31 But there are other
features, however, which render them as a group slightly different; the
vault has a tendency to be low in proportion to its breadth, and the upper
face is long in proportion to the total face, for the Keltic jaw, although
broad at the gonial angles, is not as deep as that of other Iron Age Nordics.
A composite series of eleven male crania from the type site of La Tene on
Lake Neufchatel in Switzerland, and nearby burial places,32 is almost,
exactly the same as the Bohemian series; the vaults of the Swiss La Tene
people, who may in part be identified with the Helvetii, are even lower
than those of the Bohemians. As one might expect, the Swiss series con-
tains a number of high brachycephals, with cranial indices as high as
90; 33 but on the whole, most of the few Kelts whose remains have been
studied in Switzerland were no different from those in Bohemia.
Less than a dozen skulls serve to identify the Keltic racial elements in
Austria and in the Dinaric Alpine mountain zone.34 On the whole, this
80 Hellich, B., Praehistoricke lebky v &chach & Sbirky Musea Krdlovstvi tfesktho.
31 Schliz's series of 14 crania from Bohemia, 3 from Moravia, and 2 from Silesia do
not differ from those measured by Hellich. Schliz, A., AFA, vol. 37, 1901, pp. 246-251.
82 Virchow, R., ZFE, vol. 16, 1884, pp. 168-181; ibid., vol. 18, 1886, pp. 561-566.
Lagotala, H., BMSA, ser 7, vol. 3, 1923, pp. 4-9.
83 Schlaginhaufen, O., AFSA, N. F. Bd. 38, 1936, pp. 226-236.
84 Poch, H., MAGW, vol. 56, 1926, pp. 255-270.
Lebzelter, V., WPZ, vol. 22, 1935, pp. 104-105.
Luschan, F. von, MAGW, vol. 8, 1879, pp. 85-89.
Schliz, A., loc. at.
190 THE RACES OF EUROPE
evidence is not satisfactory, but it serves to indicate that the regular
mesocephalic type and one or more types of brachycephals were present.
The most southeasterly Keltic skull known is one from Kupinovo, near
Belgrade in Serbia, which belonged to a Dinaric brachycephal similar to
those found at Glasinac, and this again witnesses the persistence of this
Dinaric element during the Iron Age in or near the modern Dinaric
area.
Before turning to the abundant remains of the Kelts in France and the
British Isles, it may be well to review what evidence we have for their
racial type in central Europe. Here the Kelts seem to have been a com-
posite people, a blend of the different brachycephalic elements left over
from the Bronze Age in the mountainous zone of southern Germany, and
invaders of Nordic type from the plains to the north and east. One sup-
poses that the Keltic linguistic element came with the later group.
Sculpture from Greece and Rome gives us a picture of the living Kelts who
reached the lands of classical civilization by eastward and southward move-
ments. The well-known Dying Gaul and similar statues show a strongly
muscled type with mesocephalic or brachycephalic head form, a rather
short face with a square jaw, a straight and rather prominent mesorrhine
nose, with horizontal or elevated tip and full nostrils, heavy browridges,
a broad forehead, and stiff, bristly hair. This type, while familiar enough
in western Europe, is not one which accords with the majority of the Keltic
skeletons. The typical Keltic face was long in the upper portion, shallow
in the mandible, long and narrow of nose, often with a convex profile, and
the forehead was extremely sloping and the vault low. This has its most
frequent counterpart today in the British Isles. While the type selected by
the classical sculptors to represent the Kelts must have had its living
models, these may have been drawn from the brachycephalic minority.
Most of the La T&ne material from France comes from the north, from
the Marne region, where the Keltic settlement seems to have been par-
ticularly strong. Fortunately, large and competent series of the Gauls of
this district, before and after the Roman conquest, furnish adequate in-
formation.36 (See Appendix I, col. 34.) Both groups are alike, showing
that submission to Roman rule did nothing to change the physical type
of this particular people.
The Gauls as so represented were mesocephalic, mesoprosopic, and on
the upper borders of leptorrhiny. The vault, as with all characteristic
La T£ne Keltic groups, is not distinguished for its height, and in the large
tf
** Raymond, P., RP, vol. 2, 1907, pp. 10-22, includes 20 males.
Wallis, Mrs. Ruth Sawtell, unpublished measurements in Musee Broca, £cole
d'Anthropologie, and Mus6e d'Histoire Naturelle. Includes 28 pre-Romans and 83
Gallo-Romans, all males.
THE IRON AGE 191
and more reliable post-Roman series, it is definitely low. Like their rela-
tives in central Europe, these Gauls were not noted for tall stature; a
mean of 166 cm. is only moderate.
In other parts of France, the Keltic racial continuity was of variable
intensity; in Lorraine and Beaune,36 the usual type was found; but in
Haute Savoie and Vend6e the earlier brachycephalic population is strongly
represented in Keltic tombs,37 while out on the tip of Brittany, Neolithic
survivors of Mediterranean type, with perhaps some Gaulish admixture,
persisted until the period of Roman conquest.88 Only in the north, there-
fore, did the Kelts make a firm imprint in the early population of what
was to become the French nation.
The Kelts in the British Isles are known to us by a large series of Bry-
thonic crania from England and southern Scotland, assembled by Morant39
(see Appendix I, col. 35) ; these are three millimeters longer headed than
the Bohemian and Swiss series, but nearly identical in vault dimensions
with the French; facially they are the same as all of the others. Smaller
collections of Goidelic crania from Ireland show the skulls from this coun-
try to be exactly the same as those from Great Britain.40 Several morpho-
logical features distinguish these skulls, of the typical, or mesocephalic,
group — which in the British Isles seems largely to lack the brachycephalic
minority which accompanies the main type in central and eastern Europe.
The forehead is quite sloping; the vault, when seen from behind, gives a
cylindrical impression, rather than that of a rhomboid or rectangle, as
with other Nordic crania. The upper face is quite long, the mandible
wide at the back, and relatively shallow. The nose is often very prominent.
The skeletal material from Ireland (see Appendix I, col. 36) is not
numerous enough to permit regional studies, or other statistical niceties;
but in Great Britain there are, on the contrary, a number of local series
sufficient to show that the racial complexion of that island was not, during
the Iron Age, completely uniform. One of these, that of the erroneously
named "Danes' Graves" at Driffield, Ygrkshire,41 containing 29 male
crania, is identical in every known respect with the Aunjetitz skulls from
central Europe — a pure (if the adjective pure may be used of a composite
type) Hallstatt or Nordic local population; purely dolichocephalic, in
contrast to the usual Keltic mesocephaly; and relatively high- vaulted,
86 fiamy, E. T., Anth, vol. 17, 1906, pp. 1-25; vol. 18, 1907, pp. 127-139.
^Baudoin, Marcel, BSAP, vol. 6, 1912, pp. 321-346.
38 Vallois, H. V., Les Ossements Bretons de Kerne, Toul-Bras, et Port-Bara.
39 Morant, G. M., Biometrika, vol. 18, 1926, pp. 56-88. Also Hooke, Beatrix, and
Morant, G. M., Biometrika, vol. 18, 1926, pp. 99-104.
40 Martin, G. P., Prehistoric Man in Ireland, Twelve Iron Age skulls are listed.
41 Wright, W., JRAI, vol. 33, 1903, pp. 66-73; Archaeologia, vol. 60, 1906, pt I,
pp. 313-324.
Mortimer, J. R., Man, vol. 9, 1909, pp. 35-36.
192 THE RACES OF EUROPE
again non-Keltic, although the stature, 167 cm., is presumably no different
from that of the Kelts,42
It is impossible to derive this group from the local Neolithic, which was
noted for its extreme absolute cranial length; or from the dolichocephalic
element of the Bronze Age, which was again larger, longer, and higher
skulled; it resembles not only the earlier Aunjetitz and Hallstatt, but also,
although to a lesser degree, the contemporary Scandinavian Iron Age
people in the period immediately before the Germanic Volkerwanderung.
All of the archaeological material found in the Danes' Graves has never
been satisfactorily identified.48 Although the dominant Keltic tribe of
that neighborhood, the Parisii, seems culturally represented, it is unlikely
on archaeological as well as on racial grounds that the majority of the
men buried in these graves came from the Marne, whence the usual Bry-
thonic tribes migrated to England. Two of the fibulae found in the scanty
remains have Scandinavian affinities; despite this clue, however, we must
leave open the question of the immediate origin of the Danes' Graves
people, and render the verdict: "Central European Nordics found in
Yorkshire during the late Iron Age, provenience unknown."
Another local group which shows aberrant tendencies is that of eleven
male crania from Berkshire, of which the length, breadth, and circum-
ference alone are available; 44 the figures are 193.3 mm., 149.6 mm., and
552.2 mm. The cranial index is 77. These mesocephalic crania are so
much larger than those of the total Iron Age population that some other
origin must be postulated. One recalls the extravagant dimensions of
both Neolithic and Bronze Age crania in England, and may only suppose
that this local group represents a relatively unaffected survival. Since both
Bronze Age and Neolithic racial types may be picked out of any moderate-
sized gathering of living Englishmen, or of their transatlantic relatives, it is
not surprising to find a few in Berkshire during the Iron Age.
The descriptions of the Kelts, in Britain, in France, and in other parts of
Europe, at the hands of classical authors, give us a definite picture of their
pigmentation. Blondism was by no means characteristic of the Kelts as a
whole. Rufosity was common, and the hair color was essentially mixed.
Caesar himself noted the contrast between the ordinary Gauls and the
partly Germanic Belgae, to whom he had to turn to find real blonds for
his triumph. Furthermore, the Romans noted the Keltic practice of
bleaching the hair to simulate a blond ideal, as in Greece.
42 We know the stature of Kelts in the British Isles only from^a small Irish group, and
by inference from comparison with mediaeval English counterparts of Iron Age skele-
tons.
48 Greenwell, W., Archaeologia, vol. 60, part 1, pp. 251-312.
Bremer, W.» Real, vol. 1, pp. 229-230, article " Arras.'*
44 Morant, G. M., Biomctrika, 1926, vol. 18, pp. 56-98.
THE IRON AGE 193
On the whole, the Kelts were a mixed group in race as in culture; their
ancestry includes both long heads of some central European Nordic type,
which was in turn a combination of several Mediterranean sub-types, and
brachycephals from the region in southwestern Germany in which the
Binaries of Early Bronze Age introduction had blended with earlier round
heads of Mesolithic origin. Out of this combination, the Kelts developed
an easily identified national type, of considerable constancy, which was
to be of some importance in the world, especially in Britain and the na-
tions derived from her*
(4) THE ROMANS
Before proceeding to study the rest of the Iron Age Indo-European
speakers in their homes north of the Alps, let us examine the racial posi-
tion of those near linguistic relatives of the Kelts, the Italici, who lived
south of that barrier, and who played a r61e of the utmost importance in
the history of Indo-European speech. The racial problem in Italy is
nearly as complicated as in Greece, but the recent work of Whatmough,
paralleling that of Myres, makes its solution equally possible.45
We have already witnessed the accretion of various racial elements in
Italy up to and through the Bronze Age. To a Neolithic Mediterranean
sub-stratum were added tall, long-headed Megalithic invaders who came
by sea, and Dinaric brachycephals from the eastern end of the Mediter-
ranean. In the Late Bronze Age, Urnfields people crossed the Alps from the
north, and settled in northern Italy. Some of them built the terremare
settlements in the Po Valley, while their descendants or others like them
were responsible for the Villanova settlements in the Bologna region, and
similar sites as far south as Latium. These collective Urnfields peoples
came from central Europe, rather than from the nearer Swiss center. The
Italic languages, like Keltic, were without reasonable doubt introduced
by the Urnfields people. Like Keltic, they split into P and Q forms, with
Oscan and Umbrian as P, and Latin and Ealiscan as Q. Latin itself, in its
historic form, was a mixture of Villanovan Italic plus Etruscan plus some
altered Greek, plus early Mediterranean words, including plant names.46
The non-Italic accretions bear witness to the influences which met the
early Romans, while its major Italic character throughout attests the per-
sistence of the Romans in retaining the nucleus of their own speech through
centuries of Etruscan overlordship.
We know comparatively little about the racial composition of the early
Italic people in pre-Roman times. Two crania from Remedello 47 are
46 Whatmough, J., The Foundations of Roman Italy.
« Ibid., pp. 276-277.
« Zampa, R., APA, vol. 20, 1890, pp. 345-365.
194 THE RACES OF EUROPE
both those of dolichocephals of moderate size; one of them, which is cer-
tainly a male, has a stature of 168 cm. Two early Romans ** were like-
wise dolichocephals of the same size and proportions as many of the Nordic
groups north of the Alps; while a third, from the pre-Republican cemetery
of Corneto Tarquinia, which can be more accurately defined, resembles
a small male series of eight Christian Roman skulls, dating from the first
to fourth centuries A.D.49 These nine male crania are identical metrically
with the means for the La Tene Kelts in Bohemia, and the Gauls and
Gallo-Romans of the Marne. The same mesocephalic, leptorrhine form
is found in each case.
Historically, the Romans should have been a mixture of Villanovan
Italic northerners with Etruscans and Neolithic and Bronze Age predeces-
sors.60 The little crania material at hand points entirely in the northern
direction, and confirms the relationship between Kelts and Italici, insofar
as it may be used. On the other hand, the addition of Etruscan meso-
cephals with Dinaric and Mediterranean elements would not greatly alter
the early Kelt-like Italic metrical form.
The early Romans, judging from the busts of their descendants in the
days of Augustus, and of descriptions, were not very tall, as a rule, but were
often of heavy bodily build. Their skulls were flattish on top, and rounded
on the sides, like those of Kelts. The facial features included the well-
known "Roman" nose, which may have been partly derived from an
Etruscan source. On the whole, the well-known sculptures of Caesar,
Augustus, and others, although not reliable from the standpoint of ac-
curate measurement, indicate that a mesocephalic to brachycephalic
head form was admired. Their facial type is not native to the Mediter-
ranean basin, but is more at home in the north. Nevertheless, the
Romans considered the Kelts who invaded Italy tall and blond; hence
the blondism of the Romans, including rufosity, must have been in the
minority.61
More detailed information may be obtained by studying the remains of
Romans who died away from home in the colonial service of the empire.
For example, an officer of the sixth legion, named Theodorianus, stationed
at York, came from the small city of Nomentum, in Latium. Three others,
also buried at York, were also native Romans.62 These four were all of one
type, and' very much alike: dolicho- to mesocephalic, with low vaults, low,
broad foreheads, very aquiline noses, and short, broad, square faces. The
« Sergi, G., ARAL, Anno 280, 1883, 10 pp. >•
49 Moschen, L., Cram Romani delta Primer a Epoca Cristiana, 1894.
Prdbstl, L.» AFA, vol. 45, 1919, pp. 80-81.
60 Whatmough, op. cit., p. 267.
"Rochet, C., MS4P, vol. 3, 1868, pp. 127-145.
62 Davis, J. B., and Thurman, J., Crania Britannica, 1865, Part II.
THE IRON AGE 195
skulls of two other pure Roman officers from Bath and Gloucester are the
same, as is one from Lincoln.68
A group of eight male Roman crania from Rheinzajpern on the Rhine, 64
belonging to real Romans from Italy, are the same as the individuals from
Britain, and almost identical with the eight males from Rome itself of the
Christian period, and the early Roman from Corneto Tarquinia. These
scattered references from various quarters, although few, are so alike that
we must conclude that the Romans, however mixed, had formed a charac-
teristic local or national physical type, which was mainly of Italic origin,
and closely related originally to the Keltic.
The Italici, however, were not the only Indo-European speakers to in-
vade Italy from the north. The Ligurians, of whom we have no certain
skeletal remains, probably entered from Gaul, and may have been earlier
than the Italici. On the eastern watershed of the Italian peninsula and in
the Po Valley lived, in early protohistoric and historic times, various tribes
of Illyrian speakers, notably the Veneti. To the Illyrian group may have
belonged the people who buried in the cemetery of Novilara, on the cen-
tral Adriatic coast,65 about the eighth century B.C., contemporaneously
with the Villanova people. The site belonged to a tribe called the Piceni,
who in the seventh and sixth centuries developed a high culture and later
declined, becoming subjects of Rome.
The doubt as to their ethnic origin may be partly dispelled by a knowl-
edge of their physical remains, A series of eighteen male and thirteen
female skulls is homogeneously dolichocephalic, with the low mean male
cranial index of 71.2; the skulls are high- vaulted, narrow- faced, and leptor-
rhine. The series is very similar to those of Hallstatt Illyrians farther north,
and the stature, 165.5 cm. for males, is tall enough to support this.
Whether or not they spoke Illyrian, they were of Illyrian racial type, and
the Illyrian invasion of northeastern Italy was undoubtedly a real one in
the racial sense.
(5) THE SCYTHIANS
What the Kelts were to western Europe, the Scythians and their rela-
tives became, at about the same time, to the treeless plains to the east.
Riding astride, wearing trousers, and sleeping in covered wagons, they
spread rapidly over the grasslands of eastern Europe and western central
Asia, shifting so adroitly that Darius with his army could not catch them,
and disappearing almost as rapidly from the face of eastern Europe as they
had appeared. Like the Kelts, they were both dazzling and ephemeral.
M Browne, C. R., PRIA, vol. 2, ser. 3, 1899, pp. 649-654.
M Probstl, L., AFA, vol. 45, 1919, pp. 80-81.
88 Whatmough is in doubt as to their linguistic affiliation. Whatmough, J., op. a'/.,
pp. 202-205.
196 THE RACES OF EUROPE
But unlike the Kelts, their way of living, perfectly adapted to the grass-
lands on which they roamed, was destined long to survive their identity
as a people. 0
About 700 B.C. the Scyths were first noticed in the lands to the north of
the Black Sea.66 Their domain reached from north of the Danube and
east of the Carpathians across the fertile plains of eastern central Europe
and southern Russia to the River Don. From this country they were sup-
posed to have ousted the somewhat mysterious Cimmerians, Although
the Don formed their eastern boundary, beyond it lived other groups of
nomadic peoples culturally similar to the Scythians. These included the
Sarmatians, their immediate neighbors to the east, who were, according
to Herodotus, the result of a mass marriage of Scythian youths and Ama-
zon maidens. The speech of the Sarmatians was said to be somewhat dif-
ferent from that of the Scythians, owing to the inclusion of Amazon words
and an Amazonian manner of pronunciation. Beyond the Sarmatians
lived the Massagetae, and beyond them the Saka. The word Saka, how-
ever, was used by the Persians as a general term, to include all of the no-
madic peoples to the north of the Iranian plateau, in the two Turkestans.
In costume, in weapons, in methods of transportation, in living quarters,
and in the totality of material culture, these people formed a continuous
cultural zone from the Carpathians to China. It has been the custom to
consider the Scythians a people of Asiatic origin who developed this high
and specialized form of pastoral nomadism in central Asia and brought
it with them to eastern Europe. Proponents of this school have suggested
that the Scythians were a mongoloid people, and that they employed
some Altaic form of speech. Another school holds that they were Euro-
pean in physical type, and spoke Iranian, while their cultural breed-
ing ground lay somewhere to the east of the Caspian.
We do not know what language the Scythians spoke, nor is it likely that
its exact affiliation will ever be definitely established. Their geographical
position, however, and their association with the ancient Persians, makes
the Iranian hypothesis very likely. This theory is further strengthened by
the study of the language of the Ossetes, a living people of the Caucasus,
who are supposed, on historical grounds, to be descendants of the Alans, a
branch of the Sarmatians. Their language is definitely Iranian.
Although the general manner of living enjoyed by the Scythians does
resemble in a remarkable degree that of the later Huns, Turks, and Mon-
gols, one looks in vain for some of the cultural traits of these later Altaic
H''
M The sources for the historical and cultural portions of this section include Herodo-
tus, book iv, ch, 59-75; Hippocrates, de Aere; Minns, E. H., Scythians and Greeks; Junge,
J, ZFRK, vol. 3, 1936, pp. 68-77; and Wm. M. McGovern's work, The Early Empires
of Central Asia, which was consulted in advance of publication.
THE IRON AGE 197
speakers which may be ascribed to a relatively recent Siberian origin.
These include the yurt or collapsible felt-domed house, and the Turko-
Mongol type of shamanism. The Turks and the Mongols, without ques-
tion, took over almost completely the whole Scythian style of culture,
but they added to it elements of their own which reflected their former
habitat and manner of life. A few traits connect the Scythians with their
neighbors to the north, the Finns; among these might be cited the sweat
bath.
The Scythians proper possessed a type of feudal organization headed by
a king, who ruled over four provinces each of which had local governors.
These Scythian kings were all buried in a royal burial ground in the
region called by the Greeks the Land of the Gerrhi, which was situated in
the bend of the Dnieper River near Nicopol. No matter where the Scyth-
ian monarch died, his remains would be deposited, in a funeral chamber,
with great ceremony and with an extravagant quantity of human sacri-
fice, underneath a huge mound erected for that purpose. The richness of
the burials, and the wholesale suttee, are reminiscent of the ancient Sume-
rians, and of the early Egyptians. The eventual Sumerian origin of this
Scythian custom is not unlikely.
This region of the Royal Scythian burying ground has been a source of
great activity for both treasure hunters and archaeologists. The Scythians
had a definite idea that this was the place in which their kings were natu-
rally at home, and while it may not be wise to stress this point too much,
it would seem that this location may have reflected their notions as to
their original dwelling place, or at least that of their royal clan. Similarly,
the Mongols in later times buried their dead in a restricted area in the
Altai Mountains, which they considered holy ground.
During the first century B.C., the Sarmatians penetrated westward,
crossing the Don, and driving the Scythians from their former homes.
About 200 A.D., the Goths took the Scythian country from the Sarmatians,
and in turn adopted much of the Scythp-Sarmatian culture, becoming
great horsemen and learning to live in wagons. The Alans were the only
branch of the Sarmatians to retain their integrity in face of this Germanic
onslaught. They built up a great kingdom between the Don and the
Volga, reaching as far as the Caucasus, including in it most of northwestern
Turkestan. Between 350 and 374 A.D., the Huns destroyed the Alan king-
dom. Some of the Alans went westward with the Huns, others accom-
panied the Vandals to North Africa, and a few, as previously mentioned,
survive in the Caucasus as Ossetes.
Although these Iranians (if the Scythians and Sarmatians really were
Iranians) were replaced by Altaic speakers in southern Russia, and
throughout the breadth of their Asiatic domain, this process took some
198 THE RACES OF EUROPE
time, and Iranian languages clung on for a long while in Kashgaria and
in the oases of Russian Turkestan. Undoubtedly, the Scythians and their
relatives were not destroyed, but were absorbed and reincorporated.
In studying the racial type of the Scythians, one must remember that
they were not considered a homogeneous group by Herodotus, who is our
chief historical source. They consisted of an inner clan called the Royal
Scyths or True Scyths, who were the nobles and leaders, and, as a second
element, the whole group of nomadic tribes of which the Royal Scyths
were the integrating force. Herodotus also makes it clear that the Scythians
kept many slaves. Only the Royal Scyths refused to own slaves, but em-
ployed youths of pure Scythian blood as bodyguards, and sacrificed these
FIG. 29. SCYTHIANS, FROM THE K.UL OBA VASE.
Redrawn from Minns, E. H., Scythians and Greeks, p. 201, Fig. 94.
in their tombs. Thus, the Royal Scythian burial mounds must contain a
relatively pure Scythian group.
One must not imagine that the Scyths and their slaves were the only
inhabitants of southeastern Europe during the last seven centuries before
Christ and the first two of our era. Herodotus mentions the agricultural
Scythians, who were probably some earlier sedentary people or peoples
who remained as underlings of the Scythians and their providers of cereal
food. We must remember that much of the Scythian territory had been
farmed as early as Neolithic times.
There can be little doubt, even before examining the skeletal evidence,
that the Scythians and Sarmatians were basically if not entirely white men
and in no sense mongoloid. The only definite description of them which
we have from classical literature is that of Hippocrates, who called them
white-skinned and obese, but this designation was employed by the father
of medicine to prove one of his environmental theories. In later times,
the Alans are described as having golden hair.
Fortunately, we are not limited to literary references. The Scythians
themselves, under the influence of powerful Greek colonies on the north
shore of the Black Sea, and particularly in the Crimea, produced a dis-
THE IRON AGE 199
tinctive style of realistic art in gold repousse" e. These representations in-
clude a number of portraits of Scythians in very realistic and life-like poses.
They show a well-defined type of heavily bearded, long-haired men with
prominent, often convex, noses. The browridges are moderately heavy,
the eyes deep set. These faces are strikingly reminiscent of types common
among northwest Europeans today, in strong contrast to those shown in
the art of the Sumerians, Babylonians, and Hittites, which are definitely
Near Eastern. The face, therefore, is definitely Nordic, while the body
build looks often thick-set and very muscular, but this may be due to the
clothing, which includes baggy trousers and jackets with full sleeves. The
pointed caps which they wear and the long hair make it impossible to form
a useful opinion of their head form, but this is unnecessary, since we may
soon discover it from reference to the cranial material. Persian representa-
tions of Saka show exactly the same type, depicted by the followers of an
entirely different school of art, and hence this type cannot have been an
unfounded convention.
There is, in the anthropometric literature, sufficient data to permit the
reconstruction of the Scytho-Sarmatian cranial type or types. The most
extensive group, and that which may be used as a basic series, is DonicTs
collection of seventy-seven Scythian crania from kurgans of Bessarabia,
which was one of the favored Scythian pasture lands during the height of
their domination.57 (See Appendix I, col. 37.) The fifty-seven male crania
of this series are not homogeneous, but fall into two types, a long-headed
and a round-headed, with the former greatly in the majority.
The means of these Scythian skulls show them to be low mesocephals
of moderate cranial dimensions, but with a low vault height. The cranial
means are, in fact, almost identical with those of the Keltic series from
France and the British Isles. They resemble the Aunjetitz and Hallstatt
skulls only as much as the Keltic series mentioned resemble these latter.
They are, furthermore, metrically identical with the previously studied
skulls from the Minussinsk region of southern Siberia, which may have
been contemporaneous with them.
One of the peculiarities of the Scythian skulls is a low mesene upper
facial index, lower than that of the Kelts or of the Minussinsk people.
Doniti has shown, however, that this low upper facial index is mostly
asspciated with the brachycephalic element in the group, and the same
is true of many of the chamaeconch and mesorrhine skulls. When the
brachycephalic element is eliminated, therefore, one finds these skulls
to be narrower faced, and narrower nosed, and to fit more nearly into
a central European Nordic category. Other series of Scythian crania
from southern Russia and from the Caucasus show the same general
67 Donifci, A., Crania Scythica, MSSR, ser. 3, Tomul X, Mem. 9, Bucharest, 1935,
200 THE RACES OF EUROPE
characteristics as that of Donici's type series, but are in most cases
purely dolichocephalic, which leads one to suppose that the brachyce-
phalic element in the Rumanian skulls may have been at least partly of
local origin.68
Other collections of Scythian crania vary in their mean cranial indices
from 72 to 77. Those from the Kiev government, a Scythian center, have
a mean of 73.59 A series of eighteen Sarmatian crania from the Volga,
although otherwise the same as the others, has a cranial index of 80. 3. w
However, one hesitates to consider this typical of the Sarmatians as a
whole, since both the Alans 61 and the early Ossetes 62 were long headed.
The former preserved the original Scythian Nordic type until the ninth
century A.D.
Of especial interest is a rich kurgan in the Royal Scythian burial dis-
trict,63 near Alexandropol; this was one of the most imposing kurgans of
Russia, not only for its size but for the quantities of gold placed with the
dead king, and of animals sacrificed for his convenience. The kurgan con-
tained five skulls in the primary interment; one of these was a large male
of Corded type.64 Another is a brachycephal with a vault especially wide
behind, with a broad face and a narrow nose, resembling a Turkish or
perhaps a Bell Beaker type; two are narrow skulls of the normal Scythian
Nordic variety, while the fifth, that which occupied the king's chamber,
is of moderate size, long headed, with a low vault, sloping forehead, a
high, prominent nose, and wide flaring zygomatic arches. The malars
are large, and there is, in this respect, a slight mongoloid suggestion,
One may not, however, on this evidence alone, identify the Royal Clan
with Turks or Mongols.
We know very little of the stature of the Scythians. Nine male skeletons
from the Polish Ukraine, associated with crania of standard Scythian type,
have a mean of over 170 cm.65
It is tempting to find the origin of the Scythians in the previous popula-
tion of the southern Russian plain. A series of Bronze Age crania from
the lower Volga region is identical, at least in indices, with the later
Scythian group, and so is that from the Ukrainian Urnfields. Three
88 Donicl is of this opinion. He finds the same brachycephaiic type in a collection of
skulls from an early Moldavian monastery.
6»Debetz, G., Ann. Lab. Anth. Th. Vovk. Acad. Sc. Ukraine, T. Ill, Kiev, 1930,
quoted by Doni6i.
60 Same.
filjendyk, R., Kosmos, vol. 55, 1906, sec. 1-2.
m Ivanovsky, A. (after Donici), TILE, vol. 71, Moscow, 18*91.
«3Baer, G. E. von, AFA, vol. 10, 1878, pp. 215-231.
64 Another pronouncedly Corded cranium of Scythian origin was published by
Majewski, E., in Swiatowit, vol. 9, 1911, pp. 87-88.
66 Talko-Hryncewicz, J., Przyczynek do poznania, Swiata Kurhanowego Ukrainy.
THE IRON AGE 201
skulls of so-called "Cimmerians" likewise show no important deviation,66
Furthermore, an important series of Early Iron Age crania from the
Sevan district of Armenia, probably dated from the earlier half of the
first millennium B.C., and probably therefore earlier than the Scyths in
Europe, or at least as early as their first appearance, is exactly like the
more dolichocephalic element in the Scythian group, and manifestly
Nordic. The vault, like that of the Scyths, is low, the nose leptorrhine,
the face leptene, with more compressed zygomata.67 (See Appendix I,
col. 38.) Morphologically, these Armenian skulls are characterized by
a medium forehead slope, moderate browridges and muscular develop-
ment; a moderately deep nasion depression, and straight or lightly convex
nasal profile; a projection of the occiput which is most marked in the
lower segment, and accompanied by some lambdoid flattening; a typical
compression in the malar region. This series serves a double purpose: to
show that a Nordic type entered into the modern Armenian blend, and to
define the Iranian variety of Nordic which may have been likewise in-
volved in the settlement of Persia and of India.68 Furthermore, it is very
similar, both metrically and morphologically, to the early Germanic
cranial group, and this virtual identity draws together the two geograph-
ical extremes of an originally united family.
We have seen that the Scythians and Sarmatians, although they un-
doubtedly included in their ranks many individuals of different political
affiliations, formed nevertheless a quite constant principal racial type,
which was essentially Iranian and a form of Nordic. In its characteristic
low vault, as in other dimensions, it specifically resembled the earlier
eastern European and central Asiatic Nordic form. It was essentially a
member of the racial cluster associated with the spread of Satem Indo-
European speech in both eastern Europe and Asia.
(6) THE GERMANIC PEOPLES
We have already dealt with the expansions of two great Indo-European
peoples, the Kelts and the Scythians, who, during the second half of the
first millennium before Christ, nearly divided the European continent,
north of the Alpine mountain barrier, between them. Other groups, such
as the Thracians, who occupied large expanses of territory in the Balkans,
have been neglected because of lack of information.
The first millennium of the Christian era witnessed two more such spread-
ings of Indo- Europeans; those of the Germans and of the Slavs, the former
66 Stolyhwo, K., Swiatowit, vol. 6, 1905, pp. 73-80.
67Bunak, V. V., RAJ, vol. 17, 1929, pp. 64-87.
68 Unpublished series of living peoples from the mountainous regions of the northern
Punjab, and the Northwest Frontier Province, which will be published by Dr. Gordon T.
Bowles, conform closely to the metrical and morphological specifications of this type.
202 THE RACES OF EUROPE
to have lasting results in the west, the latter in the east. Unlike the Kelts
and the Scyths, these two later groups, tardy to receive the civilization of
the classical world, were destined to people many countries permanently
with their descendants, and to implant their tongues in many regions.
Of these two, the Germanic expansion was the earlier. The period of
Teutonic migration was that of the famous Volkerwanderung, which began
with the precocious but futile invasion of Italy by the Cimbri and Teutons,
who fought the Romans between 114 and 102 B.C., and which did not
end until the adoption of Christianity by the Norwegians in the eleventh
century put an end to the piratical practices of the Vikings. Its period of
greatest vitality fell between the second and fifth centuries of the present
era.
The home of the Germans before their expansion was only in a re-
stricted sense the modern Germany. The tribes of which this people was
composed occupied Denmark, southern and central Sweden, Norway,
and the northern coastal strip of Germany, from the mouth of the Elbe to
the Baltic shore. The islands of the Baltic near Sweden, namely Gotland
and Bornholm, were densely populated.
One must not suppose that these early Germans were the unaltered
descendants of their Bronze Age predecessors, for there is strong archaeo-
logical evidence that a new people entered Scandinavia at the beginning
of the retarded Iron Age of this region.69 The Hallstatt artefacts are en-
tirely different in character from those of the Late Bronze Age, and the
burial rite changed completely, while the old nature worship which the
Megalithic sea people had brought to Scandinavia now disappeared
abruptly, being replaced by religious phenomena which we can associate
definitely with the classical Norse style of worship. The Norse pantheon,
with its family of gods and its Valhalla, is closely related to the systems of
Greece and Rome, of India, and of the other Indo-European divisions.
The principal civilizing agency in the development of the Germanic
culture was that of the Kelts, but the Kelts were niggardly teachers, for
they blocked the Germans from direct intercourse with the classical world.
It was not until the days of the Roman Empire and of the Byzantines that
the Germans, after driving their way through the vanishing Keltic domain,
reached these civilizing influences. But the earlier Scandinavians had
already possessed a distinctive Bronze Age culture, which was not en-
tirely lost.
Furthermore, certain strong cultural elements in the time of Germanic
efflorescence bore strong marks of an eastern inspiration; such as the ship
burials, which resembled the Royal Scythian interments in every detail
except for the substitution of ships for wagons; and the art, as expressed
w Shetelig, H., Falk, H., and Gordon, E. V., Scandinavian Archaeology, pp. 174-175.
THE IRON AGE 203
in wood carving, which carried over the richness of the eastern animal
style, and which reached its highest development in Norway. The Ger-
mans, like the Kelts, had been subjected to a very strong influence from
the plains to the east.
Linguistically, the early Germanic tongues were much in the debt of
the Kelts. Many of the words needed to express new things were of Keltic
origin. Hubert, the Keltic authority, believed that the Germanic lan-
guages were the garbled borrowings of some Indo-European speech by a
people to whom the Indo-European phonemes were difficult.70 It is true
that consonantal shifts from K to H, and the like, are more extreme than
those in other Indo-European languages. It is very likely that the ances-
tral Germanic speech was introduced into Scandinavia by the invaders
who brought the Hallstatt culture to that backward region.
It is the task of the physical anthropologist to help the archaeologist and
linguist discover the identity of these Iron Age invaders, whose arrival in
Scandinavia cannot be put back earlier than the sixth or seventh cen-
turies B.C. This should be relatively easy, for the newcomers buried while
the older population presumably continued cremating their dead. The
Danish series is the most extensive, with 42 adult male crania71 (see
Appendix I, col. 39) ; of these only one has a cranial index of over 78. The
series is strongly dolichocephalic, with a mean of 72.3. There is no trace
of the brachy cephalic element which had been so important in Denmark
from the beginning of the Neolithic through the Bronze Age.
The Danish Iron Age crania form a homogeneous group. They belong
definitely in the same class with the other Iron Age Nordics of Lausitz
Urnfields inspiration, and more particularly the purely long-headed ele-
ment in the Keltic blend, for the low vault and cylindrical transverse pro-
file of the Keltic crania are also common here. Except for the lesser breadth
of head and face, and greater vault length, they closely resemble the
Keltic crania of Gaul and of the British Isles, and those of the Scythians,
while they are virtually identical with the Armenian Iron Age skulls dis-
cussed in the last section. The Danish Iron Age crania, then, are probably
the same as those of the ancestral proto-Kelts before their arrival in south-
western Germany, and of the ancestors of the Scythians and eastern Ira-
nians. These Danes were a tall people, however, for the stature of 25 males
was 171.5 cm. This agrees with that of the earlier peoples of the same re-
gion, and with that of the Scythians.
In this Danish series there was, without doubt, a selection on the basis
of differential methods of disposal of the dead; the numerous Bronze Age
70 Hubert, H., The Rise of the Celts, pp. 50-52.
71 Nielsen, H. A., ANOH, II Rakke, vol. 21, 1906, pp. 237-318; ibid., Ill Rakke,
vol. 5, 1915, pp. 360-365. Reworked.
204 THE RACES OF EUROPE
population, compounded of Megalithic, Borreby, and Corded elements,
could not have disappeared completely. After the various elements in
the Danish population have had time to blend, we shall see them
reappear.
The Swedish population of the Iron Age, best represented by a smaller
group of 14 males 72 (see Appendix I, col, 40), was essentially the same as
that in Denmark. There are, however, a few differences — the vault is
higher, the face wider, the upper face shorter. Perhaps these more
peripheral Scandinavians showed a little of the older blood.
During the Iron Age, Norway was, for the first time, definitely settled
by people comparable in civilization to those in Denmark and southern
Sweden; it is likely that many of the earlier inhabitants of Jutland and the
Danish archipelago had fled to the southwestern corner of that country,
while other migrations came across from southern and central Sweden.
The most extensive Iron Age series from Norway is that of Schreiner,
which contains 27 male crania.73 (See Appendix I, col. 41 .) These are quite
different from those of either Denmark or Sweden. They are larger and
much more rugged, with heavy browridges and strong muscular markings.
Metrically, they approach the Upper Palaeolithic series of Morant; and
they could fit easily into the range of the central European Aurignacian
group. The Mesolithic crania of St£ngenas and Mac Arthur's Cave would
not be out of place here. Yet in most dimensions, they fall a little short
of the Upper Palaeolithic mean.
They are purely dolichocephalic, with a cranial index of 71.7. On the
whole, they are just what one would expect from a Danish Iron Age —
Upper Palaeolithic cross, with the latter in the majority, and this explana-
tion agrees well with the archaeological data. The stature, 169.5 cm., fits
both types. There is another possibility, however, that they had a strong
Corded element. That some Corded blend entered into this mixture was
indeed likely, but it is impossible to substitute the Corded for the Palaeo-
lithic element, since the high vault of the former is not in sufficient evi-
dence, and the faces of the Norwegians are wider than either Corded or
Nordic.
The central coastal Norwegians of the Iron Age must have been in part
true descendants of the Upper Palaeolithic people of central Europe, who
moved northward and westward with the retreat of the last ice, and re-
mained relatively undisturbed in the centers of its last melting until the
arrival of new immigrants in the Iron Age. There must, however, have
been regional differences of type in Norway at this time which persisted
until the modern period; late Viking Age series from Jaeren, T0nsborg,
78 Rctzius, G., Crania Suectca, reworked.
78 Schreiner, K. E., SNVO, II, #11, 1927, pp. 1-32.
THE IRON AGE 205
and Skien 74 in the south show the presence of a brachycephalic type,
massive in build and of great cranial size, which is metrically related to the
Borreby group of Denmark and northern Germany. These may represent
colonists or refugees from Denmark.
A late group from Sogn,76 in the north, includes mesocephalic crania
with extremely low vaults and smaller dimensions, associated with black
or brown hair preserved in the graves. Metrically, they suggest modern
Lapp crania in most respects, and serve to mark the northern Norse
borderland, beyond which Norwegian settlements were, in the Viking
period, only sporadic. These various series place Norway for the first time
in history in the full light of physical anthropology, and show that the land
of the Vikings was the last periphery of the Nordic world, in which ancient
but fully evolved forms of humanity blended with the newcomers from the
south and east.
Linguistically, the Germanic peoples who invaded other parts of Europe
from Scandinavia and North Germany have been divided into two groups:
East Germans and West Germans. The speakers of East Germanic in-
cluded the Goths, Vandals, Gepidae, and Burgundians. The Goths
claimed to have crossed the Baltic from Sweden (not from the island of Got-
land) to the mouth of the Vistula. The Vandals and the Gepidae presum-
ably had the same origin. From the Vistula, the East Germans expanded
southward and eastward into the Scythian country, where the Gepidae
seized control of Hungary, and the Goths finally established an important
kingdom on the north shore of the Black Sea.
From here, the history of these tribes is well known. They all had im-
portant relationships with the Roman Empire, and adopted Christianity.
The movements of the Goths into Greece, Italy, and France do not merit
detailed description. The Visigoths pushed westward, occupied southern
France shortly after 400 A.D., and moved down into Spain where they were
gradually absorbed into the population of the northern provinces. The
eastern Goths who fell under the rule of the Huns met a similar fate.
Of a once numerous and mobile Gothic nation no trace remains. The
same is true of the Gepidae, and of the Vandals, who went from eastern
Europe to France, Spain, and North Africa, whence they were subse-
quently deported to Byzantium. No doubt, Gothic and Vandal blood
flaws in the veins of some modern Spaniards as well as of the peoples in
other countries through which they passed. But this eastern branch of
the Germans failed to make any lasting impression upon the racial map
of Europe.
Although there is not much data concerning the physical type of these
eastern Germans, there is enough to enable us to come to some definite
w Larsen, C. F., SNVO, #5, 1901, pp. 3-53. » Ibid.
206 THE RACES OF EUROPE
conclusions. A series of Goths from the Chersonese north of the Black
Sea, dated between 100 B.C. and 100 A.D., includes three male and eight
female skeletons.76 All of these are long headed, and they belong to a
large, powerful Nordic type which reflects their Swedish origin, for they
are no different from the Swedish Iron Age crania which we have already
studied.
A later group of Gepidae dated from the fifth or sixth centuries in Hun-
gary shows the persistence of this same type; despite historical blending
with the Huns, of eight skulls at our disposal, all but three fail to show def-
inite traces of mongoloid mixture, and in these three the non-Nordic traits
are not manifested metrically. One is forced to the conclusion from this
series, as from that of the Goths in the Chersonese, that the East Ger-
manic peoples who took part in these wanderings preserved their original
racial characteristics so long as they retained their political and linguistic
identity.
The same conclusion results when one examines the Visigothic skulls
from northern Spain which date from the sixth century A.D.77 Here a
series combined from several cemeteries shows us exactly the same Nordic
type, with tall stature and with a high-vaulted skull, a long face, and a
broad jaw; in this respect resembling, in a sense, the earlier Hallstatt
crania, but more particularly those of the western Germanic group, es-
pecially the Hannover Germans and the Anglo-Saxons.
The western branch of Germanic-speaking peoples, while historically
less spectacular, was destined to be far more important in the eventual
peopling of Europe. This included the ancestors of the Anglo-Saxons,
of the Frisians, and of the Germans proper. Among the latter may be listed
the Franks, the Alemanni, the Bavarians, the Thuringians, and the
Chatti, whose descendants are the Hessians. Under the Franks may be
listed the ancestors of the Flemish- and Dutch-speaking peoples whose
closely related languages are a mixture of low Franconian and Saxon
elements. All of these peoples worked their way southward, and in some
cases westward, gradually and without ostentation; the Alemanni to
Switzerland and Austria, the Bavarians to the principality which bears
their name, the Thuringians to Bohemia as well as to Thuringia, and the
Franks to the upper Rhine country, Belgium, and France. The Bur-
gundiansj members of the eastern branch of Germans, sophisticated like
the Goths from contact with the Roman Empire, crossed the Rhine ahead
of the Franks, and occupied Rhenish Gaul at the same time that the
Vandals were admitted under Roman sanction. '
76 Schliz, A., PZ, vol. 5, 1913, pp. 148-157.
77 Barras de Aragon, F. de las, MSAE, vol. 6, 1927, pp. 141-186.
P6rez de Barradas, J,, MSAE, vol. 14, 1935, pp. 141-172.
THE IRON AGE 207
The prototype of the western German peoples who migrated from the
region about the mouth of the Elbe is well represented by a series of skulls
from Hannover which includes 41 male crania.78 (See Appendix I, col.
42.) Metrically, these differ from the Danish Iron Age skulls in being
slightly longer, somewhat broader, and considerably higher. The fore-
heads are broader, and the face is wider, and in many cases a bit longer.
These skulls deviate from the normal Nordic type of central European
origin with which we are familiar in their greater size and robusticity, and
particularly in their greater vault height.
The skulls of the Anglo-Saxons who invaded England in the fourth and
fifth centuries of the present era 79 (see Appendix I, col. 43) are almost
identical with this Hannover group. It is to this same specific category
that the Spanish Visigothic skulls to which we have already referred belong.
To it must be added two series of old Frisians from northern Holland,80
which are identical in every respect. The skulls of these old Saxons, old
Hanoverians, and old Frisians differ in a number of ways from those of
other Nordics which we have studied. They are larger than the Aunjetitz
group and the Danes, and in fact any other series of Indo-European speak-
ers that we have met, except the Norwegians. They lack the low vault and
sloping forehead common to the earlier Nordics of Denmark, the Gauls,
and the Scyths. The vault is moderately high; while the cranial index
is on the border of dolicho- and mesocephaly. Compared with the other
Nordics, the forehead is relatively straight, the browridges are greater,
the muscular markings more pronounced, the cranial base wider, the
face longer and somewhat wider.
The type represented by these three groups and by the Visigoths seems
to be a variant of the Nordic type to which the early Indo-European
speakers belonged. Its difference is one of size, and it appears to have at-
tained this distinction through a mixture, in southern Scandinavia and
Germany, between the older local population, consisting of a combina-
tion of Megalithic, Corded, and Borreby elements, and the purely Nordic
Danish Iron Age group. The resultant typfc approaches in some respects,
but does not even approximate in size, the coastal Norwegian population
which we have already studied, and it deviates far less from the central
European Nordic than does the Norwegian group.
This physical type is accompanied by tall stature, of about 170 cm.,
and by a considerable heaviness and robusticity of the long bones. The
bodily build was clearly heavier and thicker set than that of the previously
studied Nordics. That it was characteristically blond is attested by the
7* Hauschild, M. W., ZFMA, vol. 25, 1925, pp. 221-242.
79 Morant, G. M., Biometrika, vol. 18, 1926, pp. 56-98.
»>Reche, O., VUR, vol. 4, 1929, pp. 129-158, 193-215.
208 THE RACES OF EUROPE
pigmentation of living examples as well as by numerous early descrip-
tions. This type, being a mixed variety of central European Nordic com-
bined with old northwestern European elements, is not a true Nordic
in the sense in which the word has been used in this work, and its common
and exclusive designation as Nordic in popular parlance as in scientific
works is responsible for much of the confusion prevalent in the identifica-
tion of that racial type today. Since it is found among both West and
East Germans of the period of dispersal, it is essentially the Germanic or
Teutonic racial type. The eccentric linguistic position of the Germanic
peoples in the total Indo-European family has its racial connotations.
One of the principal outlets for this movement from the northwestern
coasts of Germany was the Anglo-Saxon invasion of the British Isles.81
This had begun by 250 A.D., when the Saxons raided the southern and
eastern coast of England. It was a period of general turmoil, for Irish
pirates were plundering the coast of Wales at the same time. The Romans
were hard put to defend themselves against this double peril, and despite
their military and naval precautions, the raids grew in volume and fre-
quency.
In 406-407 A.D., large invasions of Germanic peoples crossed the Rhine
and pillaged the Roman settlements in most of Gaul. This broke off com-
munications between Rome and Britain. With Gaul out of Roman con-
trol, there could be no hope of holding Britain. Hence, in 409 A.D., the
Emperor Honorius issued a decree bidding the inhabitants of Britain to
shift for themselves in the future. From this point on the Saxons received
little opposition, and settled in great numbers. Since the Saxons were
not townsmen, they did not occupy the cities which they plundered, and
the urban population established by the Romans in England maintained
its identity for a century or longer before the towns were abandoned or
became Anglicized.
The earliest Saxon contacts were Viking raids in which they not only
pillaged the coastal settlements but also rowed far up the rivers, estab-
lishing temporary camps in the upper waters. When the main body of
Saxons under Gerdic marched from the region of the Wash across Lincoln-
shire to the upper Thames Valley, the invaders found that other Saxons
of more temporary habits had preceded them. Hence it is necessary, in
studying early Saxon remains, to distinguish between mixed communities
in which raiders had taken native women to wife, and pure Saxon settle-
ments in which whole families and villages had emigrated at the beginning
of the period of serious settlement.
The Saxons occupied, for the most part, empty country. This was be-
cause they were accustomed to low-lying land with a deep, rich soil, and
81 Kendrick, T. D., and Hawkes, G. F. C., Archaeology in England and Wales, 1914-1931.
THE IRON AGE 209
had formed, in their earlier home, the habit of tilling this in strips with
deep ploughs drawn by eight oxen. The Kelts, whose agriculture was
more cursory in character, preferred the uplands already made treeless
by nature, and cultivated in square fields. They remained for the most
part on territory frequented by the Bronze Age and Neolithic men be-
fore them. The Saxons, who liked forests as well as lowlands, cleared
the marshes and river valleys of trees, and drained and planted them. Ow-
ing to this fundamental difference in methods of agriculture, the two peo-
ples overlapped little at first, and the Saxons and Britons occupied adjoin-
ing territories in many parts of England for several centuries until at length
the Saxon social and political domination submerged the language and
culture of the earlier inhabitants beneath its own pattern.
The Anglo-Saxon skeletons which have been described earlier are de-
rived from the graves of the heathen period, from the fifth to the end of
the ninth centuries. The skulls from these graves 82 make a striking
contrast to the Keltic Iron Age type which preceded them. While the
Iron Age forehead is extremely sloping, that of the Anglo-Saxon skulls
is rather steep and high, and the skulls which possess mandibles show
that the Anglo-Saxon type was deep jawed, with a great distance from
lower tooth line to chin and with a long, sloping ascending ramus. The
cranium as a whole is steep sided with a well-rounded occiput, and fre-
quently lambdoidally flattened.83 The browridges are moderate to heavy.
The nasal bones are highly arched, with often a considerable nasion de-
pression. Muscularity of a pronounced character is indicated by deep pits
and ridges on the long bones, which are thick and heavy. Compared with
the Iron Age people, the Saxons were large bodied, and their more con-
siderable body weight is correlated with a larger braincase. The mean
stature of various series of Anglo-Saxons ranges from 167-172 cm.84 and
the total mean equals 170 or 171 cm.
Although there was a difference in the localities from which various
groups of Anglo-Saxons came, little regional difference is manifest in the
series from England. The Jutes who settled in Kent, and who came from
the peninsula of Jutland, seem larger faced than the Saxons themselves,
but the difference is actually slight.85 In the total Saxon group studied
82Morant, Biometrika, vol. 18, 1926, pp. 56-98.
Brash, J. C., Layard, D., and Young, M., Biometrika, vol. 27, 1935, pp. 388-408.
83 Lambdoid flattening is a characteristic common to Neanderthal and Upper
Palaeolithic man, but rare in the exclusively Mediterranean group.
84 Calculated from a number of series, involving over 120 adult males. Sources:
Beddoe, J., JRAI, vol. 19, 1889, pp. 2-11.
Duckworth, W. L. H., PCAS, vol. 27, 1926, pp. 36-42.
Hooton, E. A., JRAI, vol. 64, 1915, pp. 92-130.
Humphreys, Ryland, Barnard, etc., Archaeologia, vol. 73, 1923, pp. 89-116.
Mortimer, J. R., Man, vol. 9, 1909, pp. 35-36. 8fi Morant, loc. cit.
210 THE RACES OF EUROPE
by Morant, both males and females belong to the same clearly differen-
tiated type, and there is no confusion between them and the Iron Age
form. They thus preserved their racial identity at least until the end of
the eighth century.
A number of individual cemeteries, which date from the earliest period
of Saxon invasion, give us a lively picture of the manner in which the first
Saxon raiders and settlers operated. One of these is the graveyard at
East Shefford, Berkshire, containing eight male and twelve female adults,
as well as eight infantile and juvenile specimens.86 All of the adult males
thirty years of age or older represent a single type, the classical Saxon,
and all are long headed. One of the females belongs to this same type,
and she was buried differently from the other women, with horse trappings
in her grave. The rest of the women were rounder headed, with cranial*
indices going up to 82.4, and some of them were planoccipital. They had
wider, shorter noses, some prognathism, and shorter, shallower jaws. The
adolescent women seem to be a blend of these two types. Although many
of these differences may be due to sex and age, others, such as the funda-
mental head form, are clearly racial.
This cemetery presumably represents a raiding party which settled in
the upper Thames waters before the onset of the mass invasions. It seems
to have included less than twelve men and only one woman who were
Saxons. The other women, being Bronze Age descendants, were appar-
ently British wives of Saxon invaders, while the children were their off-
spring.
The excavation of a round barrow at Dunstable in Bedfordshire throws
further light on the survival of the Bronze Age physical type into the Saxon
period.87 The primary burial of the barrow was a woman of the Early
Bronze Age; secondary graves contained cremated bodies of the Middle
Bronze Age, while tertiary burials, heaped in a ditch, consisted of one
hundred skeletons of persons of the Saxon period who had apparently been
executed, or slain in battle. One-tenth of them had their hands tied behind
their backs when they died. Owing to the absence of grave goods, for
these people were informally slaughtered in a ditch, it is impossible to tell
exactly who they were. The view that they were Saxon settlers violently
received by the natives is unsubstantiated. Judging by their racial type,
they must have been natives slaughtered by the Saxons.
This series contains a hundred skulls, of which those of 52 males are
suitable for study. This extensive series resembles the British Bronze Age
means in most dimensions, but through the narrowing of the cranial vault,
it indicates a certain degree of mixture with the Iron Age Keltic people.
* Peake, H., and Hooton, E. A., JRAI, vol. 45, 1915, pp. 92-130.
^Dingwall, D., and Young, M., Biometrika, vol. 25, 1933, pp. 147-157.
THE IRON AGE 211
This excellent series, in agreement with that from Berkshire, proves con-
clusively that the Bronze Age people did not die out in England but kept
on mixing steadily with the Keltic invaders and survived racially into
Saxon times.
The Saxon invasions of the British Isles were followed by those of the
Danes, who began raiding the British Isles in the eighth century. The
Danes, many of whom were actually Norwegians, took the part of England
in which the Saxons had become densely settled, but they also raided ex-
tensively in the north of Scotland and in Ireland. Very few skulls of these
Danes are available for study, but they belong, almost without exception,
to the expected northwestern Nordic variety.88 Neither a series of six
males from the Orkneys, nor of fourteen from various places in Ireland,
differs from the type of the Saxons. The further Germanic invasion of the
Normans, after their sojourn in France, took place in such late times that
the remains of these Normans still repose in Christian cemeteries, and are
subjected to the same restrictions which protect the skeletons of the solvent
recently deceased from the hands of the anthropologist.
The West Germans who invaded Bavaria, southwestern Germany,
northern Switzerland, and Austria, transformed previously Keltic and
Illyrian regions into permanent areas of Germanic speech and culture.
The tribes most fully responsible for this were the Franks, the Alemanni,
the Bajuvars, and the Thuringians. The skeletons contained in the cem-
eteries used by these peoples during the first centuries of their settlement
have been extensively studied, and it is not difficult to determine to what
extent the Germanic type, as exemplified by the Hanoverians, Anglo-
Saxons, and Goths was implanted in these regions.
The Bajuvars, the ancestors of the Bavarians, retained the original
Germanic head form in their new home, with the cranial index mean of
75 to 76 in various series.89 (See Appendix I, col. 44.) Their stature,
about 168 cm., was moderately tall, and their cranial type, in most if not
all metrical and morphological features, was reminiscent of their northern
88Bryce, T. H., PSAS, vol. 61, 1927, pp. 301-317.
Martin, C. P., Prehistoric Man in Ireland, pp. 150-151.
89 Ecker, A., Crania Germanica.
Henckel, K. O., ZFAE, vol. 77, 3/4, 1925.
' H6lder, H., AFA, vol. 2, 1867, p. 51.
Hiis and Rutimeyer, Crania Helvetica.
Kollman, J., AFA, vol. 13, 1881, p. 215.
Lehmann-Nitsche, R., BAUB, vol. 11, 1895, pp. 109-296.
Ried, H. A., BAUB, vol. 16-17, 1907, p. 63.
Sailer, K., ZFKL, vol. 18, 1934.
Schicker, J,, MAGW, vol. 35, 1905, pp. 54-55.
The most satisfactory group is the unpublished series of Mrs. R. S. Wallis of 62
male and 41 female Bavarian Reihengraber crania measured in the Anthropological
Institute at Munich.
212 THE RACES OF EUROPE
ancestors; but in a few of the smaller groups an approximation to the Keltic
form may be suspected. In every local series, however, the head form
remains constant, and there are very few brachycephals in any of them.
The ancestors of the Hessians, if we may judge by a few examples, were
apparently likewise dolichocephals 90 of the usual North German form.
The Alemanni may be studied by means of two principal series; a small
one of twenty skeletons from Oberrotweil in Baden,91 and a large one of
over two-hundred from Augst,92 in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland.
The series from Baden, while retaining the usual Germanic cranial index,
assumes in other respects the metrical character of the Keltic peoples
whom the Alemanni succeeded, and who, as a matter of fact, possessed the
same cranial index mean of 75 to 76. One must interpret this evidence
from Baden as an indication that these Germanic invaders were to a large
extent absorbed by previously settled Kelts, at least in the village which
used this cemetery and its immediate neighborhood.
The Alemanni skulls from Switzerland are, as a group, high mesocephals
with a mean of 78, and include a considerable number of brachycephalic
crania. On the whole, the total series resembles that of the Keltic prede-
cessors of the Alemanni, but the stature increased to a mean of 168 cm.,
and the cranial index of the entire group was gradually lowered. In the
fifth century, 50 per cent of the Aargau Alemanni were brachycephalic, in
the seventh century, 44 per cent, and in the eighth, 24 per cent. Coinci-
dentally, the mean cranial index was reduced over this three hundred year
span from 80.2 to 77.5. Thus the Germanic element, or perhaps a
Germanic-Keltic blend, increased at the expense of the earlier population,
and this increase was, as we shall see later, destined to become, in parts of
Switzerland, permanent.
The Thuringians, who are known to us through a series from the Saale
Valley in Germany, and through others from several sites in Bohemia,93
practiced the unusual custom, for Germans, of deforming the head by
annular constriction. Enough undeformed crania are left, however, for
one to determine their racial type. The Thuringians were purely dolicho-
cephalic. In none of these groups has a single round-headed skull been
found. The skulls are, in fact, longer headed than the normal Anglo-
Saxon and Hanoverian basic type and bear certain resemblances to the
original Iron Age Danish group, and, at the same time, to the Hallstatt
90 Virchow, R., ZFE, vol. 9, 1877, pp. 495-504.
91 Fleury-Cuello, E., ZFMA, vol. 30, 1930, pp. 406-428.
92 Schwerz, F., AFA, vol. 43, 1917, pp. 270-300.
9*Holter, F., JVST, vol. 12, 1925, pp. 1-114.
Hellich, B., Praehistorickl Lebky v Cechach & Sbirky Musea Krdlovstvi Ceskeho.
Maly, J., AnthPr, vol. 13, 1935, pp. 37-53.
Niederle, L., MAGW, vol. 22, 1892, pp. 1-18.
THE IRON AGE 213
crania of the same region in which they are found. One may state def-
initely they are not of Keltic type, and these people had apparently not
mixed to any extent with the Boii who had preceded them and from whom
Bohemia derived its name. Like the Boii, however, the Thuringians were
not destined to remain long on Bohemian soil, for this fertile plain which
had been subjected to constant farming since the beginning of the Danu-
bian Neolithic was soon to be taken permanently by the Slavs in the early
period of their great expansion.
The Germanic settlement of Austria, including the Tyrol, was a com-
plicated process, involving the Alemanni, the Bajuvars, the Lombards,
and the Goths. The Alemanni were the earliest, and the Bajuvars the
most important. In the mountains, the Lombards settled the southern
Tyrolese valleys, the Bajuvars those to the north. In the mean-
while, the Huns contributed a mongoloid element, diluted through
mixture with the Gepidae. During the seventh century, the picture was
further complicated by a temporary Slavic expansion which may have
left human traces in certain of the Tyrolese valleys. Throughout all
this turmoil, the Romanized Rhaetians still maintained their ethnic in-
tegrity in the remoter spots, as is witnessed by the survival of Ladino
speech.
A study of the Austrian crania of the centuries of Germanic settlement,
including for the most part those of Bajuvars, shows them to have been
largely Nordic, of the usual northern type.94 A small series of special in-
terest is that of 26 Lombard crania from two sites: from Nikitsch in the
OberpullendofT district of Burgenland, and Vinzen, near Regensburg, in
Lower Austria; both dating from the fifty year interval which the Lom-
bards spent north of the mountains before their final burst into Italy in
568 A.D.96 Eight skulls are those of the usual Germanic variety of Nordics,
with some exceptionally tall- and large-skulled individuals, while five
others ranging in cranial index from 77 to 93, show in their flat faces and
broad nasal bones clear traces of mongoloid mixture. A single male, in the
Nikitsch series, was strikingly different from the others; a short-statured
Armenoid or Dinaric, with typical brachycephalic skull, occipital flatten-
ing, sloping forehead, and other Near Eastern features. He was obviously
a stranger incorporated into the composite Lombard camp, either a local
Dinaric or an Asiatic. In earlier times, the Romans had stationed both
M Geyer, E., MAGW, vol. 61, 1931, pp. 162-194.
Hell, M., WPZ, vol. 19, 1932, pp. 175-193.
Merlin, H., MAGW, vol. 16, 1886, pp. 1-7.
Miiller, G., MAGW, vol. 66, 1936, pp. 345-355.
Seraczin, A., MAGW, vol. 54, 1929, pp. 323-332.
Vram, U., RDAR, vol. 9, 1903, pp. 151-159.
* Miiller, G., loc. cit.
214 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Syrians and Scotchmen in the Tullnerfeld as garrisons;96 hence the ethnic
heterogeneity in this region was chronic.
The culmination of the overland expansion of the Germans in the south-
west was the conquest of Gaul by the Franks. Marching from the middle
and upper Rhineland, they followed the river valleys across Belgium and
into the valleys of the Seine and Marne, which became the seat of their
political activities. When they arrived in this region, they were still pagan,
which was an advantage, for under the leadership of Clovis they were able
to embrace the currently popular brand of Christianity. This helped
them to win favor with the Romans, and was an important factor in their
success. The Gepidae and Vandals, who had become Christian much
earlier, belonged to the schismatic Arian sect which was then in disfavor.
These German invaders brought into France and Belgium little which
was new in the way of material culture, and the continuity of the older
tradition shows clearly that a racial change in the total population, south
of the Flemish plain where Frankish is still spoken, could not have been
complete. During the four centuries of Frankish rule in France and in the
hilly provinces of Belgium the language of the common people, which
remained a form of Latin, prevailed over the speech of the conquerors,
with the result that the national language reemerged as a Romance
tongue. This sequence of linguistic events stands in striking contrast to
the situation in England, where Keltic, which had never been completely
downed by Latin as in France, gave way rapidly and permanently before
Germanic speech.
There are enough regional skeletal series of the Frankish period in France
and Belgium to permit some study of their local characters. The skeletal
remains from Boulogne 97 and other towns along the English channel are
all long-headed and of an Anglo-Saxon racial type, which confirms the
historical record that these regions were settled by seafaring Saxons rather
than by Franks. The coastal distribution of Saxon place names in Nor-
mandy and eastern Brittany supports this identification. On the opposite
frontier of France, at Collognes, near the western end of Lake Geneva,98
the descendants of the Burgundians had become brachycephalic, and al-
most indistinguishable from their Neolithic predecessors who had lived
at Vaureal, a few kilometers away.
Aside from these marginal and collateral groups, the Franks themselves
did not differ greatly from place to place. The most extensive Belgian
series is that from Cipley in Hainaut, that of France is Mrs. Wallis's
series drawn from most of the Frankish territory in the northern part of
9» Lebzelter, V., and Thalmann, G., ZFRK, vol. 1, 1935, pp. 274-288.
OTHamy, E. T., Anth, vol. 4, 1893, pp. 513-534; vol. 19, 1908, pp. 47-68.
98 K>foMn,,.r..;*».. \/r ncAD M« A .,^1 a
THE IRON AGE 215
the country." (See Appendix I, col. 45.) These series show clearly that the
Franks were a moderately variable group, but differing as a whole from
the basic North German type from which they were presumably derived.
Although individuals belonged to this type, the Franks as a whole re-
sembled the Keltic peoples who had occupied Belgium and northern
France before them. This resemblance included the common possession
of a cranial index of about 76, and a cranial vault height of 132 mm. No
particular difference can be found between the Merovingian Franks and
the local Kelts in cranial dimensions or form, except for one important
fact: instead of falling between the Kelts and the other Germans, in many
metrical criteria the Franks slightly exceed the Kelts themselves. This
is true of facial and cranial vault indices. The stature of the Franks,
furthermore, is on a Gaulish level, with a mean of 166 cm. for males from
Belgium, and indications that in France it was even lower.
The conclusion to be drawn from this comparison is that the Franks
acquired their Keltic-like major physical form in the Rhineland, or the
southwestern part of Germany in general, before the Saxons drove them
to France and to the Low Countries. Here, whatever mixture took place
between them and the previously installed Keltic population made little
or no racial difference. This conclusion is supported by the evidence from
Baden, that the Alemanni had likewise, from the beginning of their so-
journ in southwestern Germany, succumbed to Keltic mixture. Except
along the Channel coast, the Germanic invasions of France and south-
eastern Belgium furnished nothing novel to the ultimate racial composition
of these countries. That of the Kelts, on the other hand, reenforced by
these Merovingians, was of some importance.
The summary of our information concerning the racial origins and dis-
persion of the early Germanic peoples may be stated briefly and simply.
At the beginning of the local Iron Age, a new people, bearing a Hallstatt
type of culture, entered northwestern Qermany and Scandinavia. These
invaders were of the usual central European Nordic type associated in
earlier centuries with the Illyrians. Through mixture with the local blend
of Megalithic, Corded, and Borreby elements, these newcomers gave rise
to a special sub-type of Nordic which was characterized by a larger vault
and face, a heavier body build, and a skull form on the borderline be-
tween dolicho- and mesocephaly.
The Germanic tribes that wandered over Europe during the period of
migrations belonged essentially to this new type. Exceptions were the
Alemanni and Franks, who, in southwestern Germany, assumed a Keltic
w Houz6, E., BSAB, vol. 32, 1 91 3, pp. cix-cxl, for 44 males and 35 females from Cip-
ley. Mrs. Wallis's series, measured in the Muse*e Broca and the Mus6c d' Historic
Naturelle, consists of 1 36 males and 66 females.
216 THE RACES OF EUROPE
physical guise, which they spread to Belgium, France, and Switzerland,
countries already familiar with the Kelts in person. Other exceptions were
the coastal Norwegians, to whom for the first time civilization was now
brought in significant quantity. In the shelter of their chilly fjords the
new Nordics blended with the hunters and fishermen left over from the
age of ice, who, through this new genetic vehicle, were assured permanent
survival.
(7) THE SLAVS
The Slavs, together with their close neighbors and linguistic relatives
the Baits, stepped relatively late into the theater of European history.
Speaking an archaic form of the Satem branch of Indo-European, they
almost miraculously succeeded in maintaining their linguistic integrity
through the period of obscurity which preceded their time of dispersion,
despite the widespread activities of the Kelts, the Scythians, and the
Germans. Slavic is close in many respects to the original form of Indo-
Iranian, a fact which cannot fail to have cultural and geographical sig-
nificance.
It is not yet possible to associate the early, united Slavs with any specific
archaeological horizon more remote in time than the comparatively recent
Burgwall moated villages of the early centuries of the present era. Al-
though all Slavic scholars are not in agreement as to the location of their
original home, the opinion of Niederle, the dean of Slavic prehistorians,
bears the greatest weight.100 He would place it in the densely forested basin
of the Pripiet River, in northwestern Ukraine and southeastern Poland.
This region is bounded on the west by the Vistula, on the south by the
upper course of the Dniester, and on the east by the great forests of the
former Tchernigov and Poltava Governments. In other words, the Slavic
ancestors escaped loss of ethnic identity at the hands of the Scythians and
the Goths through their occupancy of a relatively wooded and swampy
country.
Their neighbors to the west were Germans and Kelts, who lived on the
other side of the Vistula; the Baits occupied the side facing the sea after
which they have been collectively named, while the undivided Finns
dwelt along the forested stream banks near the sources of the Volga, Oka,
and Don. The early Iranians, near linguistic relatives of the Slavs, had
occupied the plains to the south and east, while the Thracians bordered
the Slavs on the far side of $ie Carpathian mountain chain.
Like the earliest Iranians and unlike the Scythians, the Slavs were sim-
100 Niederle, L., ACIA, 2me Session, Prague, 1924, pp. 241-247. For source material
see his exhaustive series of volumes on the history of the Slavs, SlovanskS Starozitnosti.
For a recent review of Slavic problems, Sonnabend, H., UEspansione degli Slavi.
THE IRON AGE 217
pie farmers and herdsmen. Living in swamps and forests, they had adapted
themselves to difficult climatic conditions. For some reason still imper-
fectly understood by the students of population dynamics, they grew in-
creasingly numerous in the period between the second and fifth centuries
A.D., and began spilling outward in all possible directions.
The westward Slavic expansion over much of what is now Germany was
temporary, for the Germanic peoples themselves soon went through a
period of eastward expansion during which they Germanized many of the
new Slavic groups, either by force or by peaceful assimilation. A few
islands of Slavic speech and culture survived this movement, notably that
of the Wends in the Saxon Spreewald. The movement of the South Slavs
took them to the Dinaric mountain chain behind Lower Austria, which
certain bands crossed to the peninsula of Istria at the head of the Adriatic,
and into northern Italy itself. The main body moved southeastward along
the Adriatic coast, following the Dinaric mountain chain to Montenegro,
and to the Gore region of northeastern Albania. A southern Slavic nu-
cleus was formed in the kingdom of Old Serbia, centered around Prizren
and Skoplje. From this nucleus they expanded into the plain of Kossovo
which, however, they were soon to lose in great part to Turks and Al-
banians. The Serbs, the most important single people involved in this
southern expansion, still speak a language closely allied to that of the
Wends in Germany.
The movements of the Slavs to the eastward constituted an intensive
reoccupation of the rich, black earth belt by peasants, for, since Late Neo-
lithic times, this fertile strip of treeless lowland had been the favorite pas-
ture and campaigning ground of tribes and nations of warlike nomads, in-
imical to the full utilization of the ground for tillage. From this black earth
region the eastern Slavs followed the watercourses of central Russia north-
ward into the forest country then inhabited by Finns. This upstream
movement dislodged some of the Finnish tribe^, and brought about their
historic migration to the Baltic. Many of the Finns, however, stayed
behind and became Slavicized, mixing with their conquerors. Still others
remained aloof in small ethnic islands, which even today retain their
Finnic speech.
The eastward expansion of the Slavs did not stop with the Urals, but
gradually continued, after interruptions by Turks and Mongols, into
Siberia, until finally, in the seventeenth century, its outposts reached the
Pacific. The Slavs are still growing more numerous and still moving east-
ward. Their period of efflorescence, the latest of the Indo-European ex-
pansions, has not yet come to an end.
Since the Slavs continued the practice of cremation well into the early
centuries of the present millennium, skeletons from the period of unity are
218 THE RACES OF EUROPE
non-existent, and those from the early centuries of expansion are not abun-
dant. However, in this instance, literary evidence antedates the osteolog-
ical, for numerous descriptions of the early Slavs, assiduously collected by
Niederle, occur in the writings of Byzantines, Arabs, and Persians.101
With only one exception, these make the Slavs tall, spare, and blond or
ruddy. They were often confused with Germans, and this fact strengthens
the likelihood that they were predominantly of light pigmentation. Only
one voice was raised to the contrary, that of a Jew named Ibrahim ben
Yakub, who, having crossed Bohemia in 965 A.D., remarked that the
Bohemians were surprisingly dark haired. Niederle interprets this solitary
dissention as evidence that Ibrahim, accustomed to or expecting blond
Slavs, was struck by a local enclave which differed from the Slavs as a
whole. In view of the preponderance of contemporary opinion to the con-
trary, ben Yakub's dissention must not be given too much weight.102
If the evidence of literary sources makes the early Slavs Nordic in
stature and pigmentation, that of osteology makes them the same in the
metrical and morphological sense. In brief, all of the earliest Slavic
skeletal material, dating mostly from the eighth to the eleventh centuries,
falls, by groups if not as individuals, into one or more of the Nordic cate-
gories already found to be characteristic of Iron Age Indo-European-
speaking peoples.
That from Poland, the eastern half of which was included in the home
of the Slavic peoples before their period of dispersion, is not very abundant.
Altogether less than 40 male crania may be assembled, and few of these
have complete measurements.103 (See Appendix I, col. 46.) These skulls
are all predominantly dolichocephalic; the mean cranial index is 73, and
not a single round-headed example is included. Among these Polish skulls
are some notably long and large specimens with long, narrow faces. The
noses of the group, as a whole, are fully leptorrhine. On the whole, the
ancestral Slavs of Poland fwere Nordics, within the range of the, Indo-
European group; these skulls lean to the longer- and larger-headed Corded
extreme, and resemble in many respects, the Hannover series, and by
extension, the Anglo-Saxons.
Numerous remains of the Slavic expansion into Germany show clearly
the physical types of the particular invaders concerned in this quarter.
The most important series is that studied by Asmus, who collected the
w* Niederle, L., AnthPr, vol. 7, 1929, pp. 62-64; also Sl$vanske Starolitnosti, vol. 1,
1925, pp. 98 ff.
102 The passage in question has been translated and retranslated through a number of
languages. I have been unable to find the Arabic original.
108 Kopernkki, I., ZWAK, part i, 1883.
Majewski, £., Swiatowit, vol. 9, 1911, pp. 88-94.
Rutkowski, L., Swiatowit, vol. 7, 1907, pp. 3-21, 22-38.
THE IRON AGE 219
skulls of the ancient Wends of Mecklenburg.104 (See Appendix I, col, 47.)
These form a reasonably homogeneous group of high dolichocephals and
low mesocephals, with a moderate vault height, a low sloping forehead,
long narrow faces, leptorrhine or mesorrhine noses, high orbits, and a
strongly built jaw. These Old Wends, rounder headed than the Poles,
fall very close metrically to the Kelts and to the Scythians. In intermediate
parts of Germany, particularly in western Prussia and Pomerania, the Old
Slavic skulls are higher vaulted, and closer in this respect to the Polish
sub- type.105
Those in Bohemia are for the most part the same as the Wend crania in
Germany, except for one series of Matiegka (see Appendix I, col. 48);
in this, the vaults are extremely high, nearly reaching early Corded dimen-
sions. This is true to a minor extent of a small group from Slovakia and of
individual skulls.106 Thus, in Bohemia, the Slavs included three sub-types,
with Hallstatt, Polish, and Keltic analogies.
The Slavs who invaded Styria between the seventh to ninth centuries
are basically the same as those in Germany, and fall very close to an older
Keltic mean.107 They formed, without question, a mixed group and in-
cluded in their number a minority of round-headed forms. Some of the
Slavic crania from Styria, recalling the Polish prototype, are extremely
large and powerful. We have, unfortunately, no data with which to
trace the further progress of the southern Slavs into the Dinaric mountain
stronghold, and thence into Old Serbia and the Kossovo plain. We may,
however, study a third Slavic movement, that which penetrated Russia. l08
The skulls of these invaders belong to a generalized Nordic form, with
a cranial index of 75 to 76, and an intermediate vault height. The Ukrain-
ian skulls from the eighth to the ninth centuries A.D, do not greatly diverge
from this general standard, but the early Slavic crania from the Moscow
region in Russia, dated from the eleventh to twelfth centuries A.D., are, in
fact, almost purely dolichocephalic, with a mean cranial index of 73.5.
1(« Asmus, R., AFA, vol. 27, 1902, pp. 1-36.
106 Miiller, W., JVST, vol. 5, 1906, pp. 60-77.
Reuss, K., JVST, vol. 6, 1907, pp. 93-112.
Schumann, H., ZFE, vol. 23, 1891, pp. 589-592, 704-708; vol. 26, 1894, pp. 330-
336; vol. 30, 1898, pp. 93-100.
Virchow, R., ZFE, vol. 23, 1891, pp. 349-350; vol. 24, 1892, pp. 550-555.
™ Cervinka, J. L., and Matiegka, J., AnthPr, vol. 3, 1925, pp. 97-108.
Jelinek, B., MAGW, vol. 20, 1890, pp. 136-147.
Matiegka, J., AFA, vol. 25, 1896, pp. 150-154.
Szombathy, J., MAGW, vol. 52, 1922, p. 20.
Wankel, H., MAGW, vol. 12, 1882, pp. 123-128.
1OTToldt, C., MAGW, vol. 42, 1912, pp. 247-280.
wsDebetz, G., AntrM, vol. 4, 1930, pp. 93-105.
Derviz, D., RAJ, vol. 12, 1923, pp. 24-38.
Stefko, W. H., and Schugaiew, W. S., AFA", vol 50, 1932, pp. 44-55.
220 THE RACES OF EUROPE
On the whole, the Slavic racial type, as exemplified by skeletal series
from Poland, Germany, Bohemia, Austria, and Russia, was reasonably
uniform. In view of its geographical location, the Polish group probably
represents most nearly the original form, while those who expanded south-
ward and westward absorbed local Keltic and other Indo-European-speak-
ing populations. The Slavs, like all the other Indo-European-speaking
peoples whom we have been able to trace, were originally Nordic, and
there is no suggestion in their early remains, in the regions studied, of the
numerically predominant brachycephalic racial increments which today
are considered typically Slavic. However, the Slavs who migrated to
southern Hungary, like the Germanic Gepidae before them, mixed with a
local short-statured, broad-faced, and broad-nosed brachycephalic people,
who, antedating the historic arrival of the Magyars, were descended from
the central Asiatic Avars. 109
Most of the Slavs retained their original dolichocephalic cranial form
until at the earliest the thirteenth, and the latest the fifteenth, century.
At that time, those who inhabited Russia and central Europe grew pro-
gressively brachycephalic, at a rapid but consistent rate. Well-docu-
mented series from Bohemia and the Moscow government show how this
change progressed from century to century, so that normal means of 73
to 75 rose as high as 83 by the nineteenth. Few Slavs were spared this
change, which was parallel to that which affected the southern Germans
and other peoples of central and eastern Europe. Although it took place
in the full light of late mediaeval and modern history, no one fully satis-
factory explanation has yet been offered.
(8) CONCLUSIONS
It is unnecessary to dwell long upon the conclusions reached in this
chapter. They may be stated very simply and briefly.
The predominant peoples of the Iron Age in Europe as well as in central
Asia, the West-Asiatic highlands, and India were Indo-European speakers.
For some mysterious reason as yet incompletely understood, various
branches of this linguistic stock underwent periods of rapid expansion
during which the human beings who spread these languages migrated in
many directions and disseminated their physical type as well as their
speech among other peoples. There had, however, been comparable ex-
pansions before this. The conquest of the cold brought human beings
into parts of the world where only Neanderthal rfien and lower animals
had lived, under equivalent climatic conditions, before them. In the ab-
sence of competition and in the abundance of game, they were able to
multiply until they were sufficiently numerous to satisfy the requirements
i* Szir£ky, S., and HuszAr, G., MAGW, vol. 63, 1933, pp.* 229-232.
THE IRON AGE 221
of their environment. The retreat of the ice and the shifting of belts of
climate had precipitated other movements which may have taken the
form of expansions, and the discovery of agriculture and animal hus-
bandry, of course, gave rise to that expansion which Childe calls the
Neolithic Revolution.
The Danubian invasion of central Europe from the east may be con-
sidered as an isolated wing of this movement, that of the swineherds who
entered Europe from the southeast, another. In the same way, we may
consider the migration of the megalith- builders by sea; the wanderings of
the Bronze Age brachycephals, by land and water; and the rapid move-
ments of the Corded people across the plains of eastern and central Europe,
as successive and at the same time parallel expansions. Thus, this business
of expansions was not initiated by the Indo-European speakers. If we
knew the languages of the peoples who preceded them, we might in each
case find parallel linguistic as well as racial circumstances.
The principal point to this chapter is that the Indo-European languages
were, at one time, associated with a single, if composite, racial type, and
that that racial type was an ancestral Nordic. We have determined this
through a study of the skeletal remains of peoples known to have spoken
these languages at or near the time of their initial dispersion from their
several centers. The sub-variety of Nordic concerned in each case varied,
and the variations usually depended upon mixture with other peoples,
amalgamated during the process of differentiation and expansion. Never-
theless, the various brands of Nordic so produced were still very much
alike.
Another result of the investigation pursued in this chapter is the dis-
covery that the mysterious Urnfields people, who began, toward the end of
the Bronze Age, to destroy their skeletal evidence and did not cease this
practice until well into the Iron Age, were probably Nordics. Hence the
smoke veil has been lifted and we may be reasonably sure of what hap-
pened. Under this screen, the Nordic-like Early and Middle Bronze Age
peoples of central and eastern Europe became Iron Age Indo-Europeans;
no important change of race, then, took place in the focus of Urnfields de-
velopment, that is, in eastern Germany, Poland, and the Ukraine. It is
likely that no important change of language occurred there either.
Since, as we have seen, the Early Bronze Age central Europeans were
racially a Corded-Danubian blend, a concordance of racial facts with the
most recent linguistic deductions would make the following proposition
likely:
The Danubians who settled the fertile plains and valleys of eastern and
central Europe already spoke basic Indo-European; the Finno-Ugrian-
Caucasic blend which produced this linguistic entity took place before their
222 THE RACES OF EUROPE
migration westward. The introduction of Altaic words, particularly those
concerned with the care of the horse, were infused into the previous Indo-
European linguistic blend at the time of strongest Corded influence in
central Europe, which produced the Aunjetitz culture.
This reconstruction helps to support Nehring's conclusion that the
Danubians were the first speakers of Indo-European languages on Euro-
pean soil, and that Indo-European may be divided into two chronological
levels without reference to the Centum-Satem division. If the original
agricultural and cattle-raising complex was connected with the Danu-
bians, the horse element with its Altaic linguistic connections would belong
to the Corded. By this argument, we may construct a reasonably com-
plete concurrence between the three disciplines: physical anthropology,
archaeology, and linguistics.
At this point, a word of caution is needed. We must not carry the asso-
ciations suggested in this chapter too far, and above all we must not form
the opinion that the terms Nordic and Indo-European are inseparable.
Indo-European speakers, from the moment of their initial dispersion,
began mixing with other peoples, and the specific association between
language and race found in this instance has by now been largely dis-
sipated. Furthermore, the Nordic race as we have studied it in Europe was
formed from the union of two or more widely distributed and essentially
related racial types. It is quite possible and even likely that similar com-
binations of the same elements took place elsewhere, and that other Nor-
dics may have arisen without reference to Indo-European speech. Further-
more, we must remember that, although most Iron Age Nordic groups of
which we have literary descriptions were wholly or partially blond, we
cannot be sure that all prehistoric skeletal material which seems Nordic
in an osteological sense was associated with blond soft parts; we must
also remember that the "Nordics" in the living sense have no monopoly
on blondism.
Chapter VII
THE IRON AGE, PART II
Speakers of Uralic and Altaic
(1) THE FINNO-UGRIANS
In the preceding chapter it has been shown that the Indo-European
languages were probably formed somewhere on the plain of southern
Russia or western Turkestan, by a blending of languages spoken by peoples
in a Neolithic or early Copper Age stage of culture. One of the two lin-
guistic elements in this blend has been positively identified with Finno-
Ugrian, which at the same time forms one of the two lateral divisions of
the Ural Altaic stock, the fundamental unity of which is under question.1
The blending of Finno-Ugrian with the B element which produced
Indo-European languages took place at some time no earlier than the
last few centuries of the fourth millennium B.C., well after the acquisition
of agriculture and animal husbandry by western Asiatic peoples, and be-
fore the adoption of a complete Bronze Age technology by the inhabitants
of the plains north of the Caucasus and the Iranian plateau. The Finnish
speakers, who contributed so largely to Indo-European speech at that time,
must have been residents of the plains at the time of their meeting with
the bringers of Caucasic speech with which their own language was united.
At the same time, they must inevitably have contributed to the formation
of the racial blend with which the resulting Indo-European languages were
early identified.
The historic Finno-Ugrians, of whom frequent mention has been made
in the past, with little elucidation, include in the first branch all of the
Finnish-speaking tribes of central and northern Russia, the Esthonians,
and the Baltic Finns, as well as the Lapps, who speak an archaic Finnish
dialect; in the second, the ancestors of the Magyars, the Bolgars, and the
Siberian Ostiaks and Voguls.2 At the time of their first historical mention,
in the classical period, they seem to have been united in central and north-
ern Russia. The Finns were centered about the middle course of the Volga,
1 Professor G. J. Ramstedt of Helsingfors University, an eminent student of Altaic
languages, has come to the conclusion that the Uralic and Altaic groups of languages
are not, as was previously thought, demonstrably related, but form two entirely separate
linguistic stocks. He is supported in this view by Professor Szinnyei of Budapest. —
Private Communication.
2 See Chapter IX, section 8, for a detailed listing of the living and extinct peoples
known to have spoken Finno-Ugrian languages.
223
224 THE RACES OF EUROPE
and west to the country occupied by the Baits and the Slavs; the Ugri be-
tween the Volga and the Urals. In the sense that they occupied one unified
territory from which they later spread, they emulated the behavior of their
Indo-European-speaking neighbors. Movement to the south was in-
hibited, in historic times, by the presence of the Scythians and Sarmatians;
before the rise of these horse-nomads, however, they must at some time
have been in contact with Caucasic-speaking peoples, who may have in-
cluded the mysterious pre-Scyths, the Cimmerians, the remnants of whose
speech have been likened to modern Cherkess.3
A Finnish expansion took place in historic time, and during the Chris-
tian era. It consisted of the following movements: the migration of the
ancestors of the Baltic Finns to the northwest, largely as a result of Slavic
and Letto-Lithuanian pressure — this took place at the same time as the
Slavic penetration of Russia; the movement of the Bolgars to Bulgaria,
during the seventh century, and of the Magyars to Hungary, under Turk-
ish leadership, during the ninth; the migration of the Ostiaks and Voguls
across the Urals to the Obi drainage, during the thirteenth.
Before the time of known Finnish expansion, the Scythian barrier in-
hibited the use of agriculture as a primary means of subsistence among the
Finnish tribes located to the north of the nomads. Many of the Finns,
in fact, lived principally by hunting and fishing along the forested streams
which formed the headwaters of the Volga, Don, and Dniester. But it is
unlikely that the Finns in pre-Scythian times had been ignorant of agri-
culture; those who lived in arable country farmed at least by the time of
Herodotus.
The evidence for the racial composition of the early Finns is scanty, but
incapable of misinterpretation. One small series of ten skulls dating from
about the sixth century B.C., contemporaneous with the Early Scythian
period, has been identified with the ancestors of the Volga Finns at the
time of their unity.4 (See Appendix I, col. 49.) These come from the
cemeteries of Polianki and Maklacheievka, from the former Viatka govern-
ment in Permian Finn country just south of the present Komi or Zyryenian
Republic. The graves belonged to the so-called Anan'ino cultural horizon.
This Anan'ino culture 5 was formed from a combination of influences from
Siberia, the Caucasus, Scythia, and Scandinavia. It did not end suddenly,
but passed by a gradual process of evolution into the civilization of the
historic Volga Finns. Therefore, we may consider these skulls, few as they
are, to represent the ancestors of the Finns before the beginning of their
historic expansion.
* Baschmakoff, A., ZFRK, vol. 4, 1936, pp. 194-199.
*Debetz, G., ESA, vol. 6, 1931, pp. 96-99.
&Tallgren, A. M., Real, vol. 1, pp. 164-165.
THE IRON AGE 225
This small group of seven male and three female crania is not com-
pletely homogeneous, but it is nearly so. All of the skulls are European in
racial type. The faces are a little broader than in most Mediterranean
groups, but not to an exceptional degree. The noses, with the exception
of one extremely leptorrhine male, are mesorrhine or chamaerrhine; but so
are those of many early Danubians. The cranial form is mesocephalic or
dolichocephalic, with one male reaching the figure of 83; the vault is
moderately high; the forehead usually straight, the browridges moderate.
There is nothing new about these crania, and nothing specifically
mongoloid. They closely resemble another small series of eight male
skulls from the cemetery of Polom in the same district as the Anan'ino
cemeteries6 (see Appendix I, col. 50), dating from the ninth century A.D.,
and known to have been those of Finns of the Permian sub-family. In
view of the small numbers, no difference can be found which would be
statistically valid. A third group from the Lower Volga, representing the
Mordvins of the fourteenth century, is similar to the Anan'ino and Per-
mian crania, except that it is extremely long headed, with low indices,
centered about the range from 71 to 73.
When we make a metrical comparison between the first two groups of
Finnish skulls and all European series previously studied, we find that they
fit into the ranks of Iron Age Indo-European speakers without difficulty.
On the whole, they resemble most nearly the larger-sized members of the
intermediate group; they also resemble the Scythian crania to a consider-
able extent, and even more the Minussinsk skulls. They are slightly
smaller than the Germanic type, but equal to it in vault height and face
breadth. In nose form and cranial height, they resemble the Neolithic
Danubians.
News of the racial position of these early Finnish skulls will come as a
surprise to scholars who see in the Finns a group of mongoloid immigrants
from Asia. But that they were essentially if not wholly European is, de-
spite the paucity of Debetz's material, incontestable. Nor can one derive
these Finns from forest-dwellers of Mesolithic tradition, except perhaps as
a minor influence. Furthermore, in the early Anan'ino series, recognizable
Corded peculiarities are to be found in but one male skull out of seven.
The Finno-Ugrians, therefore, may be tentatively considered to have been,
in the period before they expanded into their historic seats, Europeans of
mixed origin, basically Danubian in type, with some brachycephalic ele-
ment and an extremely long-headed variation as well; the latter is already
familiar to us in the form of the Corded type; the former is not clearly
definable, but is European. Its only discernible difference from the others
in the same series is in a greater breadth of the skull. This broad-headed
8 Debetz, loc. cit.
226 THE RAGES OF EUROPE
element is completely lacking in the late lower Volga group, of which we
have only the cranial indices.
Debetz's discovery that the Finno-Ugrian speakers were originally
purely European in race, and furthermore, not local Palaeolithic or Meso-
lithic survivors, is in perfect accord with the present state of linguistic
knowledge, which makes their form of speech one of two equally weighted
elements in the basic Indo-European. They not only were, but on logical
grounds must have been, in the larger sense, Mediterraneans.
On equally logical grounds, this discovery does not invalidate the hy-
pothesis that the descendants of Mesolithic hunters and fishers persisted
until modern times in the forests of the far north, nor that some such sur-
vivors may not have been absorbed by those tribes of Finns which mi-
grated even beyond the Permian country to the chilly drainage of the
Arctic Ocean. This theory is very hard to test, however, for if we review
the early racial history of the northern forest belt,7 we find very little
skeletal data with which to work. What material there is comes almost
entirely from Latvia, Esthonia, and the Ladoga Lake country, all north
and west of the historic Finnic center. It includes skulls of Corded type,
both with and without mixture, and a number of ill-defined crania which
do not fit into the usual European picture. Many of these latter are
brachycephalic, some are perhaps, but not certainly, incipiently or par-
tially mongoloid.
Unfortunately, the manner in which these skulls have been published
does not permit a lucid review of their racial position. Similar ones
appeared sporadically in Late Neolithic and Bronze Age series in Poland
and on the plains of southern Russia, apparently as intrusions from the
north, but not in sufficient numbers to alter the prevailing character of the
population south of the forest from which they, as the osseous headpieces
of stray woodsmen, had wandered.
Until almost three centuries after the birth of Christ, therefore, Europe,
except possibly along the very Arctic rim, had not witnessed the invasion
of any mongoloid people. Western Asia, from the Bosporus to the Indus,
and the plains immediately east of the Caspian as well, were equally
ignorant of them. But with the arrival of the Huns this gap was soon
filled. .
(2) THE TURKS AND MONGOLS
In order to discuss the movements of Asiatic peoples into Europe from
the first inroad of the Huns to the conquests of the Osmanli Turks in the
sixteenth century, it will be necessary to review briefly the events in cen-
tral and eastern Asia which preceded and precipitated these incursions.
7 See pages 125-1 26.
THE IRON AGE 227
From the time that the Irano-Aryan ancestors had arrived in Russian
Turkestan in anticipation of their descent into the hills of northwestern
India, much of this grassy plain had been the home of those Iranians who
remained behind while their kinsmen climbed the mountains which would
take them into India and the Irano-Afghan plateau. These Iranians
apparently developed, or borrowed, a high degree of adaptation to their
steppe environment, and especially through the perfection of pastoral
nomadism with the horse as chief instrument of mobility. They expanded
through the passes to the eastward, which took them to Kashgaria, and
there came in contact with the Chinese Empire. On the other side, they
expanded westward into Europe, where we have already studied them in
the form of Scythians and Sarmatians.
To the northwest of the vast Iranian domain, in Mongolia, a number of
semi-agricultural, semi-pastoral tribes, possessing the sheep, probably also
cattle, and perhaps wagons, but apparently not the horse, came in early
times to the attention of the Chinese historians. By 800 B.C. we hear of a
people called the Hiung-Nu, who gradually grew in importance until they
came to dominate all of Mongolia.8 At a fairly late date, set by McGovern
between 541 and 300 B.C., the Hiung-Nu presumably obtained horses,
and learned to ride them. They seem to have acquired these animals from
the Iranians or from Turkish-speaking peoples, along with the whole com-
plex of horse nomadism. Chinese accounts of the Hiung-Nu later than the
third century B.C. refer to them as typical plainsmen, strikingly similar in
many cultural respects to the Scythians.
The six centuries, more or less, from 400 B.C. to 200 A.D., formed the
period of greatness of the Hiung-Nu in Mongolia, during which they con-
stantly harried China, and took possession of Chinese Turkestan. Despite
their conquest, however, Iranian languages, and the mysterious Tok-
harian B, persisted in the towns until 800 A.D. or later. At length the
Chinese took measures to rid themselves of this nuisance, and succeeded in
defeating the Hiung-Nu so completely that they abandoned their territory
and disappeared to the westward.
The last mention of the Hiung-Nu in Chinese sources is about 170 A.D.
-and, exactly two hundred years later, the Huns appeared on the banks of
the Don in Russia. McGovern has presented a convincing argument to
prove that the two were the same people; that their passage across Asia
took them across a space sterile of historians, between the spheres of
Chinese and of Byzantine chroniclers. Only one glow of light appears in
this interim; in 290 A.D. Tigranes the Great of Armenia hired some such
people as mercenaries.
8 McGovern, W. M., Early Empires of Central Asia. I am indebted to Dr. McGovern
for permission to make use of his book before publication.
228 THE RAGES OF EUROPE
The history of the Huns in Europe does not require elaborate treatment.
Having defeated the Ostrogoths and sent them and their kinsmen scurry-
ing westward, the Huns moved to the present Hungary, which they made
their headquarters. From here they sent expeditions to Rome, to Ger-
many, and to France, where Attila was defeated in the battle of the Cata-
lonian fields in 451 A.D. After his death two years later, the Huns retired
to eastern Europe, and many of them united with their relatives the Bol-
gars, who had settled between the Ugrian and Finnic tribes of the middle
Volga and Kama rivers, where, under Bolgar leadership, a great state
arose, which flowered between the eighth and fourteenth centuries.
In the meantime, the Huns in central Asia raided Mesopotamia, Per-
sia, Afghanistan, and India; presumably the Turkish penetration of cen-
tral Siberia dates likewise from the period between 200 and 400 A.D. This
span of two centuries marks the beginning of the great expansion of
Turkish-speaking peoples, for the Huns, and their allies and relatives, must
have spoken various forms of speech related to Turkish, many of which are
now extinct.
When we view the Hunnish inroad into Europe in the light of the total
context of Old World history, it ceases to be a strange inruption of hideous
and invincible barbarians darting out of nowhere, as it at first appeared
to the Byzantines and Romans. The Huns were a people who had been
exposed to a high civilization, that of China; they were cultured if illiter-
ate, and in every sense the match of the frightened adversaries whom they
met in Europe. When we examine the details of these invasions, we see
that it was not one simple inroad, but a series of them in which a
perplexing confusion of names is involved. Chief of the newcomers, after
the Huns, were the Avars, who arrived in the sixth century. The Huns
considered these their kinsmen and equals, and later amalgamated with
them after the Avars had, in the eighth century, been defeated by Char-
lemagne and had retreated, some to Hungary and others to the Don
country.
From the fall of the Huns until the rise of the Mongols some thousand
years later, the history of central Asia is simply a repetition of the same
theme; some obscure sub-tribe would become important, win leadership
over the others, and head new invasions of increasing complexity. The
history of southern Russia became extremely complicated, for the steppes
of the Don country served as a terminal point for all but the most serious of
these movements.
After the Avars came the Turks, called Tii-Kue, hereditary iron-work-
ers, who had been an old clan of the Hiung-Nu. They defeated the Avars
in 546 A.D., and settled about the Caspian Sea; from here they conducted
their raids and expanded, and gave their name to the whole linguistic
THE IRON AGE 229
sub-stock of Altaic which all of them, Huns included, seem to have
spoken. It is probable that their speech superseded many older allied
forms.
In the guise of Petchenegs and Kumans, in the tenth and eleventh
centuries new waves of Turks moved across the southern Russian steppes
as far as the Danube. As Seljuks, the Turks took charge of Asia Minor and
fought the Crusaders; as Osmanlis, they conquered the Seljuks, withstood
the Mongol advance, captured Constantinople, and swarmed over the
Balkans and up to Vienna. But meanwhile, in the thirteenth century,
other Turks under Mongol leaders, now for the first time called Tatars,
had covered southeastern Europe ahead of the Osmanlis; and, in the four-
teenth, hordes of true Mongols had followed, leaving permanent settle-
ments in the Caucasus, the Kalmuck Steppe, and the Crimea.
In the fifteen hundreds, the tide commenced to turn in eastern Europe;
the Muscovites grew powerful, and the Asiatic invaders began to draw
eastward as the steppes were peopled with Slavs. Under the rule of the
Turks and Mongols, the older population had not entirely disappeared;
colonies of Alans persisted until the thirteenth century, and Russian col-
onies lived under the protection of the Turkish Khazars. In the same
fashion, the Turks and Mongols did not disappear with the Slavic advance,
and their colonies in the midst of Slavic territory are still numerous.
There is an abundance of documents dealing with the invasion of
Europe by the Huns and by their relatives the Avars. These inroads took
place shortly after the expansion of the Germanic peoples to the east, and
formed a primary reason for the failure of the Goths and Vandals to found
a permanent home in the former Scythian country. They took place, also,
before the major expansion of the Slavs, who moved eastward in the in-
terim between the invasion of central Europe by the Huns and the whole-
sale westward migration of the Magyar ancestors under Arp&d.
That the Huns came in great numbers cannot be questioned, and that
they introduced a completely alien racial type onto European soil is vividly
attested by the accounts of numerous contemporary historians, among
whom may be mentioned Jordanes, Sidonus, Appolinaris, and Priscus.
These authors unanimously describe the Huns as being short, broad
shouldered, thick-set, swarthy, flat-nosed, slit-eyed, nearly beardless, and
bandy-legged. The Avars are described by some authors as being identical
with the Huns, but by others as being less horrible of aspect. According
to that Byzantine wit, Jordanes, the Avars defeated the Iranian-speaking
Alans, who were the descendants of the Sarmatians, by frightening them
with their faces and not by valor.
The careful studies of Bartucz, on whose work this following part is
almost entirely based, has disclosed, in unquestioned manner, the exact
230 THE RACES OF EUROPE
racial composition of these invaders.9 (See Appendix I, col. 51.) Many
of the Hunnish and Avar cemeteries are very extensive, containing, in all,
thousands of skulls. In many of these cemeteries, particularly in that of
Mosonszentjanos, purely mongoloid skeletons have been found, unaccom-
panied by European followers or European mixture. *
Bartucz finds two clearly differentiated mongoloid types in these cem-
eteries. The first, which he designates as type A, is dolicho- to mesocephalic
with a mean index of 75.5 for the males and 77.0 for the females. These
skulls are of great length and considerable size. The forehead is very
narrow, the temples sharply curved, and the zygomatic arches laterally
bowed. The occiput is narrow and conical at the end. From the side pro-
file, the forehead appears exceptionally low and slanting. The vertex
falls well back of bregma, and the profile is curved through the extent of
its length. In the occipital region the line of neck muscle attachment
forms a powerful torus.
The vault of this type is lower than that found in any European group.
It is, in fact, near the low point for mankind, with a range in height from
120 to 130 mm. The browridges, accentuated by the extreme slope of the
forehead, are heavy, but the glabella region is flat, the orbits are rounded,
and with the lower border often projecting farther forward than the upper.
The nasal bones are long, narrow, and flat; so that the nasal skeleton some-
times fails to project in front of the malars. The lower borders of the nasal
opening are smoothly rounded. The malars are extremely large and
prominent, the canine fossa completely lacking, and the maxillary sinus,
which overlies it, is so blown out that the surface of the bone is at this
point often raised. The dental arch of the palate is U-shaped. The man-
dible is heavy, but the chin, however, but slightly developed. The whole
sub-nasal portion of the face is enormous. The stature of this type, calcu-
lated from the long bones, is 164.4 cm. for the males, 153.1 cm. for the
females.
Type B is also purely mongoloid, but it is brachycephalic, with a mean
index of 83 for both sexes. The forehead is also low, but much broader and
more sharply curved, the occiput is rounded and broad, and the skull
as a whole is globular, although the vault is still low. The face is broad
and low, the orbits are lower, the nose less leptorrhine, the malars and
zygomata less pronouncedly mongoloid, than in the case of type A. The
nasal bones are shorter, the palate broader and rounder, the chin more
prominent. This type is characterized by shorter stature; 160.9 cm. for
the males, and 152.8 cm. for the females.
9 Bartucz, L., ZFRK, vol. 1, 1935, pp. 225-240; Skythika, vol. 2, 1929, pp. 83-96;
vol. 4, 1931, pp. 75-90; ESA, vol. 5, 1930, pp. 66-73.
Krecsmarik, E., Dolgozatok, vol. 3, 1927, pp. 160-166.
Lcbzeltcr, V., MAGW, vol. 65, 1935, pp. 44-46.
THE IRON AGE 231
Thanks to the industrious researches of the modern Russian school of
physical anthropology, it is not difficult to discover the Asiatic relationships
of these two types. Type A is found today among the living Tungus,10 and
it has likewise a long history in Siberia, for it is found among many
Siberian peoples, including Palaeasiatics, and it is characteristic of many
of the Neolithic skulls excavated in the neighborhood of Lake Baikal.11
Type B belongs to the Mongol-speaking peoples, and is found in especial
purity among the Buryats, who represent, culturally and probably racially,
the Mongols before the time of their expansion. Modern Buryat skulls are
among the largest in capacity known.
In most Hunnish and Avar cemeteries, type B is more in evidence than
type A. Type A, however, predominates in the cemeteries which are
known to have been used by the Huns, type B in those which belong to
Avars. The Avar cemeteries contain also, in many cases, intermediate
types which show that these people had begun to mix with members of the
white stock, either in central Asia, in Europe, or both, and other cemeteries
in which the white element is in the majority. The leading classes of the
Huns and Avars, however, appear to have kept themselves apart, and to
have preserved their mongoloid racial types pure throughout the centuries
of their political domination. In the graves which are most richly fur-
nished, and which show that the occupants were men of power and conse-
quence, the mongoloid types are unaltered. The two graves of known
Avar heroes contain skeletons belonging purely to type B.
Bartucz's identification of type A predominantly with the Huns, and B
with the Avars, seems valid. That the two intermarried freely is shown by
the fact that in single graves containing a man and wife, the two are often
of opposite types. In such cases of differential mating, there is no linkage
between sex and type, indicating that A and B were socially equal. It is
very likely that the initial amalgamation of these two types took place in
Mongolia, and not in Europe. Also, the presence of numerous interme-
diate forms attests this freedom of intercourse. Individual Hunriish skulls
found as far afield as Lower Austria and France may be easily identified
with the crania from Hungary, and belong in known cases to type B.12
A further light upon the physical characteristics of the Huns is shown by
a study of Hunnish head hair, from graves of this period. A sample of it is
very fine, straight, and jet black.13 In color and in form, this hair was
classically mongoloid, but this fineness casts some doubt upon the gen-
eralization that all mongoloid hair must be coarse, especially since it has
10Roguinski, A., RAJ, vol. 23, 1934, pp. 105-126.
11 Debetz, G., RAJ, vol. 19, 1930, pp. 7-50.
12Lebzelter, V., MAGW, vol. 65, 1935, pp. 44-46.
Zaborowski, S., RA, vol. 24, 1914, pp. 318-320.
"Greguss, P., Dolgozatok, vol. 7, 1927, p. 232.
232 THE RACES OF EUROPE
been shown that American Indian hair is very variable in this respect.
The incontrovertible evidence of the Hungarian graves completely dis-
pels the theory that the Huns may have been largely European in racial
type. If the Hiung-Nu were ancestors of the Huns, then the early inhabi-
tants of Mongolia were definitely mongoloid, and belonged to the two
important racial elements present there today, the Tungus and the
Mongol proper. This throws the prehistory of central Asia into a clear
and logical light. It is exactly what one would expect.
But it is necessary to discover what was the nature of the European
racial element amalgamated by the Avars. This may be accomplished by
studying some of the least mongoloid cemeteries. In that of Jutas 14 (see
Appendix I, col. 52), only five out of twenty-four skulls show any trace of
recognizable mongoloid features. The Jutas sample, then, may be used
for testing. Fourteen male skulls are all below 78 in cranial index, and are
very similar to one of the Minussinsk regional sub-series; less pronounced
relationships are present between it and Scythian and Armenian Iron
Age skulls. The resemblance to Slavic and Germanic skulls, which are
larger, is less pronounced. It is therefore certain that these non-mongoloid
Avars belonged to the general Mediterranean racial family, and that
some, at least, were members of the Nordic Iron Age group; it is more than
likely that they were for the most part incorporated into the Avar ranks
in central Asia before corning to Europe. The study of the crania from
another cemetery, that of Tiszadersz15 (see Appendix I, col. 53), makes
this virtually certain.
McGovern has discovered a number of Chinese references to the
Hiung-Nu and other Turkish -speaking "barbarians" which describe them
as hairy, big-nosed, and partially blond. In later times, Genghis Khan
was supposed to be red-haired and green-eyed. It is therefore likely that
some of the Asiatic Nordic element found in the Jutas and Tiszadersz
cemeteries was incorporated by the Avars before they left Mongolia, but,
on the basis of the evidence from purely mongoloid cemeteries Hke
Mosonszentjanos, it is unlikely that this influence could have penetrated
the entire Hunnish and Avar nations.
At any rate, it is evident from the size and number of the Avar ceme-
teries that, as Bartucz says,16 these invaders played an important r61e in
the peopling not only of Hungary but also of adjacent countries of central
Europe, for the people whom the Avars brought into the Danube basin
did not depart with the cessation of Avar rule.
At the same time the Avars did not uproot the former population, which
14 Bartucz, L., Skythika, vol. 4, 1931, pp. 75-91.
15 Lebzelter, V., MAGW, vol. 65, 1935, pp. 44-46.
Bartucz, L., ZFRK, 1935.
16 Bartucz, L., ZFRK, vol. 1, 1935, pp. 225-240.
THE IRON AGE 233
included Slavs and Germans, among older elements, but made them tax-
paying vassals. Furthermore, in the days of Attila, the richness of the Huns
had attracted many craftsmen and adventurers to the royal court, among
whom were many Italians. Priscus's account makes it very evident 17 that
Attila's capital contained a very heterogeneous population.
The great migration to Hungary, that which brought the ancestors of
the present-day Magyars, took place at the end of the ninth and beginning
of the tenth century, when the Hungarian national hero Arpad led the
Magyars into Hungary, where many Slavs had settled in the interim after
the collapse of Hunnish power. We have already seen (p. 220) that these
Slavs had partially taken over Hunnish physical traits. By 906 A.D., the
Magyars were at home in Hungary; in the two centuries which followed,
they adopted Christianity, and invited settlers of many nationalities,
including Moslems and Jews, to help them occupy the land. These
newcomers, along with the pre-Magyar Slavs, formed a tax-paying peas-
antry.
The Magyars were Ugrians from the region between the Volga and the
Urals, who had been partially Turkicized by the Petchenegs and others,
but had retained their Finno-Ugrian language, albeit strongly shot with
Turkish. In this respect, they resembled the ancestral Bulgarians, semi-
Turkicized Finns, who had, a few decades earlier, crossed the lower
Danube and settled Bulgaria, implanting themselves on a population of
Slavs who had themselves been but a short while in occupancy. In
Bulgaria, the Slavic language seeped through and replaced the Finnish;
in Hungary, the Ugrian became dominant and the Slavic speech to a
large extent disappeared. Nevertheless, Slavic culture blended with the
Ugrian and Turkish, to produce modern Hungarian forms.
We have no physical remains of the early Finnic invaders of Bulgaria,
but those of the Ugri of the land-taking period, as the Hungarians call it,
are adequate. As is to be expected, these ancestral Magyars, led into
Hungary by Arpad, were only mongoloid to a minor degree.18 Some of
the crania which are found in wealthy graves do show definite mongoloid
characteristics, but the others for the most part lack them. The majority
of the Magyars were of the same Finnish types expected from our previous
study of Finns in Russia, while smaller minorities included Binaries or
Armenoids.19
At any rate, it was a very mixed population that lived in Hungary dur-
ing the early Magyar period. On the whole, throwing all elements to-
gether, the stature was short and the mean head form rnesocephalic.
17 Brion, M., Attila, the Scourge of God.
"Bartucz, L., ZFRK, 1935.
» Ibid.
G£sp4r, J., MAGW, vol. 58, 1928, pp. 129-140.
234 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Since then, the Hungarians have grown rounder headed, as have Rus-
sians and southern Germans.
During all the turmoil of the Magyar and Bolgar migrations, the Ugrians
who remained in eastern Russia passed relatively unnoticed, but in the
thirteenth century or thereabouts they, for some reason, probably new
Turkish .pressure, crossed the Urals en masse, and established themselves
in the western drainage of the Obi. Here they were divided into two tribes,
the Voguls, on the immediate slopes of the Urals, and the Ostiaks, in the
lower courses of the tributaries and along the Obi itself. In their new
home their culture was modified to stiit a more rigorous environment,
and only those in the southern Obi drainage, at the time of the Russian
conquest, still practiced agriculture.
An adequate series of skulls from the time between this eastward migra-
tion and the arrival of the Russians about three centuries later shows a
mixture between the original Finnish type, with which we have already
acquainted ourselves, and Siberian and central Asiatic mongoloids, of the
two types already found in the early Hunnish and Avar cemeteries. 20 How
much of the mongoloid blood was acquired in Europe, and how much
later in Siberia, cannot be determined.
In the Hungarian period of settlement we already become aware of the
presence of a new physical type associated with the Turks, who formed a
minority in the ranks of the Magyars. When we examine the crania of the
Petchenegs and Kumans, in both Hungary and Russia21 we see that this
new type has become the dominant one among these later Turks to arrive
in eastern Europe. In it mongoloid features are sometimes present, but in
abeyance. The skulls are very large, of moderate height, extremely brachy-
cephalic, and planoccipital. The foreheads are sloping, browridges some-
times heavy, the faces are very broad, and also very long. The orbits are of
moderate height. The noses are narrow, and although often low at the
root, frequently project at the bridge, giving indication of a convex profile
in the living.
These Kuman skulls, as best represented by Debetz's series which in-
cludes fourteen adult males, are much longer and broader than historic
Armenian skulls,22 and both longer and broader faced. In height, nose and
orbit dimensions, and the tendency to occipital flattening, these two groups
are the same. They are also larger than Alpine skulls from central Europe,
and far greater in facial dimensions; larger too, than the type B mon-
goloid crania as represented by a large series of central Asiatic Telengets;
20 Zaborowski, M., BSAP, ser. 4, vol. 9, 1898, pp. 73-111.
Ssilinitsch, J. P., AFA, vol. 34, 1903, p. 233, etc.
21Bartucz, L., AF» vol. 1, 1923, pp. 97-99.
Debetz, G., AntrM, vol. 3, 1929, pp, 89-95.
22 Bunak, V. V., Crania Armenica*
THE IRON AGE 235
much higher vaulted and broader of forehead than the latter, and even a
little larger faced.
Thus, the type under consideration, which has become in many regions
the characteristic Turkish form, is one which cannot be disposed of by the
simple expedient of placing it in an Armenoid or Dinaric category. In
size and proportions of the vault, the closest parallel to these skulls is with
the British Bronze Age crania; but the resemblance here is far from an
identify, for the British faces, although equally broad, are much shorter.
In the same sense, the Turkish skulls are reminiscent of the Palaeolithic
and Mesolithic brachycephalic types from Europe and North Africa.
Since we know almost nothing of the early skeletal history of central
Asia, east of Anau and south of the Minussinsk district, it would be worth-
less to spend too much time at this point speculating on the immediate
origin of this type. As with so many other problems, we must defer its seri-
ous consideration to the section on the living, except to point out that in a
small series of ten skulls from eastern Russian Turkestan, dated between
600 and 900 A.D., similar but somewhat smaller vault forms are in evi-
dence.23 At the same time, a few isolated Turkish skulls, from central
Siberia, attributed to from the seventh or eighth centuries A.D.,24 are not
unlike the Kuman crania.
After the Huns and Turks came the Mongols, who had been later to
adopt the horse culture of the Asiatic plains. Their homeland was around
the southern end of Lake Baikal, and they were hunters and fishermen
before they became plainsmen. The earliest mention of them in Chinese
history occurs in the seventh century A.D., at which time they camped in
the country from Urga northward to the forest edge. They are supposed
to have sprung from a blue wolf, and from this animal to Genghis Khan
was a span of but eight generations.
Their conquest of most of the known world began in the first half of the
thirteenth century, and ended two generations later with the death of
Genghis Khan's grandson, Kublai Khan. The Mongols were not numer-
ous enough to do all of their conquering alone, and incorporated most of
the central Asiatic Turks into their armies. Hence there arose a perplexing
welter of Mongolized Turks and Turkicized Mongols, and no doubt of
Mongolized as well as Turkicized Iranians. We have no skeletal material
adequate to untangle this snarl, but must rely on Mongol and Buryat
crania from Mongolia itself to determine their racial type. This was
simply the type B of the Huns, in a relatively pure form, as found today
particularly among Buryats. Hence the settlement of the Mongols on the
'3 Vishncvsky, B. N., KMV, 1921, #1-2.
24 Gromov, V. I., ESA, vol. 1, 1926, pp, 94-*99.
Kazantsev, A. I., RAT, No. l-24 1934, pp. 129-133.
236 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Kalmuck steppe brought the pure, brachycephalic Mongol type to the
country around the northern shore of the Black Sea, and into the lower
Volga plains, where whole encampments of normal Mongols may still
be seen today.
On the whole, the Mongols proper did not influence the racial composi-
tion of Europe in the sense that the Turks did. Their influence was
sporadic in most of the regions which they crossed, and strong only in
southeastern Russia, and in the isolated colonies still living in the Caucasus.
Elsewhere it merely served to freshen elements already brought by the
Huns and Avars.
Lest this survey of Uralic and Altaic-speaking peoples be incomplete, we
must mention still another group, the Samoyeds, who live east of the Osti-
aks in the Obi country, and wander along the Arctic shore of Russia as far
as the Kola Peninsula, where they meet the Lapps.
The modern Samoyeds, despite their proximity to the Siberian Ugrians,
belong for the most part to the central, brachycephalic, mongoloid type;
Bartucz's B group, the classical Buryat-mongoloid.25 Except in modern
times, they have had no influence upon the racial composition of northern
Europe.
(3) SPEAKERS OF URALIG AND ALTAIC, AND OLD WORLD
RACIAL ORIGINS
Before indulging in the speculation which the present study of the
Uralic- and Altaic-speaking peoples in antiquity inspires, a brief review of
our present knowledge will be in order. Uralic is a linguistic stock or sub-
stock which includes Finnic and Ugrian, as well as Samoyedic; Altaic in-
cludes Mongolian, Turkish, Tungusic, and possibly Korean.
The Finns and the Ugrians were a united people, in the geographical
sense, until the arrival of the Slavs from the west, and Huns and Avars
from the east, forced some of them to migrate, and caused the absorption
of others. Judging by a series of small samples taken from the heart of their
forest abode, they were members of the general Nordic sub-group, most
closely related to the Minussinsk people in Siberia, but showing relation-
ships likewise with Scythians and peoples of known Indo-European lin-
guistic affiliation. Thus, since the Finns and Ugrians were not Indo-
European speakers, there is no reason to suppose that all of the nomads of
central Asia who belonged to this same racial type were Iranians. The
Samoyeds, distant linguistic relatives of the FinAo-Ugrians, are not rep-
resented by early skeletal material, and their racial position in antiquity
cannot be established.
»Sommier, S., APA, vol. 17, 1887, pp. 71-222.
Klimek, S., APA, vol. 59, 1929, pp. 13-31.
THE IRON AGE 237
Of the known Altaic speakers, three branches, the Tungus, Mongols,
and the Koreans, were and still are almost purely mongoloid. The fourth
branch, that of the Turks, is the only one the racial origin of which is in
question. Today most of the Turks are racially European, but in the old
days the Huns and Avars, who were intimately concerned with the Turkish
expansion, were as mongoloid as the others, with both Tungus and
Buryat-Mongol elements represented.
We are at this point squarely faced with the problem of the origin of
the living Finns and Turks, and with that of the rdle played by speakers of
their linguistic stock or stocks in the formation of European and Asiatic
peoples. These problems may not be finally solved with the evidence in
our possession. Yet there is enough material, historical, linguistic, and
somatological, to make speculation legitimate.
In the foregoing chapter we have seen that the earliest Indo-European
languages probably moved westward into central Europe as the speech of
the Danubian immigrants as early as 3000 B.C. These Danubian farmers
were racially the relatives or descendants of Anatolian and South Russian
peoples of a special physical type, a branch of the Mediterranean stock
to which we have given the name Danubian. This type was reasonably
homogeneous, but the number of skulls upon which its identification is
based is slight, and it is possible that a minor increment of longer-headed,
narrower-nosed Mediterranean forms accompanied it, since the two vari-
ants seem long to have been associated in South Russia.
Now since Indo-European speech was a mixture of B, or Caucasic, with
A, or Finno-Ugrian, and since, as we have seen, the earliest known Finno-
Ugrians were Nordics with a very strong Danubian tendency, it therefore
becomes likely that the Danubian farmers owed their racial type to a mix-
ture of two linguistically different ethnic groups who were physically much
the same, and both predominantly Danubian.
If we are correct in identifying the Corded people with the introduction
of Altaic speech into Europe, then the further identification of the Corded
racial type with (a) the non-mongoloid modern Turks and (b) the Afgha-
nian racial type of the Irano- Afghan plateau, makes it seem possible that
there was, in remote food-producing times, an ancestral bloc of peoples
living on that plateau who spoke languages ancestral to Altaic, and per-
haps remotely related to Uralic, Sumerian, or both. Some of the peoples
who formed that bloc presumably moved northward onto the central
Asiatic grasslands. This change of scene on the part of these early agricul-
turalists may have had two effects: the introduction of agriculture into the
oases of Turkestan and into Mongolia, and the development of pastoral
nomadism by some of the immigrants, with the subsequent rise of the
horse culture.
238 THE RACES OF EUROPE
This step in our speculative structure leads logically to the question of
the origin of the Turks. Having placed Ural-Altaic-speaking white men,
of a special Mediterranean type still found in Iran and Afghanistan, in
Turkestan and Mongolia,26 it is not difficult to suppose that mongoloid
peoples, originally hunters, were attracted to the plains from their forests
and rivers by the advantages of the new economy, and that they assim-
ilated, in adopting it, those of the white immigrants with whom they were
in immediate contact.
In the meanwhile, some of the Altaic-speaking plainsmen, related to the
ancestors of the Corded people, may have mixed with smaller Mediter-
raneans such as were found at Anau, to produce Nordics of the type found
in the Minussinsk kurgans, although it is possible that these Nordics do not
antedate the arrival of the Iranians. An inruption of relatively unmixed
Corded invaders from their eastern center, about 2200 B.C., brought the
Altaic linguistic element noted by Nehring in Indo-European speech into
central Europe, and produced, by a blending of these Corded invaders
with European Danubian racial elements, the European Nordics, who,
during the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age, spread Indo-European
speech over a wide area.
In the middle of the second millennium B.C., during the full Bronze Age,
one branch of these Indo-European speakers, the Iranians, spread east-
ward from their home in southern Russia across the country north of the
Black Sea into Turkestan, and thence some of them went southward into
Afghanistan and India, bearing with them their original cattle and farm-
ing culture which they had brought from their earlier home, with a min-
imum of horse culture elements.
Other Iranians remained on the plains, and took over the horse nomad-
ism which the Altaic speakers had already developed. That they mixed
with Altaic speakers, as the legend of the Scythian youths and Amazon
maidens would suggest, is probable, owing to their acquisition of a low
cranial vault and a wide face, eastern Nordic traits which at this time were
foreign to western Europe. The importance of Altaic god names in what
is known of the Scythian language would support this contention. These
Iranians spread the horse culture westward to the Danube and eastward
to China, and pushed those of their Altaic-speaking predecessors whom
they had failed to absorb northward and eastward into Siberia and
Mongolia.
In Mongolia, about 400 B.C., the horse culture was taken over com-
26 This is substantiated by the fact that some of the Neolithic skulls from Lake Baikal
studied by Debetz are of Mediterranean type, while others resemble those of modern
Tungus.
Debetz, G., RAJ, vol. 19, 1930, pp. 7-50; AZM, vol. 2, 1932, pp. 26-48.
THE IRON AGE 239
pletely by the fully mongoloid Hiung-Nu, as indicated by Chinese his-
torical documents. The royal and noble families of the Huns and Avars
remained purely mongoloid, but their followers in their march to Europe
consisted in large measure of these Altaic-speaking white men who accom-
panied them. The historic Turks are descended in large measure from
these Altaic-speaking whites. Some, such as the Kirghiz and the Tatars
whose ancestors invaded eastern Russia in historic times, are half mon-
goloid; others, including the Turkomans, the Azerbaijani Turks, and the
truly Turkish element among the Seljuks and Osmanlis, are fully white,
since their ancestors had never been subjected to this mixture. A third
group, represented today by the Uzbegs and Sarts of Russian Turkestan,
and by the pseudo-Armenoid crania found in late Turkish graves in
Europe, were a mixture of the old long-headed white strain with central
Asiatic Alpines, such as the Tajiks, and to a lesser extent with mongoloids.
Mongols, Turks, and Tungus, living today in the forested northern part
of Asia, that is in Siberia, are historically recent intruders who, in response
to their new environment, have partially taken over the culture of Palae-
asiatic aborigines. Their dispersions may be traced from the Altai Moun-
tains and Mongolia as a center. Their linguistic relationship with each
other may be due to varying degrees of acquisition of the speech of the
nomadic white peoples who brought the horse culture to Mongolia, or to
an earlier diffusion from whites, bringing agriculture to Mongolia, from
the same source, or to both. The reindeer-milking complex of the Tungus
and Samoyeds, and the reindeer riding of the former, are borrowings from
the central Asiatic horse culture.
The two most important steps in the foregoing reconstruction are:
(1) the tentative identification of the Corded people with Altaic speech;
and (2) the identification of the Corded skeletal type with (a) an element
in the Nordic racial complex of Europe, (b) the living as well as ancient
inhabitants of Iran and Afghanistan, and (c) the modern Turkomans,
Azerbaijani Turks, and the true Turkish strain among living Osmanlis.
The induction of the Sumerians into this argument is helpful if true, but
not necessary. Some of the Corded cultural paraphernalia had a Sumerian
Appearance, but this may have been caused by diffusion alone rather than
by common ethnic ancestry.
The foregoing hypothesis, in reference to the origin of the Corded peo-
ple, of the Turks, of the modern Altaic-speaking mongoloids, and of the
Sumerians, is pure hypothesis and should not be quoted without the in-
clusion of a statement that it is offered as speculation only. It is not
intended to form a part of the serious contribution of the present study to
white racial history. It is included, however, because in the light of existing
evidence it seems more likely than any other hypothesis known to the
240 THE RACES OF EUROPE
author which is of equal scope and which purports to explain the same
phenomena.
In any case, the question of Uralic and Altaic origins is a part of the
white racial problem, and it is intimately connected with the history of
Indo-European languages and of the Nordic race. Of two elements in this
reconstruction we are reasonably sure; that the ancestors of some of the
living Turks, including the Turkomans, Azerbaijanis, and Osmanlis, were
always white men, and that the Corded people were racially related to the
inhabitants of the Iranian plateau in antiquity.
Chapter VIII
INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF
THE LIVING
(1) MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES
At this point we have completed the survey in which, with the help of
the combined disciplines of osteology, archaeology, history, and linguistic
science, we have attempted to trace the development of racial entities in
the territory occupied by the white race, from the earliest human times
to the Middle Ages, the threshold of the modern period. We are now
faced with the problem of working with a different body of material —
that furnished by the anthropometry of living peoples. We must further
attempt to fit this material into the frame furnished us by our study of
the dead, so that from the combination of the two a complete and orderly
reconstruction will result.
While we were dealing with the data gleaned from the measurement and
observation of bones, the chief difficulty which faced us was the lack of
adequate samples in most of the periods, regions, and cultural units under
consideration. On the other hand, while metrical accuracy was by no
means to be assumed, yet the measurements on the dry skulls and long
bones were for the most part comparable, and technical difficulty was
subordinate to the paucity of documents. In dealing with the living ma-
terial, however, we have vastly larger samples. In some countries, as in
Norway, Sweden, and Poland, these comprise the entire military age group
of the nation, and thus cease to be samples in the strict sense, and assume
the character of total populations. In relatively few regions is it necessary
to use samples of less than one hundred individuals.
Our authority has, therefore, increased immensely. We may speak with
some confidence of the superficial physical composition of most European
nations. But, at the same time, what we have gained in volume, we have
to a certain extent lost in accuracy, for the present state of anthropometry
is partly one of confusion and mistrust in regard to technical methods.
Despite various attempts in the past and in the present to establish a stand-
ard corpus of technique, l different schools have arisen in different countries.
What discrepancies may exist between the work of members of each school
1 Cf. The Geneva agreement of 1912; the standards established by R. Martin in his
Lehrbuch der Anthropologie; the present laudable attempt of Miss Miriam Tildesley to
bring about unification.
241
242 THE RACES OF EUROPE
can usually be determined and allowed for; but this is not the root of the
trouble. The chief difficulty is that much measuring has been done not
by professional anthropometrists but by amateurs, while some with pro-
fessional status have not been properly trained. Therefore we cannot be
sure that such men belong to any school, nor that they follow any stand-
ard other than their own. The accuracy of existing documents on the
living is far less than that of skeletal data, and it is not always possible to
know what techniques have been used. This lack of consistency is often
an obstacle to mathematical comparison, but not enough of an obstacle
to render many series wholly useless. We still have a better tool for the
study of race in the living than we had in the documents of the dead.
Let us review the more important measurements in which technical
difficulties most commonly arise. Stature, unfortunately, heads the list.
One would suppose that the maximum height of the body while standing
would be a constant dimension and one easy to measure, but neither
assumption is true. Some investigators allow the subject to be measured
in his shoes, and then attempt to make a standard subtraction for the heel.
This is seldom if ever satisfactory. On the other hand barefooted negroes
with horny soles are raised up several millimeters by their callouses, when
compared to thin-soled white men standing with their shoes removed.
Differences in posture, and in degree of conscious stretching, may attain
the dimensions of centimeters.
Furthermore, it has been established 2 that the human body, except
in senility, shrinks as much as 2.5 cm. during a daytime spent either afoot
or in a chair, the amount depending partly on the degree of and nature of
the day's activity. It makes some differences, therefore, what time of
day the investigator habitually chooses for his work. At the same time the
state of nutrition and of health makes some difference, and one must
beware of series measured entirely in hospitals.
For the reasons above outlined, and without doubt for others as well,
we must not, in studying stature as a statistical criterion of racial value,
even if our samples are equivalent in age, expect to find accuracy down to
the millimeter. Therefore the common statistical devices used to check
the validity of the series on the basis of the sampling process are set at
too- fine an adjustment in view of the coarseness of the measurement itself,
and in view of the great variability caused by factors other than sampling
or racial attributes. What applies to stature applies in varying degree
to measurements of its segments and of other bodily dimensions; the
breadths of the shoulder and hips, and the diameters of the chest, are de-
pendent in some degree on the highly variable amounts of sinew, muscle,
and fat present at the points of measurement.
2 Backman, G., FUL, N. F. vol. 29, 1923-24, pp. 255-282.
INTRODUCTION TO THE LIVING 243
In the dimensions of the head and face, most of the difficulties found
in stature and bodily measurements cease to exist. On the whole, a much
greater accuracy is not only possible but has been attained. There are
but two important matters in which serious inaccuracies arise with any
frequency; these are the measurement of auricular head height and the
location of nasion.
The first of these, the measurement of the height of the cranial vault, is
without doubt the least satisfactory of all common anthropometric tech-
niques. Although technique #1 5 of Martin 3 is considered standard, not
all use it, and few do it in the same way. Some investigators use special
metal head-spanners which measure the height of the vault from the
middle of the ear hole, others measure from the top of the ear hole; still
others, following Martin, from tragion. There is also a dispute as to
whether the height taken should be to the vertex, as stated by Martin, or
to a point exactly above the ear hole when the head is held in an approx-
imation to the eye-ear plane.
As a result of these technical difficulties in taking head height on the
living, differences of from ten to fifteen millimeters exist between the re-
sults of different investigators working on identical populations, and re-
ports embodying these discrepancies are published without comment.
Since the difference between techniques is as great as the difference be-
tween extremely disparate racial groups of mankind, head height on the
living is a useless criterion when employed uncritically. Unless the com-
piler knows the technical peculiarities and personal equation of each
investigator whose work he uses, he should leave this material alone. In
the present work, this ruling immediately excludes from consideration the
majority of published data on head height.
The second major difficulty, the location of nasion in the living, while
not quite as inaccurate, is even more serious, since three important vertical
diameters of the face, morphological face height, morphological upper face
height, and nose height, are theoretically limited, at their upper bound-
ary, by this landmark; and nasion is an extremely hard point to determine.
Ashley-Montagu, however, has recently devised a method which promises
to overcome this difficulty in most cases.4 On adult male whites, luckily,
there is usually enough ruggedness of facial relief to make this difficulty
less serious than with mongoloids or negroids. Still technical differences of
from five to ten millimeters render the works of different investigators
incomparable, and one must again be sure of the individual equation of
each investigator, or of the school in which he was trained. Since the facial
3 Martin, R., Lehrbuch der Anthropologie> vol. 1, pp. 185-186.
* Ashley-Montagu, M. F., AJPA, vol. 20, 1935, pp. 81-93; vol. 22, 1937, #3, Suppl.
p. 6.
244 THE RACES OF EUROPE
and nasal indices depend upon vertical as well as lateral diameters, and
hence upon nasion, these important racial criteria must be taken with
great reserve, for the constancy of the lateral diameters serves only to
exaggerate, in the indices, the differences between the vertical dimensions.
So much for the most serious metrical difficulties. In measurements on
the living we see a more bountiful but less accurate counterpart of the
criteria already familiar to the craniologist. There is another large body
of data, however, unique in living material; the observations on the soft
parts, including such features as hair form, hair texture; skin, hair, and
eye color; the shape of the various component segments of the nose, the
lips, and the external eye. These are important diagnostic racial charac-
ters and deserve as careful study as do measurements and indices. But,
unfortunately, accurate comparisons between the work of different in-
vestigators is even less possible here than with metrical data, since observa-
tion is a matter of judgment, and no two men's judgments are the same.
The use of standard pigment scales in determining hair, skin, and eye
color has helped enormously, but has not entirely eliminated the diffi-
culties in the pigmentation field. There is no really adequate eye-color
scale on the market, although Martin's series of sixteen glass eyes is far
better than nothing. Von Luschan's skin-color scale does not always
approximate human shades, and this is especially true with whites. The
Sailer-Fischer hair-color scale, made from actual human hair, is excel-
lent, in most respects, but has not yet come into common use; the earlier
Fischer scale, made of bleached and dyed vicufta hair, is also good.
Unfortunately, however, the majority of our observational data has
been collected without reference to scales, and published without accu-
rate definitions, and it is impossible to tell, in many instances, what color
or what degree of blondism or pigmentation is implied by a given term.
Then too, environment and age make great differences in pigmentation;
the degree of tanning or of uncleanliness in regard to the skin color is
seldom indicated; eyes often grow lighter with age, and the deposit of fat
in the cornea, called arms senilis^ which gives a grayish-blue tone to the
peripheral zone of the iris, is often mistaken for eye blondism. Hair color
is notoriously transitory, changing, in all but pure brunets and extreme
blonds, continuously from birth to grayness, baldness, or death.
Most observations, other than those referring to pigmentation and the
morphology of the pilous system, are divided into the following categories:
absent, sub-medium, medium, pronounced. These are frequently ex-
pressed by the symbols, abs., sm., +> ++• Often ssm. and +++ are
added for greater refinement. In general, the standard for the + or
medium category is a roughly estimated and ideal mean or intermediate
white or European male condition. Thus in nasal tip thickness almost all
INTRODUCTION TO THE LIVING 245
negroes would be ++ °r ++ + J in beard development almost all Eski-
mos would be abs., ssm., or sm. There is a tendency for the observer to
make the mean condition of the people he is studying + or medium, or
to be unconsciously influenced by his own facial form.
Various attempts have been made to standardize these quantitative
observations, and the most promising is perhaps that of the Moscow
school, where a series of plaster casts has been made to show standard
stages of sm., +, and H — f- in each of the more commonly studied criteria.
Still, whatever standards are used, the location of the borderline between
categories must always be a matter of individual judgment.
Our first difficulty with the study of race from existing data on living
populations, whether these data be metrical or observational, is therefore
one of technical inaccuracy and inconsistency. But it is not the greatest
difficulty which will be encountered, and it is not insuperable. The care-
ful compiler can usually discover what are the technical idiosyncracies
of a given investigator, and if he is familiar with the material as a whole,
he can usually sense improbable divergences from standard technique.
The comparison of different samples selected from the same population
by different investigators often makes a standard adjustment possible.
Technical inconsistencies and inaccuracies render the study of race on
the living something less than an exact science, but it remains something
more than a plaything. The manipulation of metrical data requires ex-
perience and judgment, and the uncritical use of existing materials on a
purely statistical basis, no matter how erudite in the mathematical sense,
can never be more than a sterile exercise. Those who employ experience
and judgment, and who make a discreet use of the simpler statistical
methods, may learn much from the handling of the immense body of
anthropometric data.
(2) THE USE OF STATISTICS IN PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
In the introduction to the study of the skeletal material, we made only
the briefest mention of the statistical methods to be employed in that seg-
ment of the book.6 This was done because the numerical size and the
nature of the cranial samples employed limited the treatment, in most
cases, to a discussion of individual crania and to a comparison of simple
means. With the living material however, the use of much larger samples,
and of non-metrical soft part criteria, will necessitate reference to more
elaborate methods, and therefore a brief allusion to the better known
statistical principles and techniques which are commonly employed seems
indicated.
Modern physical anthropology, in company with other technical and
8 Chanter I. DD. 14-15.
246 THE RACES OF EURpPE
biological disciplines, has entered a stage of increasing dependence upon
mathematics, and lengthy formulae which involve the use of several alpha-
bets are currently employed by most physical anthropologists. Although
there are several schools each of which has assembled a favorite collection of
symbols, the method as a whole is a product of the English biometric school
founded by Gal ton and Pearson. Aside from the calculation of means,
the purposes for which these formulae and numerical techniques are em-
ployed may be reduced to four, which, expressed in the simplest possible
form, are as follows:
(1) To determine the degree of homogeneity or heterogeneity of a given statistical
sample, in the various criteria measured or observed, and to compare it in these re-
spects with other samples.
(2) To determine whether or not two statistical samples may be considered
random selections from a single population.
(3) Having found that the two samples represent demonstrable different popula-
tions, to determine exactly how different, in a metrical sense, they are.
(4) To determine whether or not a given sample is racially mixed, and if it is, to
discover its component elements.
Let us review these four purposes and the techniques by which they are
accomplished, in as simple and brief a manner as possible.
(1) To study the relative variability of samples. This is done by means of the
two constants, standard deviation and coefficient of variation.6 The former,
in which the variability of the extremes is emphasized by the quadratic
treatment, indicates how many unit points the average individual in the
sample deviates from that mean. When used to compare approximately
equivalent means within the same criterion, it is a simple and useful
constant. The coefficient of variation is designed to facilitate comparison
between criteria in which the metrical values of the means are quite
different, in order to eliminate the size element. By comparing <r's and
V's of a given sample with those of a general compilation, such as that of
Howells,7 one may gauge the relative variability of the sample, and may
compare it with other specific samples in this regard. This technique is
6 o- (Standard Deviation) =* *\ ~r — A2. V (Coefficient of Variation) =
P. E. M. (Probable error of the mean)
M
.67450-
VN
.67450-
P. E. a (Probable error of the standard deviation) = . — •
P. E. V. (Probable error of the coefficient of variation) = '
P. E. Diff. « VP. E. M.i + P. E. M.i
7 Howells, W. W., HB, vol. 8, 1936, #4, pp. 592-600.
INTRODUCTION TO THE LIVING 247
not by its nature limited to living material, but it may be profitably
employed with many more published series of the living than of crania.
(2) To test the statistical independence of two samples. The second purpose
is, in effect, to tell whether or not two samples may be considered separate
statistical entities. The technique most commonly employed is to com-
pare the difference between two means with the probable error * of that
difference. If the difference is three times or more its probable error, then
the two samples are considered distinct in the criterion under study. If,
in a large number of criteria, the two samples are consistently distinct,
then two separate populations are represented. If, on the other hand, the
two samples are not distinct, owing to the relative smallness of differences
compared to their probable errors, then we may make one of the following
deductions: (a) the two groups represent the same anthropometric popu-
lation; (b) the two groups are really different, but owing to the small
numerical size of one or both samples, or to the excessive variability of
one or both, such a difference cannot be established statistically.
In order to determine which of these two premises is the more likely,
the exercise of judgment must inevitably be interpolated. If both samples
are large and of reasonable variability, the two are probably, in fact,
alike; if both are very small and the probable errors large, the chances are
great that the samples are statistically worthless. The chief utility of the
sampling check, therefore, is to find out whether or not apparent differ-
ences are really of significance. It is not an automatic proof of identity.
(3) To measure the anthropometric difference between samples. The third pur-
pose, to tell how close or how distant two samples are in a metrical sense,
may be fulfilled in any one of a number of ways. One is merely to compare
the means, and to compute the differences. Then, for convenience, one
may pool the differences for separate statistical categories. For example,
the difference between sample A and sample B in head length may be
4.35 mm.; in head breadth 7.32 mm.; ip head height 1.09 mm. The aver-
age difference in three vault diameters is therefore 4.19 mm. The average
for the same three diameters, between sample A and sample C, on the other
hand, may be 9.73 mm. Therefore we may say that sample A resembles
sample B, in the totality of three vault diameters, more than it resembles
sample C. Similarly one may pool the vault indices, or the head and
face measurements, or the head and face indices, but one may not average
measurements and indices together. To do so would be to commit the
kindergarten fallacy of adding oranges and apples. But there are anthro-
pologists who have not only done this, but who have also added centi-
meters and millimeters together as equal units, in pooling body and head
measurements.
* See footnote 6 on preceding page.
248 THE RACES OF EUROPE
It has long been the wish of many anthropologists to find some means
whereby they might express the degree of similarity of difference between
two populations by a single figure. Taking population A as zero, B
would be, say, 5.6; C = 7.3; D = 11.9. Thus the relationships of B, C, and
D in respect to A could be determined. Taking each of the others in turn,
it would be possible to triangulate and to plot the mutual relationships of
any number of populations in a simple, graphic manner. Morant, work-
ing with a formula invented by Pearson, has proposed and employed such
a method in the form of the coefficient of racial likeness.8 Some have
accepted this in principle, others have rejected it.9 Whatever its theoretical
validity or error, however, it does actually give approximately the same
results as a simple pooling of the several categories of differences. Unfor-
tunately neither a simple pooling nor the coefficient of racial likeness
takes into account correlative influences which compel several characters
to vary in concert, and thus to weight, in a variable degree, the totality of
characters chosen. According to Morant, these correlative influences
could be eliminated, but only by an unfeasible amount of statistical labor.
Before proceeding to the fourth purpose, let us pause to make a few
reflections upon the uses to which the three systems already outlined may
be put. Although all are useful, not one automatically answers any im-
portant questions. The first technique, that which is concerned with
variability, tells us how variable samples are, but not why they are vari-
able. Unusual variability may indicate an active evolutionary tendency,
the recent and as yet not fully amalgamated mixture between two popula-
tions, or any one of a number of other causes. Unusual homogeneity, on
the other hand, does not necessarily mean racial " purity," in the historical
sense, but rather a complete amalgamation and a static evolutionary
condition. The second is useful mainly to eliminate from serious consider-
ation statistically inadequate samples. The third gives a detailed idea
of degrees of metrical similarity and difference. But neither the second
technique nor the third tells the investigator what is the genetic relationship
between two samples.
(4) To analyze a racially mixed sample. Let us now turn to the fourth and
last important use which the physical anthropologist makes of statistics.
This is his attempt to divide a given sample, which he considers to have
resulted from a mixture of races, into its component elements, and to see
what these elements are and how much there is of each in the mixture.
This is a rather complicated process, and many different methods have
been devised to accomplish it.
8 Morant, G. M., Biometrika, vol. 14, 1923, pp. 193-264; vol. 16, 1924, pp. 1-105.
Pearson, K., Biometrika, vol. 18, 1926, pp. 105-117.
9 Fisher, R. A., JRAI, vol. 66, 1936, pp. 57-63.
INTRODUCTION TO THE LIVING 249
One is the system employed by Hooton and his school, in which the
author was trained. That is for the anthropometrist, working either with
crania or with the living, to divide his series into what seem to him natural
groupings, and to specify on each measurement blank which of these
types is represented. After the sample has been seriated as a whole, the
sub-samples of the different types are seriated separately, and statistically
compared with each other and with the total mean. By this means it may
be determined whether or not statistically different elements have actu-
ally been isolated. If so, the next step is to determine, by comparison,
what the larger racial relationships of these elements are.10 Hooton bases
his system on the principle that the individual possesses a racial identity,
as well as does the group to which he belongs.
Another method which is less subjective but wholly arbitrary is that of
Czekanowski, who plots the mean differences between individuals in a
sample on a chequered field ; this is done only with indices of the head and
face, when the original system is followed.11 Two individuals alike in all
indices chosen produce a black square at the point where their lines inter-
sect; two which are less alike produce a square which is striped, in varying
degrees arranged to show the degree of similarity; then those which are
dissimilar in all indices are represented by white squares. After these
squares have been completely plotted, the graph is rearranged so that
those which are naturally related are placed in contiguous positions. In
this way it is possible to see how many sub-groups of naturally correlated
individuals occur, and how large these sub-groups are. The next step is
to find the racial affinities of each sub-group. For this purpose the Polish
school has designated a formal list of races, each symbolized by a separate
Greek letter, and each equipped with a list of ideal metrical positions in
the more commonly used measurements and indices, as well as with a
characteristic pigmental position. Each group of correlated black squares
in the graph is assigned to one of these races, or to a combination of two
or more, and the percentages of each race in the sample is thus worked
out.
A third method is that originated by von Eickstedt, the leader of the
Breslau School, and amplified by Schwidetzky.12 This method is to sort
the sample directly into sub-series by splitting the distribution frequen-
cies of the characters at arbitrary racial boundaries, and by combining
the results of this process as applied to pairs of characters; to plot the
10 Hooton, E. A., The Ancient Inhabitants of the Canary Islands; Indians of Pecos; Science,
vol. 63, 1926, p. 75.
11 Gzekanowski, J., MAGW, vol. 42, 1912, pp. 17-217; AASF, ser. A., vol. 25, #2,
Helsinki, 1925; AAnz, vol. 5, 1928, pp. 335-359.
» Eickstedt, E. von, ZFRK, vol. 2, 1935, pp. 1-32.
Schwidetzky, I., ZFRK, vol. 2, 1935, pp. 32-40; vol. 3, 1936, pp. 46-55.
250 THE RAGES OF EUROPE
distribution curves of the sub-series, so-created, for measurements, indices,
and percentages of observations; and to test the sorting by a comparison
of these curves with others which represent arbitrary racial norms. Like
all such systems, this one operates on the assumption that the result of
A + B
mixing A + B in any metrical character is —
The three methods outlined above are all based on the principle of
correlation. Correlation statistics alone are even more commonly used
than any of these. One may correlate metrical characters with each other;
metrical characters with indices; either metrical characters or indices with
observations, and observations with each other. By means of these corre-
lation statistics one finds which characters are associated, in the sense that
their variations are not mutually independent. One finds, for example,
that light eyes are usually if not always correlated with light hair. The
elements of blondism are to a certain extent linked. One will also find
that segments of a dimension are positively correlated with that dimen-
sion, but this is of no racial significance. If they are not correlated, or are
negatively correlated, then there is something to investigate. One must
furthermore expect all gross size diameters to be intercorrelated to some
extent in any population, for obvious reasons.
Correlations of racial significance are those which are not dependent on
gross size and are not involved in a part-and-whole relationship. Thus,
if tall stature goes with blond hair and short stature with dark hair, or if a
broad nose goes with a low relative sitting height, and vice versa, then
the anthropologist who is analyzing his series assumes that he has uncov-
ered linkages showing racial variations within his sample.
There is no possible objection to the use of correlations, but there are
many objections to the ways in which they are often interpreted. In the
first place, a valid correlation implies some degree of genetic linkage.
But it does not necessarily imply that this linkage represents with com-
plete fidelity a combination found in one component element in a hypo-
thetical mixture. There may have been no mixture at all — the group may
be evolving, by mutation, in a certain direction which involves more
than a single character. Or if there has been mixture, the correlation
may represent a recombination of characters.
Correlation, in brief, shows linkage, but what does linkage mean? We
must not forget that a population, in the physical as well as in the social
sense, has an existence of its own in addition to and above the existences
of its component units, and we must not, furthermore, anticipate the
findings of the geneticists. All of the methods which partition a series, or
which employ the principle of correlation, have some justification in their
initial steps, and some utility, but all of them become unscientific as soon
INTRODUCTION TO THE LIVING 251
as general biological principles are forgotten and arbitrary assumptions
are allowed to creep into the process of interpretation.
At this point we must repeat the premise upon which the whole tech-
nique of the present book is based: The study of race in man is as much a
social and historical as a biological discipline. Out of his environment man
creates his cultural milieu, and his cultural milieu, as we are becoming
increasingly aware,13 alters his physical nature. When we shall have dis-
covered some of the laws which govern human inheritance and human
change, we may become much more mathematical than is fitting at
present. Laws in biology and in its sub-division sociology, when once
understood, are seen to be as invariable and as valid as laws in physics.
But we cannot, and we should not attempt it, remove the study of human
racial taxonomy from the dimensions of cultural milieu and of history.
We may and must employ a statistical method, but let it be one tempered
with simplicity and discrimination, since mathematics to us is not an
end but a tool.
(3) DISTRIBUTION OF BODILY CHARACTERS
(a) Stature and Bodily Form
Before venturing to draw up a schematic classification of races within
the white family, let us review some of the better known racial criteria
from the standpoint of spatial distribution. The use of maps to show the
distribution of means in a single metrical character is one of the oldest
and commonest illustrative devices employed in the study of race. It
has, in fact, formed the basis for several systems of racial classification,
based upon geographical correlations between two or more characters.
Such classifications ignore individual linkages in the characters involved,
and subordinate the position pf the individual as a racial entity. They are
of necessity based on few characters, and the races so postulated are cor-
respondingly ill defined.14 This abuse of cartography should not, how-
ever, hinder the use of maps in a purely demonstrative sense.
In this and the two following sections, we present four such maps,
representing the distributions of stature, the cephalic index, head size,
and hair and eye pigmentation.15 These four characters were chosen from
the total body of criteria because they are the only ones in which it is pos-
sible to overcome, to a satisfactory degree, the obstacles of paucity of data
13 Cf. the title and sense of Childe's book, Man Makes Himself.
14 See Chapter I, section 3.
16 Attention is called to the earlier maps of Deniker, and of Struck, both of which
have been extensively copied.
Deniker, J.,JRAI, vol. 34, NS 7, 1904, pp. 181-206.
Giinther, H., Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes, pp. 216-217. (Early reproduction of
Struck's maps.)
STATUTE
176-7
174-5
172-3
170-1
168-9
166-7
164-5
182-3
160-1
158-9
MAP
252
253
254 THE RACES OF EUROPE
and technical inconsistency. Not one of the four is completely accurate,
but all are accurate enough for present purposes.
In the first of these, the stature map (Map 5), as in those which fol-
low, boundaries between provinces, linguistic areas, and other ethnic or
political units have been simplified, and schematized to such an extent
that the smallest spatial unit recognized is one capable of legible stip-
pling. Nomadic territories in North Africa, southwestern Asia, and the
far north, have received an even more schematic treatment.
The first impression which one receives while examining this map is
that there seems no orderly scheme; that, except for the stunted circum-
polar belt, there seem to be no widespread zones of stature. A relatively
large and consistent area of tall stature, however, is comprised by the
Scandinavian Peninsula, most of the land area of the British Isles, the
Netherlands, Finland, the Baltic states, and parts of northern Germany.
This northwestern European center of tallness is commonly referred to
in anthropological literature as the primary Nordic racial zone.16 It is
difficult, however, to agree that the tall stature of these countries is largely
the result of the presence of Nordics, since its existence seems to be due
to multiple factors. Historically, this is precisely the region of maximum
survival of tall Palaeolithic hunters, while Corded people were concen-
trated in certain sections of it, especially in Denmark and Esthonia.
Furthermore other contributing racial elements, such as the Bell Beaker
people and the Megalithic navigators, were all tall, and these lands under
consideration are at the same time precisely the regions of Europe least in-
fluenced by Danubian or Western Mediterranean agricultural invaders.
Essentially, therefore, these are regions in which all contributing racial
elements in the past have been tall, and in which there is no short-statured
ethnic sub-stratum. Furthermore, northwestern Europe has been the
scene of maximum stature increase during the last century.
A second European area of tall stature is the Dinaric mountain zone,
the nucleus of which stretches along a narrow belt from Croatia to the
Drin River in Albania, and which reaches its peak in Montenegro. Here
one finds statures as tall as those in the north, and, in the heart of the area,
taller. The origin of this Dinaric giantism is obscure, since the prehistoric
archaeology of this region is almost unknown, and the crania documents
from later times inadequate. We know that the Bell Beaker people set-
tled here in some numbers, but hesitate to attribute to them alone the
excessive height of modern Dinarics.
A third area is found in southwestern Russia, on the northern shore of
the Black Sea, in the Ukraine; here Atlanto-Mediterranean factors seem
16 De Geer, S., "The Kernel Area of the Nordic Race within Northern Europe,"
in Lundborg, H., and Hinders, F., Racial Character of the Swedish Nation.
INTRODUCTION TO THE LIVING 255
largely responsible. On Asiatic territory the countries occupied by the
non-mongoloid Turkomans and by the Iranian-speaking Kurds are seats
of tall stature, as is the kingdom of Iraq, whose inhabitants have been tall
since the days of the Sumerians.
One other principal area of tall stature, which is merely suggested
within the limitations of the present map, is the Hamitic center located in
East Africa. One recalls the giantism of the pluvial inhabitants of Kenya,
which has apparently been perpetuated in the great height of living Ham-
ites who inhabit the Horn of Africa and the western shore of the Red Sea.
The most thoroughly Hamitic of the North African Berbers, the Tuareg,
are as tall as northwestern Europeans. The tall stature zone of northern
Africa is centered in regions of the Sahara occupied by nomadic Berbers,
and extends itself into the fertile stretch of Africa Minor where these
people have settled after invasions.
Turning to the consideration of short stature, we find that, aside from
the far north and the territories occupied by recent Mongol invaders, it is
concentrated today in the very regions most affected by early Neolithic
migrations of short, food-producing Mediterraneans — namely, the western
Mediterranean countries, from central France to Sicily, and the Danubian
culture area, especially in its eastern and trans-Carpathian segment.
In general, one cannot over-simplify a distribution map dealing with a
character as complex as stature, since south of the Arctic circle there are
no large zones or major trends, and in most of the sub-areas a complicated
sequence of historical events has taken place which has brought in a suc-
cession of peoples with different statures. Furthermore, different environ-
mental stimuli operating in various places and at varying times have
further served to complicate the picture.
The distributions of weight and bodily form, if these criteria could also
be completely plotted, would make maps as interesting as that of stature.
What information we possess suggests that they would be much simpler
and more easily interpreted. In weight, for example, there would be one
large zone in which the adult males in middle life would average over
150 pounds, with individuals in the two hundred class common, and this
zone would correspond to the northwestern area of tall stature, and to
adjacent parts of Germany, Holland, and Belgium. The center of the
Dinaric zone would likewise be one of heavy weights, but the rest of Europe
would run, for the most part, at least twenty pounds lighter.
In the long stretch of arid countries reaching across North Africa and
Egypt into Arabia, Iraq, Iran, and Afghanistan, light weights would be
the rule, regardless of stature, and this would likewise be a zone of pre-
dominantly linear, or long and narrow, bodily habitus. Stocky build, on
the other hand, would also be found to have little relationship to stature,
256 THE RACES OF EUROPE
since some of the tallest northern peoples and some of the Binaries would
be plotted as lateral. Sex differences in both stature and gross size would
be found greatest in northwestern Europe, as among Upper Palaeolithic
peoples, and least in eastern Europe and among western Mediterraneans.
In general total bulk, regardless of stature, seems partly a function of
environment, and excessive bodily volume is suggestively centered in
cool, damp regions, while thin, light-bodied people are most frequently
encountered in deserts. Great differences in size between the sexes seem
commoner among large than among small peoples, and are most pro-
nounced in the regions where Upper Palaeolithic strains survive in most
concentrated solution.
(4) DISTRIBUTION OF BODILY CHARACTERS
(b) Head Form, Head Size, and Other Metrical Characters of the Head
and Face
Next to stature, which is of interest to many others besides anthropol-
ogists, our data are fullest on the cephalic index, for this ratio has been
the favorite of both professional and amateur students of race ever since
its invention by Retzius in 1842. The same remarks on the method of
plotting the stature map apply to that of the cephalic index (Map 6).
Here the only region of comparative uncertainty lies in the southeastern
corner, in Iran, where some rather extensive boundary stretching has
been practiced.
The distribution of the cephalic index within the area covered by this
map is a complex affair, and cannot be interpreted hastily. Many factors
and many events have contributed to this state of complexity, which the
map only partly represents. One must remember that, as in the stature
map, the scattered bands and villages of Lapps have been schematically
united into a nucleus in northern Scandinavia, Finland, and the Kola
Peninsula. Furthermore minority groups such as Jews, Gypsies, and
others, have been omitted, since in no region large enough for schematic
representation are they found in a majority.
The most striking feature of the map, and in fact, almost its only uni-
formity, is the steady band of almost pure dolichocephaly which extends
south of the Mediterranean from the Atlantic coast of Morocco across
North Africa, Egypt, Arabia, and Persia into Afghanistan; to continue,
off the map, over Khyber Pass and into the Indus Valley. This band
represents the greater Mediterranean race in its post-Pleistocene home-
land. Small spots of mesocephaly in the Moroccan mountains, in Kabylia
and in the Aures, and along the Tunisian coast, show the relatively re-
stricted zones of survival of earlier Mediterranean mesocephals and, to a
lesser extent, of Pleistocene North African men; except for the Tunisian
INTRODUCTION TO THE LIVING 257
coastal centers, where the strong concentration of Punic and European
populations in pre-Arab times is no doubt partly responsible.
The extreme long heads, concentrated in the Hoggar and in parts of the
Algerian plateau, are the Tuareg and the purer families of ancestral
nomadic Berbers, preserving the head form which they brought from
East Africa, their Hamitic homeland. The heavily dotted stipple repre-
sents Mediterraneans of Neolithic age and Arabs, with an infusion of the
Hamites, while the light dotting represents more clearly the Hamites
themselves. This is a distinction which should not be pressed too far, but
which may still be made, for the lightest stippling is found in nomadic
Berber strongholds.
Farther east the desert tribes of Libya, and the oasis people of Siwa, are
extremely long-headed, in a truly Hamitic fashion; the inhabitants of
Sinai, and some of the tribes in the Nejd, as some of the Mesopotamian
Bedawin, and groups in Iran, fall into the same category. Here in the
east we approach the zone of hooked-nosed long heads, quite different
in facial form from the Hamitic increment farther west. Around the
Persian Gulf is a ring of higher indices, representing a maritime popula-
tion which we shall encounter later in the coastlands of southern Arabia,
off the present map. The long headedness of inland Arabs, whether
nomadic or agricultural, continues without a break south of the present
map into Yemen and to the northern and western borders of the Ruba* el
Khali.
In Europe itself, long-headed total populations are rare. Only in parts
of Portugal, in fact, are regional indices under 76 to be found at all.
Europe on the whole is a brachycephalic or mesocephalic continent.
Mean indices between 76 and 79, belonging to high dolichocephals and
low mesocephals with brachycephals in the minority, are found in a few
places. One, the most continuous area, lies in the northwest; it includes
the British Isles, most of Holland, parts of Belgium, and the Palatinate —
old Prankish country — and most of 'the Scandinavian Peninsula, along
with the coastal lands of Finland, and with Esthonia and Latvia.
The regions just enumerated may be considered in a way a unit; most
authorities would call this, as with stature, the Nordic racial territory,
and so it is in the accepted sense. Another belt is that of the Iberian Penin-
sula, the Dordogne Valley in France, Sardinia, Corsica, the Balearics,
the toe of Italy, and Crete. To this may perhaps be added part of the
corresponding area in the British Isles, and parts of the eastern site of the
Balkan Peninsula. This is what remains of the brunet Mediterranean race
per se in Europe; isolated island groups, a peninsula which throughout
history has been more African than European, and remnants of the old
Mediterranean bloc of the shores of the Black Sea and the Aegean.
CEPHALIC INDEX
-73
74-75
76-77
78-79
80-81
82-83
84-85
86-87
88+
MAP
258
259
260 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Where, we ask, are the descendants of the Danubians, the Aunjetitz
Nordics, and their Iron Age successors in eastern and central Europe?
Only in the mesocephalic belt across eastern central Russia, and the region
immediately north of the Caucasus, and again in the central and eastern
Balkans, do traces of the original head form of these peoples appear,
emerging as that of a population bound to the soil. Perhaps in the tall
stature and high mesocephaly of the Don country there is also some trace
of the Scythians. The country between the northern shores of the Caspian
and the middle Baltic does indeed form a zone of relative long headedness
between the mongoloid brachycephaly of central Asia and the European
brachycephaly of central Europe.
This central European brachycephaly may not be treated as a com-
pletely unified entity. In the first place, we find its westernmost nucleus
in southern France in the Massif Central, which is the home of the Alpine
race in its truest form. Here extreme round headedness such as is seldom
exceeded elsewhere in the world is located. The valley of the Rhdne forms
a partial gap, beyond which lies another brachycephalic zone in eastern
France, especially in Burgundy and the Jura, and adjacent portions of
Belgium. Here again we find a high zone of brachycephaly, accompanied,
as we have seen, with a greater stature than that found in the western
Alps, and as we shall see later, a lighter pigmentation. Here is another
brachycephalic nucleus representing a different racial concretion from
that first mentioned. One observes that in the upper Rhine Valley and
in northwestern Switzerland, as in Lower Austria, this zone of extreme
brachycephaly is broken, while a northern colony of it is found in Bavaria,
Bohemia, and Silesia.
In the Tyrol, southeastern Switzerland, and most of northern Italy is
another nucleus, which is the home of the western branch of the Dinaric
group, associated largely with the center of Rhaeto-Roman speech. These
linguistic fossils are survivors of the pre-Germanic population of this
region. Most of Austria itself runs longer headed, owing, no doubt, to
the strong concentration of Germanic peoples there. The Dinaric region
proper, extending from Bosnia to southern Albania, follows the mountain
range, which in turn lies close to the Adriatic coast. The center of highest
brachycephaly lies in southern Albania, in the Tosc country, well south
of the center of tallest stature. The southern brachycephalic zone, of
which it is the nucleus, extends far into Greece, along the western coast,
from Epirus to the Gulf of Corinth.
The curve of the Carpathians forms a brachycephalic barrier, within
which all peoples represented, except for the Hungarian Szeklers, are
very round headed. This infra-Carpathian brachycephaly pervades all
other groups regardless of language, culture, or history. Beyond it lies
INTRODUCTION TO THE LIVING 261
the relatively long-headed expanse of the Polish, Ukrainian, and Molda-
vian plain.
As we turn to Asia Minor we see other instances of extreme regional
brachycephaly. The Armenians, some of the Syrians, especially the
Alouites, Lebanese, and Druses, are the roundest headed of all in this
region. The Anatolian Turks, being typically brachycephalic, in this
respect resemble modern representatives of the pre-Turkish peoples, of
this region, notably the Armenians.
The cephalic index map, like that of stature, shows that the Mediter-
ranean Sea is by no means a racial unit. Some of the lowest and some of
the highest cephalic indices in the world are found in close proximity to
its shores. Another notable lack of continuity is seen in the far north. The
hunting and fishing peoples, so consistently short of stature, are very
variable in head form. The Lapps alone are consistently and extremely
brachycephalic. The original mesocephalic head form typical of the
Finns in their native habitat may still be observed in the regions occupied
by Finnish survivals in central and northern Russia.
On the whole, the distribution of the cephalic index in Europe and
adjacent countries is extremely significant when one remembers the his-
torical and archaeological background, but viewing its present distribu-
tion alone one might easily form numerous false ideas about racial origins
and continuities. It is sufficiently clear, however, that the zone of extreme
brachycephaly in central Europe has several nuclei, and is separate from
the Anatolian-Caucasic center and from that of the mongoloids of central
Asia.
One last factor remains to be mentioned, and this is the ultra-peripheral
distribution of moderately high cephalic indices on the very westernmost
fringe of Europe. One notices that southwestern Ireland has a mean
cephalic index of 80 or over. Little spots of this same condition occur in
northern Scotland, the Shetlands, the West Frisian island chain, in Feh-
marn, and in points along the western Norwegian coast. This hypermar-
ginal brachycephaly is peripheral to the dolichocephaly of northwestern
Europe, which in its turn is a survival. The suggestion is that this round-
headed tendency of the extreme western fringe is in the nature of a Palaeo-
lithic reemergence.
The third map of this series (Map 7), is intended to show the distribu-
tion of absolute head size. Head size ideally should be a measure of the
cubic capacity of the cranium, and capacity may be estimated upon the
living by the use of the three dimensions, head length, head breadth, and
auricular head height. Unfortunately, however, as already explained,17
auricular head height is for the most part an unreliable measurement,
» Page 243.
HEAD SIZE L+B)
331—335 mm.
336-340
341-345
346-350
351-355
MAP
262
263
264 THE RACES OF EUROPE
and it would not be possible to construct a map covering a large area
in which this was a component dimension. For this reason head size is
here expressed simply by the sum of the length and breadth in each sample
used. It so happens that large heads in the length-breadth sense are fre-
quently high heads as well, so that there is little chance that the omission
of the height dimension has falsified the appearance of head size condi-
tions.
Head size is, in the first place, wholly unrelated to head form. Some
of the largest heads are found among both dolichocephals and brachy-
cephals, and the same is true of some of the smallest heads. It seems,
however, to be closely correlated with total bodily bulk, and hence with
weight, although not with stature.18 This principle applies to other ani-
mals as well as to man. Brain size is, after all, a component element of
bodily bulk, and the requirements of the organism in the matter of nerve
tissue depend apparently upon total size rather than upon the relative
degree of attenuation of extremities. We have seen that cranial size is an
important racial diagnostic in the cranium, and there is every evidence
that it is equally important in the living.
The map which shows the distribution of this trait is not, however, as
reliable as the two which precede it. Lacunae have been filled in accord-
ance with general racial trends and by the conversion of modern cranial
material to living standards by fixed additions to allow for the soft parts.19
The areas which are least reliable are Portugal, Spain, much of France,
and portions of western Germany. The Balearics and Sicily were filled
in by inference. However, the data are sufficient to assure us that the
general picture is correct, although the boundaries may well be inaccurate.
The map will serve our purpose, and cannot lead us far astray, if we do
not lean too heavily on it, or follow it in too much detail.
The first impression that the map gives is one of a concentric distribu-
tion of head size with Germany, Belgium, and northern France as the
focus of greatest volume. From this focus bands of diminishing size stretch
like bars dexter to the Persian Gulf. This pattern is broken in the Middle
East by the intrusion of relatively large-headed mongoloid peoples from
central Asia, and of non-mongoloid dolichocephalic Turkomans, Azer-
baijanis, and Kurds.
Studied in greater detail, where detail is justified, this basic pattern
does not break down, but other facts appear. In the first place, Ireland
18 Du Bois, E., CRIC, 1934, pp. 71-75; also, Marett, J., p. 129.
19 Duckworth, W. L. H., JAPL, vol. 51, 1917, pp. 167-179.
Fischer, E., MAGW, vol. 36, 1906, pp. 54-57.
Gladstone, R. J., Biometrika, vol. 4, 1905/6, pp. 105-123.
Mies, J., MAGW, vol. 20, 1890, pp. 37-49.
Weisbach, A., MAGW, vol. 19, 1889, pp. 198-200.
INTRODUCTION TO THE LIVING 265
as a whole has the largest heads of any country excepting Belgium., A
vertical line divides Ireland into a western, and especially southwestern
half, with heads as large as the largest elsewhere, and an eastern, and
especially northeastern, half with heads which although smaller, are still
large by European standards. Iceland again is an area of maximum head
size, and so are the Shetland Islands. Small regions of large head size
appear along the Norwegian coast. The regions mentioned in this para-
graph undoubtedly represent the maximum survival of Pleistocene Euro-
pean man of the Briinn race in the northwestern portion of the continent.
They coincide to a certain extent with the hypermarginal distribution
of high mesocephaly and low brachycephaly.
But there remains the bloc of large heads running from the Seine to
East Prussia, and concentrated in Belgium and in the lower Elbe country.
Here large heads are associated with brachycephaly, of varying degrees,
but usually of a moderate order. This region has a much larger-headed
population than has most of Sweden and Norway, and most of England
and Lowland Scotland. The brachycephals of this large continental bloc
all have head lengths which elsewhere go with dolichocephaly. The
Fehmarn islanders, for example, whose small home is just south of the
Danish Archipelago, have a mean head length of 193.5 mm., and a
cephalic index of 83.6.20 Their head breadth of 161.8 mm. is tre-
mendous. In our historical chapters, we encountered but one racial
type which consistently presented the combination of brachycephaly
with great head lengths. That was the type found at Afalou and
Ofnet, and in the Danish middens, and which was given the name
Borreby. As will be seen later, the Borreby race has reemerged in the
country where it was located during the Mesolithic and Neolithic
periods, and it has become the most important single racial element in
modern Germany.
Palaeolithic and perhaps Corded survivals are to be seen in the large
heads of the Finnish coast and northeastern Sweden; the track of German
colonists in late mediaeval times is evident in Hungary and Rumania.
The Basques have heads of considerable size also, and there seems to be
a, significant nucleus of large heads in the Dordogne, where, as will be
seen later, a long-headed, brunet Upper Palaeolithic survival seems in-
dicated, as in west-central Wales.
The zone of moderate head size lying between Germany and Poland
on the one hand, and eastern Russia and the Caucasus on the other,
seems to reflect an earlier Danubian and Nordic condition. In North
Africa and southern Italy, small or medium-sized heads seem marginal
and go with the older Neolithic Mediterranean element. The Hamites
20 Sailer, K., Die Fehmarner, DRK, vol. 4, 1930.
266 THE RAGES OF EUROPE
brought larger heads, such as are to be found today among Galla,21 and
among other predominantly Hamitic peoples.
The tendency of the Hamites to large head size has divided the erst-
while unified Mediterranean racial zone, which stretches across the whole
lower quarter of the map, into a western and an eastern compartment.
The eastern sector, from Cyrenaica to India, shows the small head size
which apparently formed a cranial interlude in North African history
between the end of the Capsian and the Hamitic invasions. As one leaves
the map and passes into southern Arabia and Baluchistan, the heads grow
smaller than any here designated. Here total length-breadth combina-
tions of 328 mm. are found in the Hadhramaut and among Brahui. This
zone which stretches along the northwestern shore of the Indian Ocean
is part of the so-called Veddoid racial area, which does not extend into
Europe or any region nearly approaching it. The racial character of the
people inhabiting this zone can best be described in a more detailed
chapter to follow.
One of the most important results of the plotting of the head-size map
is the discovery that the brachycephals of the white race and of Europe
are not at all a unit in this respect, since they follow general racial zones
which have no reference to head form. One may divide them into several
sub-groups on the basis of head size alone. The Lapps, who in their pure
form are hyper brachy cephalic, have very small heads. The other brachy-
cephals of northern Europe, those concentrated in Germany, southern Den-
mark, Belgium, and France, form the largest-headed group. These may be
considered, tentatively at least, of Borreby derivation or inspiration. The
Alpines of the Massif Central in France separate themselves clearly from
this nucleus, with an emphasis on moderate head size. Although the re-
gional data in France is poor, in this case it is sufficient to warrant the
present conclusion. The Binaries are also moderate in head size, despite
the coincidence of taller stature; only the Montenegrins themselves and the
Albanians north of the Drin have truly large heads. The extreme hyper-
brachycephals of southern Albania and Epirus are again of medium head
size, like the Central French Alpines. The brachycephals of the Hungarian
plain, and of the Carpathians, are for the most part also moderate.
When we leave Europe and move to western Asia, we find that the
Asiatic Binaries and the so-called Armenoids are in some areas smaller
headed than the European Binaries; the Armenians themselves have
heads approaching Binaric standards, but they vary regionally, with the
largest heads in the northeast, toward the Caucasus. The brachycephalic
Turks of Asia Minor are actually small headed, as are most of the Syrian
brachycephals and the Iranian-speaking round heads of the Pamirs. The
21 Unpublished data in author's possession.
INTRODUCTION TO THE LIVING 267
fringe of round heads along the southern Arabian, Persian, and Baluchistan
coasts are very small headed, in a quite un-European sense.
What are we to make of all this? The answer cannot be given as yet
in final form, but several suggestions present themselves.
(1) Head size, being a correlate of gross bulk, seems in general to be
associated with regions of relative chill and humidity, all else being equal.
The water content of the human body is greater where evaporation is
least. In this way the flaccid Teutons and the fog-wreathed Irish in their
moors and bogs have the heaviest bodies and the largest heads, while the
indigo-stained Arabs, living on the utmost margin of desiccation, reach
the opposite extreme in liquid economy. Man is not a water-storing crea-
ture, like the cactus and the camel.
(2) The largest-headed peoples are unreduced survivors or counterparts
of Upper Palaeolithic man, who was a large-headed and presumably
large-bodied animal. This applies both to dolichocephals and brachy-
cephals. Brachycephaly is a mutative incident which may occur in any
region or race, and head size may be more important than head form as
an indication of ultimate genetic derivation, again all else being equal.
It seems to me that somewhere between these two hypotheses lies the
truth. Environment, which in the last analysis controls body size, must
also eventually control the bulk of the head. But at the same time, genetic
tendencies to absolute head size are inheritable, and without regard to
head form. Hence early racial connections, under equal environmental
conditions, may be better revealed by the size than by the shape of the
vault. The heads of some people have remained constant in size and form;
others have been reduced, brachycephalized, or both. But brachycepha-
lization may take place without reference to body size, while reduction
in head size is a corollary of general reduction. Here, as in general, the
explanation of a given head size is an historical matter.
Other criteria of the head and face would be difficult to plot. Face size,
in general, is larger among the larger-headed and taller peoples of the
northwest, and among those of rnongoloid affinity in the east. Most
branches of the Mediterranean stock proper are characterized by rela-
tively short and relatively narrow faces. The zone of long heads from
Morocco to India is also a zone of small faces. This smallness, however,
has as a rule no reference to the nose, which is one of the best racial criteria
which we have, and one which is extremely significant. Unfortunately
accurate charts cannot be made, since technical discrepancies render the
use of statistics based on this organ almost useless in a large compilation.
The nasal index among European peoples is typically leptorrhine or
mesorrhine. The southern Mediterranean belt is typified by moderately
leptorrhine peoples; and in the eastern extremity, where aquilinity is the
268 THE RAGES OF EUROPE
rule, extreme leptorrhiny is very common. The most leptorrhine area in
Europe itself is the Dinaric region, particularly Montenegro and northern
Albania, where mean nasal indices below 60 are encountered. In most of
western Europe the noses are leptorrhine, but when one moves into Russia
and the northeastern Balkans, mesorrhiny becomes the predominant form,
and nasal indices increase perceptibly as one moves eastward, to a high
mesorrhine or even platyrrhine level. Turkish-speaking peoples in the
East, however, form an exception to this rule. Turkomans, Azerbaijans,
and the like are, as a rule, extremely leptorrhine, more so than the in-
habitants of Asia Minor and the Caucasus. On the opposite side of the
map, the extreme western fringe of tall, large-headed, meso- to brachy-
cephalic peoples is likewise characterized by a slight increase in the nasal
index. The Palaeolithic survivors were not notably leptorrhine ; they were,
in fact, much less so than the Nordics and others who followed them.
If one were to study the form of the orbits and the shape of the external
eye, with adequate data, a very interesting and significant distribution
might be seen. For example, the distance between the eyes is relatively
great among all of the Slavic and Finnish peoples of eastern Europe, and
this dimension increases as one approaches mongoloid territory. It is of
moderate size in almost all of northwestern and central Europe, but
again becomes pronounced in Ireland, along the coast of Norway, and in
the Alpine regions, where one may attribute this wide-eyed condition not
to mongoloid influences but again to a Palaeolithic survival.
There are two zones of narrow inter-orbital diameters: (1) the entire
Mediterranean zone from the Atlantic to India, and (2) the Dinaric zone
reaching from the north of Italy to northern Greece. Again in the so-
called Armenoid region of Anatolia and in Armenian territory itself,
an extremely narrow inter-orbital distance prevails. This criterion may
perhaps survive as a means of discrimination between facially character-
istic Palaeolithic survivors and mongoloids, on the one hand, and basic
Mediterraneans and Armenoid-Dinarics, on the other.
The size, robusticity, and general form of the lower jaw is again an
excellent racial criterion, but there is not enough data to permit it to be
plotted. The Mediterranean zone from Morocco to India is characterized
by a light, shallow jaw, a narrow bigonial diameter, and a restricted height
dimension between the lower dental border and chin. This is the typical
Mediterranean mandible, whether one finds it in Spain or in Arabia. The
heaviest jaws and greatest bigonial diameters are found in the northwestern
European borderlands, and in eastern Europe, where mongoloid influence
is strong. The relatively light, narrow jaw of many Binaries and Armenoids
again suggests that these types are for the most part brachycephalized
forms of tall Mediterraneans.
INTRODUCTION TO THE LIVING 269
(5) DISTRIBUTION OF BODILY CHARACTERS
(c) Pigmentation, the Pilous System, and Morphology of the Soft Parts
The fourth and last of the general distribution maps (Map 8), is de-
signed to show the distribution of progressive degrees of blondism in the
European area. While data on hair and eye color are plentiful, much
material has been collected without the use of scales; although it is possible
to correlate this with standard material in most major areas, the judgment
of the compiler nevertheless plays a greater part here than in the maps
which show the distributions of purely metrical characters. Under these
circumstances, it has seemed most useful to divide the existing materials
into five broad classes, designated and distributed as follows.
The darkest stippling represents populations in which the hair is con-
sistently black or dark brown (distinctions between these two shades are
seldom valid), with less than ten per cent of a lighter hue. The accompany-
ing eye color found in this brunet class is pure brown or black in over sixty
per cent of the series; in most cases over eighty. Since all brunet white
populations studied show some degree of mixed eyes 22 (green, blue, or gray
in conjunction with brown), a small minority of this type seems endemic
in the white racial stock, and must not be construed as evidence of racial
blondism. Skin color, which again is an important element in blondism,
varies less among Europeans than do either hair or eye color, and is more
difficult to use. Hence it has been omitted from consideration in the
draughting of the pigment map.
The brunet hair and eye condition defined above, including a minimum
of blondism, surrounds Europe and encroaches on all its borders, not ex-
cluding the Atlantic. North Africa, almost all of Asia on or off the map,
Portugal, most of Spain, southern Italy, Greece, the Aegean fringes, and
finally, the northern pastures of the Samoyeds, converge to encircle the
world's one important nucleus of blondism.
The second most heavily stippled zone shown on the map, that of pre-
vailingly brunet pigmentation, covers regions in which complete or partial
blondism is not .rare, but is definitely less common than a purely brunet
condition. The width of this zone depends, of course, upon the latitude
of the category assumed by the author. In the present map, it is relatively
narrow, and includes central and northern Spain, central Italy, most of
the Balkans, the Caucasus, and a narrow vertical belt in eastern Russia.
The Lapps, in their purest discoverable form, seem to fit into this class
rather than the purely brunet one. Islands of prevailingly brunet pig-
mentation occur far afield from the main zone, in parts of Wales, in
22 The only valid exceptions seem to be the Ruwalla Bedawin and the Tuareg. See
Chapter XI, sections 2 and 12.
PIGMENTATION
OF
HAIR AND EYES
LfGHT AND MIXED PREDOMINANT
LIGHT AND MIXED ) DARK
NEARLY EVEN
DARK ) LIGHT AND MIXED*
DARK PREDOMINANT
MAP
270
271
272 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia, in Crete, in the Jebel Druz, and in Luris-
tan. The reasons for these exceptions are different in almost each case,
and must be treated separately later.
The decision as to the midpoint between blond and brunet hair and
eye pigmentation hinges largely on one's definition of pure blondism. For
practical purposes, pure eye blondism includes gray and blue eyes, with
or without a small number of pigmented spots, or a narrow pigmented
ring, near the pupillary border of the iris. It is impossible to segregate the
spotted and unspotted in most data. Pure hair blondism includes, in the
same arbitrary fashion, hair that ranges from light brown to ashen or
golden. In the present map the intermediate class represents regional
samples in which light and light mixed forms seem approximately equal
to those which are prevailingly brunet.
This intermediate zone is again narrow, and again continues the gen-
eral scheme of concentricity. An exception to this scheme is seen among the
Ostiaks, a Finnish group living along the banks of the Obi River and its
western tributaries. Bulgars and Vlachs possess more blondism than a
class four stipple would show, but hardly enough for the intermediate
class when taken en masse. Therefore three capsules of intermediate
stippling in the Balkans indicate these tendencies in a schematic manner.
The northernmost and the southwesternmost represent concentrations of
Vlachs, the middle one of Bulgars.
Walloons of the province of Luxembourg, and southeastern Bavarian
mountaineers, conversely, represent nuclei of intermediate pigmentation
in blonder territory. One may postulate without difficulty that the
Bavarian nucleus was once continuous with northern Italy through the
Tyrol, for many Tyrolese are quite brunet, but the continuity has been
broken by the Germanic advance in historic times up the Innthal. The
refuge quality of the Austrian as well as of the Swiss Alps is conversely
shown by the survival, since this Germanic thrust, of very blond local
populations in the Lechthal and in other small, isolated valleys. As for the
Walloons of Luxembourg they quite palpably represent a survival of pre-
Iron Age brachycephals in their highlands, through the period of Celtic
and Prankish invasions.
The greatest difficulty of all in compiling this map lay in making the
decision between what was predominantly blond, and what was merely
more blond than brunet. If the eyes were almost uniformly light or light
mixed, and the hair light brown or lighter in over fifty per cent of cases, the
lightest group seemed indicated; if, in a majority of cases, the hair was dark
or medium brown, or the eyes mixed, the second class was chosen. Some-
times both hair and eyes indicated the second lightest stipple. In the pre-
dominantly blond class, pure brunet pigmentation is less than ten per cent.
INTRODUCTION TO THE LIVING 273
The greatest degree of blondism recognized is definitely nuclear and, in
fact, almost glacial in its distribution. There is, however, a nucleus within
a nucleus; a center of lesser blondism which seems truly hyper marginal.
This is the partial blondism of the Danish islands, of parts of the Nor-
wegian coast, of Iceland, and of the southwestern tip of Ireland. This
inner nucleus apparently coincides with the survival of the oldest, im-
mediately post-glacial population.
It is not unlikely that the original undifferentiated sapiens men, living
in the Pleistocene, may have possessed a light brown or brunet white skin
color, with black or dark brown hair and brown eyes. Different racial
stocks which grew out of this common base by differentiation, mixture, or
both, may have shown early tendencies to develop specialized variations
of their own in pigmentation. Such tendencies are likewise seen within
single species of ape, such as the gibbon, chimpanzee, and gorilla. The
negroid races, for example, must have formed, before the end of the
Pleistocene, a progressive tendency toward an abundance of dense pig-
ment cells in the skin, the fundus, and the iris; while the whites, before
their dispersal from a common center, must already have developed a
tendency, presumably recessive, toward blondism. The universality of
some degree of blondism among whites and near whites everywhere
makes it unlikely that it was ever confined to a single race or group of
races within the white family.
Blondism is a state of partial depigmentation, due to the paucity of
melanin granules in the skin, hair, and iris, and, with some types of pig-
ment, to the small size of these granules. The pigment granules are com-
posed of a substance known as melanin, the chemical composition of which
has been roughly determined.23 Melanogenesis, the process by which
melanin is formed, is "an intercellular enzymic oxidation process, in which
an amino acid chromogen is converted, with the aid of catalytic copper,
to the pigment melanin." 24 It has been, proved by experiments with rats
and rabbits that a dietary deficiency in copper produces a pigment reduc-
tion,26 and that with the restoration of a normal diet, the animal's normal
pigmentation will return. Hence blondism, being a phenomenon of pig-
ment reduction, is presumably caused by a genetically controlled limita-
tion of the oxidation process dependent upon the body's supply of copper.
23 Melanin is approximately 55 per cent carbon, 6 per cent hydrogen, 12 per cent
nitrogen, 2 per cent sulphur, and 25 per cent oxygen. Young, W. J., BJ, vol. 15, 1921,
pp. 118 seq.
24 Glodt, H. R., Melano gene sis, a thesis submitted for honors in Anthropology at
Harvard University, April, 1937. MS. in Peabody Museum Library, Harvard Uni-
versity. Quotation from p, 71 . Author's permission secured. This whole section is taken
largely from Glodt.
25 Cunningham, I. J., BJ, vol. 25, 1931, pp. 1267 seq.
274 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Blondism therefore may have originally been motivated as a response to a
mineral deficiency through an endocrine agency of control. There is no
reason now known why it should be limited to whites, but actually its
appearance among members of other major racial groups is rare.
Although skin color is apparently a directly quantitative matter, hair
color, it is now known, is determined by two different pigment factors.
One is composed of oval or spindle-shaped cells of melanin, of varying size
and frequency.26 When these cells are large and overlap, within the trans-
lucent body shaft which lies between the central canal and the outer
horny layer of the individual hair, the hair appears black or dark brown.
When the cells are smaller they appear yellowish or light brownish, al-
though the chemical composition of the melanin is the same. The size of
these cells, therefore, and their abundance within the hair cortex, deter-
mine the degree of blondism or brunet coloring.
The second pigment factor which influences hair color is rufosity. Red
hair contains a fine stain, at first considered amorphous, which is now
thought to be composed of extremely fine cells, probably slightly different
in molecular structure from ordinary melanin.27 This stain may be present
or absent, and if present may be faint or intensive. Thus it is both qualita-
tive and quantitative in reference to ultimate hair color. If it coincides
with large, dark melanin cells, the black color so caused may mask the
rufosity in all but unusual lights, while if a large amount of it coincides
with blondism, red hair is the result. It is likely that golden hair is caused
by a combination of blondism with a slight degree of rufosity.
If one could test for rufosity accurately with all pigment shades, it
would probably be seen that this character has no association whatever
with blondism, but is a purely independent variable. That this is likely
is shown by the fact that rufosity is completely uncorrelated with eye
color.28 Thus rufosity may be wholly absent in many normal individuals,
while the melanin cells are totally absent only in albinos. Rufosity may,
by the same token, be lacking in entire races, and with better data it
might be possible to discover the racial significance, if any, of this ap-
parently functionless condition. Within the blonder segment of the white
26 Coniteer, H., ZFMA, vol. 29, 1931, pp. 83-147.
Hausman, L. A., AJPA, vol. 12, 1928, pp. 276-277.
Jankowsky, W., ZFRP, vol. 5, 1932, pp. 1-48, 111-119; also VGPA, vol. 6, 1931-32,
pp. 66T69.
27 C^Miitzer, H., op. cit.
Klinke, K., BZB, vol. 160, 1925, pp. 28 seq.
28 Conitzer, H., op. cit.
I have separately confirmed this claim by making 1 30 contingency tables, of six or
more boxes, between hair and eye color, in each of which a negotiable amount of ru-
fosity was present. In every instance red hair was found to be completely complacent
to eye color.
INTRODUCTION TO THE LIVING 275
race, however, we know that rufosity has a regional and a racial connota-
tion. Blond hair is readily divisible into two categories, golden and ash-
blond (cendr6), which are distinguished on the Fischer hair color chart.
Light brown and brown hair shades similarly may be segregated on the
same basis into two separate and parallel classes.
The pigmentation of the iris is more suited for refined analytical study
than either skin or hair color. Skin tans and weathers, while hair bleaches
with the sun and darkens with advancing age, until the advent of graying;
the iris, on the other hand, retains its pigment pattern with relatively little
change. If studied under constant light conditions, so that the pupil is
contracted and the concentric muscle zones flattened, the iris is seen to be
a detailed field of muscle-layers and pigment cells, of considerable com-
plexity.
In all but albino tic eyes, the inner wall of the iris is permeated with
melanotic pigment cells so overlapped as to make the iris, whether dilated
or contracted, a perfect light-proof diaphragm. It is this pigment lining,
reflected through several layers of outer iridical tissue, that gives a light
eye its blue appearance. Additional pigment presents its true brown color.
Thus in a mixed eye of complex pattern it is possible to plot the relative
depths of different groups of pigment cells. Cells concentrated along the
radial, dilating muscle fibers give the eye a rayed appearance, while
those lumped about the concentric sphincters produce a zoning. In a
black eye the surface pigment is so dense that it is impossible to see into
the iris, but in a brown eye it is usually possible to make out some of the
pattern. Many purely brunet eyes show a contrast between different
brown-producing layers.
In purely light eyes, in which no surface pigment is seen, there are
nevertheless differences in coloring v hich are readily noticeable and which
may be used as criteria of racial differentiation. The principal distinction
is that between the blue eye, which in its extreme form takes a deep sky-
blue color, and the gray eye, which in its extreme form is almost white.
Since these two forms gr£de into each other without a natural line of de-
marcation, the factor which distinguishes them must be considered quan-
titative rather than qualitative. Research on this subject does not seem as
yet to have been done; we do not know what causes this difference, and
can only repeat Bryn's speculation that it has something to do with the
relative coarseness and opacity of the radial iris muscles, through which the
pigment in the posterior walls of the iris is reflected.29
Geographically and in individuals, it is possible to make valid correla-
tions between the four end types of hair and of eye blondism. The golden
type of hair, whether blond or brown, tends to be associated with* the
^Bryn, H., Homo Caesius, p. 19.
276 THE RAGES OF EUROPE
bluer shades of eye, whether pure light or mixed; on the other hand, the
ash blond type of hair usually goes with a grayish iris. At present there
seems to be no direct reason for these linkages, but we have much to learn
about these matters.
At any rate, when we apply this distinction to the map, we see that the
golden-blue combination is commonest in the western half of our nuclear
zone of light pigmentation, in Norway and the British Isles; while the
ashen-gray combination is more typical of Sweden and of the lands east
of the Baltic. In the western half of the blond nucleus, and especially in its
British periphery, there is an asymmetry of linkage, for in Ireland, for
example, a world's extreme ratio of light eyes is associated with hair which
is often brown or dark brown. On the eastern side the opposite is true; in
Poland and southern Russia ashen hair of a very light shade goes fre-
quently with dark-mixed or brown eyes. These regional asymmetries
weaken the total unity of blondism, but do not destroy it.
From further correlations between types of pigmentation and other char-
acters, such as stature, bodily build, head size, head form, and face form, it
is possible to show that the golden-blue variety, with rufosity, is partly as-
sociated with the old Palaeolithic hunting strain, while the ashen-gray ex-
treme goes rather with the Iron Age Nordic range of types, and with eastern
European blonds of various degrees of superficial mongolism. Within his-
toric times the zone of frequent blondism stretched from north western Eu-
rope across the Russian steppes into central Asia where it touched China,
but violent and rapid ethnic movements in Asia have nearly eliminated this
eastern extension. We do not know how long ago the distribution map of
blondism assumed its present concentric and glaciation-like character.
It is very probable that pigmentation is definitely capable of alteration in
response to environment, through selection. Blonds in the tropics are at a
disadvantage, particularly if living under primitive cultural conditions. A
black skin with a profusion of sweat glands, like that of the African negro,
must be better than a pinkish integument which is subjected to repeated
burning and blistering, and incapable of tanning.30 In the iris, the pigment
in the posterior wall acts as a completely light-proof diaphragm, and hence
there can be no direct functional disadvantage to a gray or blue iris, as with
thatof an albino. But since the iris color seems to be, as Wilmer has shown,81
correlated with the pigmentation of the retina, eye blondism may serve to
indicate the presence of a functional disadvantage. It is conceivable, but
not as yet demonstrable, that the chocolate-brown pigment cells in the
negro's fundus may give his optic nerve more cc ;afort in the desert glare
than the pinkish, almost pigmentless retina of tru, blond white man.
80 Baur, E., Fischer, E., and Lenz, E., Human Heredity, p. f A.
* Wilmer, W. H., Atlas Fundus Oculi.
INTRODUCTION TO THE LIVING 277
Black skin and a black eye, then, may be variables which are advan-
tageous under hot, bright, equatorial light conditions. A partially depig-
mented skin and fundus condition can perhaps survive without disadvan-
tage only in a climate where the light is weak. Blond hair, however, cannot
be assigned any survival value of either a negative or a positive character.
Until definite experimental evidence is at hand, we must postulate that
only through its partial genetic linkage with skin and eye color is the
blondism or darkness of hair determined. On the whole, the totality of
evidence in regard to blondism as a unit indicates that this phenomenon
is a recessive trait endemic in the white racial stock, and that it has be-
come a major racial character only among groups of people living at one
time under light conditions of sub-glacial intensity. This applies to the
Upper Palaeolithic strain in part or as a whole, and to certain of the more
northerly Mediterranean branches. The mongoloids and American In-
dians living under parallel conditions apparently lack the initial mutative
tendency necessary for its development.
In the European zone of maximum blondism are included tall and short
populations, long-headed and round-headed, eagle-beaked and snub-
nosed; many such variations occur to which degree of pigmentation seems
complacent, Within the two main types of blondism, racial sortings are
clearer, but on the whole blondism alone assumes the character of an
unlinked mutant.
Without actual maps, there is little use in reviewing the distribution of
the pilous system and soft parts, in more than a cursory manner, since
these will be discussed at greater length in the chapters to follow. Hair
form, which according to Haddon is the most important racial criterion
to be found in man, is of little use in distinguishing white sub-groups.
Most European hair is straight or slightly wavy, although exceptional in-
dividuals in the straightest-haired groups have ringlet forms. Curly hair
of this description is quite common in western Ireland and in Wales; it is
also frequent in the whole of North Africa and in the western Mediter-
ranean shorelands of Europe. Eastern Europe is predominantly straight
haired, and as one approaches mongoloid territory this condition of course
becomes more pronounced.
The amount of body hair on the adult male is closely correlated with the
amount of beard, and both are linked with age, for a hairy man grows
hairier as he becomes older. At the same time, baldness is most frequent
among those with heaviest body hair and heaviest beards. Browridges,
and other bony excrescences of a hypermasculine nature, are closely linked
with excessive pilous development of the body and beard, and with a
tendency to baldness. Europeans, on the whole, are among the hairiest-
bodied and heaviest-bearded groups of men, being equalled or exceeded
278 THE RAGES OF EUROPE
only by the Australians and the Ainu. Both negroid and mongoloid skin
conditions are inimical to excessive hair development except upon the
scalp.
The Mediterranean peoples, on the whole, are less hairy than other
Europeans. Pure dolichocephalic Europeans, of normal Mediterranean
type, whether blond or brunet, tend to a hairless chest and a patchy beard.
Among Arabs a complete beard is rare, and is considered a sign of evil
character. One must look upon great hairiness, and a great beard de-
velopment, as well as a high incidence of baldness, as a multiple endocrine
manifestation associated with relatively great sex differentiation in a
masculine direction. Alpines and Central Europeans, in general, show an
excess of this combination, and so do many Balkan peoples and Near
Eastern Asiatics. This combination is in Europe associated with the non-
Mediterranean element in the composition of the white stock, although in
Asia the cleavage is not so clear. The baldness which is part of this com-
plex is of genetic motivation, and differs in cause from the dry-scalped,
fine-haired alopecia associated with extreme hair blondism.
The morphology of the external eye is also subject to regional distribu-
tion. High orbits, with no folds, are characteristic of Binaries, and of most
Near Eastern peoples; orbits of moderate height, and with a tendency to
external folding in maturity and old age, go with long-headed peoples of
both blond and brunet varieties, while a median fold, indicative of both a
low orbit and a thick fat deposit in the eye region, goes rather with the
Finnic and Slavic blond mesocephals and brachycephals. The true inter-
nal or mongoloid fold is not common in Europe and is found in numbers
only in the east, in the Kalmuck and Tatar districts of Russia, and in the
far north.
Extreme cragginess and ruggedness of facial features, including the
forehead, the superciliary region, the malars, the jaws, and the nose, are
associated with the western marginal fringe area, and especially with the
region of largest heads and maximum Palaeolithic survival. Nordics and
Mediterraneans, whether in Europe, North Africa, or southwestern Asia,
have a maximum of facial relief, without this appearance of bony massive-
ness. The malars are laterally compressed, the nose thin and often beaked.
Facial flatness, intensified by fatty deposits over the malars, while more
typical of mongoloids, becomes characteristic in eastern Europe and ex-
tends into Poland, Finland, and Hungary.
The maximum nasality of the Near Eastern peoples, of whatever head
form, is accompanied by a number of related features. One of these is the
concurrency of the eyebrows over the nose, which is geographically cen-
tered in the Near East. Another is the predominant convexity of the nose
as a whole, and the depression of the tip, especially in old age. In man the
INTRODUCTION TO THE LIVING 279
nose passes through a definite and continuous cycle of growth changes
comparable in form, if not in degree nor in exact anatomical detail, to
those found in the proboscis monkey. The nearest approach to the pro-
boscis in the extent of nasal change is, however, found among Near
Easterners from Armenia to Afghanistan. In Europe the same is true to
a lesser degree in Albania and Montenegro.
A map showing the form of the nasal profile would have centers of con-
vexity in the Dinaric area and throughout western Asia, with the excep-
tion of Arabia; centers of concavity would lie in the north of Scandinavia,
and across the whole of eastern Europe from the Baltic onward. The rest
of the map would be relatively undifferentiated, with all forms present,
but the straight profile most common.
(6) RACIAL CLASSIFICATION WITHIN THE WHITE FAMILY
We have reviewed some of the characters upon which race, in the
sense of sub-divisions of the so-called white branch of living humanity,
may be classified. It has become apparent from this review, as from the
earlier chapters, that the "white" racial family is a composite amalgam-
ation of peoples thrown together by accident of geography, blended into
some semblance of homogeneity in major diagnostic features, and altered
by environmental and cultural circumstances and by migration. Before
attempting to propose a classification of living whites, however, it may
be wise to pass in brief review the more important or more influential
theories by which race has been classified in the past. The history of
racial classification is a subject for a book in itself, and here we propose
to limit our discussion to its minimum.
It is impossible to say when man began to classify himself into races.
Knowledge of racial differences must, however, be as old as these differ-
ences, and must from the beginning have been a factor in their develop-
ment. The Egyptians were well aware, of the racial problem, and took
pains, in their art, to differentiate between the various kinds of men that
they knew. The Greeks likewise made classifications; both Hippocrates
and Aristotle were strong environmentalists, as were the mediaeval Arab
geographers who followed the classical tradition. Since these ancients
and mediaevals wrote before the discovery of the bell-shaped curve (normal
probability curve), probable error, correlation, or of the cephalic index,
their system of classification was both observational and intuitive, and
operated by the mechanism of generalization. Despite the work of the
biometricians, and the mechanization of physical anthropology during
the last half century, all important or influential systems of classification
yet devised still operate on the same principle. .
Aside from the ancients and their mediaeval followers, the modern
280 THE RACES OF EUROPE
period in physical anthropology begins with Blumenbach, whose system
is still employed by most grade school geographers. Blumenbach, some
one hundred and fifty years ago, divided mankind into the familiar white,
black, brown, yellow, and red races, basing his primary classification upon
skin color, although he considered other characters as well. In breadth
of popular acceptance, his is still, in its simplest form, the most influential
classification. During the first half of the nineteenth century, the world
of science as well as the public was inclined to accept Blumenbach' s divi-
sions without too much protest, but in the period from 1860 to 1890,
Europe was rife with attempts to classify mankind into orderly sys-
tems.32
In 1878 Topinard proposed a classification based not on skin color, but
on hair form.33 Haeckel 34 and Miiller 35 proposed the same diagnostic one
year later. Topinard did not, however, rely on one character alone, but
included skin color and nose form as subsidiary diagnostics. During this
general period of activity systems were proposed by such varied authorities
as Huxley, Geoffrey de St. Hilaire, and de Quatrefages;36 it was the last
named, who, during the war of 1870, first prostituted the materials of
physical anthropology for the purposes of nationalistic propaganda. The
gauntlet flung down by de Quatrefages, who called the Germans "Huns,"
was seized by his enemy and converted into the more effective weapon of
Nordicism.
It remained for another Frenchman, however, to coin the word "Nor-
dic." This was Deniker,37 who has had a greater influence upon the sub-
sequent classification of race than any of his nineteenth century contem-
poraries, and who still remains the most important classifier. In view of the
lack of scientific method available at his time — his classification, later
modified slightly, was first published in 1889 — his intuitive genius and
his grasp of patent situations were extraordinary. Born in Russia and
educated in St. Petersburg as an engineer, he had travelled widely through-
out eastern Europe and the Caucasus before he settled in Paris in 1876,
at the age of twenty-four, to begin his career as an anthropologist.
The first step in Deniker's system was to divide mankind on the basis
of a combination of hair form, hair and eye color, and nose form, with
hair form as the principal diagnostic. He made six primary divisions, as
shown on page 281.
82 Deniker, J., The Races of Man, pp. 280-284.
88 Topinard, P., RDAP, second series, vol. 1, p. 509, 1878, etc.
84 Haeckel, E. H., Naturliche Schopjungsgeschichte, vol. 7, pp. 626, 647.
^Muiler, Fr., Allgemeine Ethnographie, pp. 17-19.
38 Deniker, J., loc. cit.
37 Deniker, J., BSAP, vol. 12, 1899, p. 320; JRAI, vol. 34, 1904, pp. 181-206; Th$
Races of Man, pp. 285-286.
INTRODUCTION TO THE LIVING 281
A. Woolly Hair, Broad Nose.
B. Curly or Wavy Hair.
C. Wavy Brown or Black Hair, Dark Eyes.
D. Fair, Wavy or Straight Hair, Light Eyes.
E. Straight or Wavy Hair, Dark, Black Eyes.
F. Straight Hair.
Within these primary divisions he based his further classification upon
combinations of skin color, nose form, stature, cephalic index, pilous de-
velopment, browridges, and other characters. By this means he properly
separated the Bushman into a separate class of group A; the Australian
as well as the Dravidian went into group B, and were thus separated from
a major "black race." Within the straight-haired class the Lapps, Mongo-
loids, and American Indians were arranged into what seemed then a
reasonable order.
The white group, with which alone we are concerned, falls almost en-
tirely into his C and D categories, with one segment in B. The table on
page 282 gives this section of his classification in full.38
In that table, Deniker lists a number of races found both in Europe
and outside that continent, of which eleven, not counting the Ainu,
might be classified as basically white. His #5, the Ethiopian, is the
Hamitic race of East Africa, with or without a slight negroid increment;
his #9, the Indo-Afghan, is the hook-nosed type of Mediterranean which
we have found to extend from Mesopotamia to India across the highland
belt, from at least the third millennium B.C. onward; his #8 is Armenoid.
The inclusion of the Ethiopian and Assyrioid with Australians and Dravid-
ians rather than with whites, while inexact, points, in the first case, to
the negroid admixture of modern Ethiopians, and in the second, to a
realization of the affinities of Australoids and Veddoids to the white group
as a whole.
Besides these three, in effect, Hamitic, Armenoid, and Irano-Afghan,
he finds two other white races outside the continent of Europe proper:
these are his Arab and Berber. Thus we find a total of five morphologi-
cally white races in Asia and Africa; four of these are actually sub-divisions
of the cranially unaltered basic Mediterranean stock.
In Europe itself he finds six races; the Littoral European, also called
Atlan to-Mediterranean, is the tall Mediterranean associated in antiquity
with Megalithic cultures, and may be related basically to Deniker's
Ethiopian. His Ibero-Insular is the short Mediterranean race of Spain
and the western islands, and corresponds to the Neolithic Mediterranean
type in these regions. Deniker distinguished, therefore, between certain
88 Based upon Deniker' s 1912 classification with some reference to his 1889 scheme
as well.
282
THE RACES OF EUROPE
B. CURLT OR WAVY HAIR
Reddish-brown, narrow nose, j
tall stature, dolichocephalic. J
Chocolate-brown, broad nose, 1
medium stature, dolichocephalic. J
Brownish-black, broad or narrow j
nose, short stature, dolicho- I
cephalic. J
2. SKIN OF tawny white, nose narrow,
hooked, with thick top, brachycephalic.
1. DARK
SKIN
C. WAVY BROWN OR BLACK HAIR, DARK EYES
1. SKIN clear brown, black hair, narrow, \
straight or convex nose, tall \
stature, dolichocephalic. J
Ethiopian
Australian
Dravidian (sub-races
Platyrrhine and Lep-
torrhine)
Assyrioid
Indo- Afghan
Aquiline nose, promi-
nent occiput, dolicho-
cephalic, elliptical
form of face.
Arab or
Semite
10
2. SKIN
TAWNY
Tall
stature,
elongated
face
Straight, coarse nose, j
dolichocephalic, i
square face. J
Berber
(4 sub-races)
11
WHITE, -
BLACK
Straight, fine nose,
mesocephalic, oval face.
Littoral
European
( A tlan to-
Mediterranean)
12
HAIR
Short stature, dolichocephalic
Ibero-Insular
13
3. SKIN DULL
WHITE,
Short stature, strongly brachy- 1
cephalic, round face. j
Western
European
14
BROWN
HAIR
Tall stature, brachycephalic,
elongated face.
) Adriatic
j (Dinaric)
15
D. FAIR, WAVY, OR STRAIGHT HAIR, LIGHT EYES
SKIN REDDISH ( Somewhat wavy, reddish, tall
stature, dolichocephalic.
> Nordic
16
WHITE,
Somewhat straight, flaxen haired,
HAIR FLAXEN s^ort stature, sub-brachycephalic.
(Eastern
European
(R. Orientals)
17
E. STRAIGHT OR WAVY HAIR, DARK, BLACK EYES
SKIN LIGHT BROWN, very hairy body, broad and concave A .
i i« i i i» Ainu
nose, dolichocephalic.
18
INTRODUCTION TO THE LIVING 283
of the basic sub-varieties of the Mediterranean family, and except for
the categories Arab and Berber, this distinction is on the whole accurate.
He was aware of the differences between the three most important sur-
viving divisions; (a) Short Mediterranean, (b) Tall, Megalithic, and East
African variety, and (c) Hook-nosed, Indo- Afghan or Irano- Afghan variety.
At the same time, he was aware of the distinction between the Alpines
and Binaries, both in form and in geographical distribution. In his
placing of the blonds into a separate category, he was following a taxo-
nomic system rather than an estimate of relationships. His Nordics are
accurately defined on the basis of living peoples; they are given a cephalic
index of 77 to 79, instead of a non-existent lower mean; and they are
segregated from the blond brachycephals of central and eastern Europe.
In order to accommodate other racial elements not fully covered by
these classes, Deniker devised certain sub-races: (1) The Northwestern
sub-race, a division of the Atlanto-Mediterranean, to accommodate es-
pecially the dark-haired western Irish. (2) A Sub-Nordic, which differs
from the Nordic in the possession of mesocephaly, a square face, and a
turned-up nose; this was devised to accommodate peoples living to the
east of the Baltic and in northern Germany. (3) The Vistulan race is a
branch of the eastern European or Oriental. The Oriental is described as
short statured (163-164 cm.); moderately brachycephalic (GJ. = 82-83);
and possessing light yellow or flaxen hair, a square cut face, a nose which
is frequently turned up, and blue or gray eyes. This race is associated
with the eastern Slavs and Finns for the most part, while the Vistulan is
a variety of the same race with shorter stature and mesocephaly. The
last of Deniker's secondary races is the Sub- Adriatic, described as a slightly
shorter, slightly less brachycephalic and blonder variety of Dinaric, with
a stature of 166 cm., a C. I. of 82-85; and derived from a blend of Dinaric
with Sub-Nordic.
Two other authorities of what might, be called the prestatistical school
deserve mention at this point — Sergi and Ripley. Sergi,39 whose main
interest was the Mediterranean race, based his classification primarily
upon the circumferential profile of the head when seen from above, and
worked more with crania than with the living. His chief contribution
was the realization of the basic unity of the Mediterranean race, in both
its blond and brunet forms, and its connection with the bearers of Euro-
pean civilization. Thus he anticipated the findings of the archaeologists
that the Neolithic economy was brought into the western world by Med-
iterraneans.
He also made it clear that the so-called Brown Race, in its dolicho-
cephalic and leptorrhine or mesorrhine forms, was for the most part an
89 Sergi, G., Specie e vaneta umane; UUomo; Le Origini Umane; The Mediterranean Race.
284 THE RACES OF EUROPE
extension of the same Mediterranean family into southern Asia. He divided
whites into Eurafricans, which is another word for basic Mediterraneans,
and Eurasiatics, under which he included all brachycephals of white affin-
ity. Sergi anticipated the discovery not only of the unity and cultural im-
portance of the Mediterraneans, but also the dual origin of the white race.
If the schoolchildren and the unerudite public at large still follow
Blumenbach, and the anthropologists themselves devise classificatory
schemes based upon Deniker, the large intermediate group of educated
laymen rely almost entirely upon Ripley.40 Ripley, writing in 1899, was
aware of Deniker 's work, but rejected it. He considered that Deniker
had made the picture much too complicated, and that there were but
three white races, the Teutonic (Nordic), the Alpine, and the Mediter-
ranean. The Nordic and Mediterranean were old European branches of
an earlier white stock, while the Alpines were immigrants from Asia who
had brought agriculture and the whole Neolithic economy with them.
The Alpines, besides introducing a new physical type, parted the Nordics
from the Mediterraneans geographically, so that the two might develop
separately, and that the Nordics in particular might derive their tall
stature and blondism from environmental causes in isolation.
The above brief exposition has many advantages. It is simple, it is
lucid, it is easily remembered. It fitted into the linguistic picture of Aryan
culture bearers plodding across Europe from their simple home in the
Hindu-Kush, developed by nineteenth century philologists, although
Ripley himself was vehement in his rejection of linguistics as a proper
approach to racial study. At the same time it explained the newly-found
and well-preserved Neolithic remains of the Swiss lake dwellings.
With such a simple scheme, it was easy for Ripley's followers to tack
psychological characters to the three-fold framework, and the "Nordic
with a genius for leadership and government," "the stolid, unimaginative,
plodding but virtuous Alpine," and the "gay, artistic, and sexy Mediter-
ranean" soon followed. Hilaire Belloc's famous verses, published orig-
inally in the New Statesman^ satirize this attitude perfectly.
"Behold, my child, the Nordic man,
And^ be as like him as you can :
His legs are long — his mind is slow
His hair is lank and made of tow.
"And here we have the Alpine race.
Oh ! what a broad and brutal face.
His skin is of a dirty yellow
He is a most unpleasant fellow.
*° Ripley, W. Z., The Races of Europe.
INTRODUCTION TO THE LIVING 285
"The most degraded of them all
Mediterranean we call.
His hair is crisp and even curls
And he is saucy with the girls."
Ripley himself had little or nothing, in a direct sense, to do with this
efflorescence of speculative psychology, for the attitude of differential
racial values had been crystallized as early as Gobineau; 41 but he did
give the exponents of this school a facile terminology. Racial nationalism
had been growing before Ripley' s time; but he, for the first time, gave the
laymen a racial classification which they could understand, and which
could be converted into catchwords.
Like his predecessors, Ripley was discreet about the age of white men
on European soil; only in the case of the Alpines was he willing to set a
culturally stabilized date. In his day it was generally believed that the
Neolithic went back to anywhere from eight to fourteen thousand B.C.,
and the Mesolithic period was not generally recognized. Furthermore
the function of the glacier in regard to human habitat was but poorly
comprehended. Ripley did, however, make one speculation about the
survival of preglacial man in Europe; he postulated that some of the
inhabitants of the Dordogne region in France might be Cr6-Magnon
descendants.
Some twenty years previously Verneau ^ had remarked upon the re-
semblance between Guanche crania from the Canary Islands and these
Cr6-Magnon skulls, and had postulated a genetic relationship between the
two peoples so separated in space and in time. In 1896 von Luschan and
Meyer 43 reaffirmed this relationship, and this endorsement prepared the
way for a more accurate realization of the part played by survivors from
the last glacial period in the modern peopling of Europe. It was soon
realized that, if Upper Palaeolithic man could survive in the Canary
Islands, he could persist elsewhere as,well, and from this start arose the
theory that the Crd-Magnon people had retreated northward with the
glacier, and had survived in Scandinavia. Paudler,44 in his Die kellfar-
bigen Rassen, first put this thesis into digestible form, and distinguished
between his "Dalo-Nordic" or "Palish" (Gunther), which is tall, long-
headed, with a mesorrhine nose and short, broad face, and a "Teuto-
Nordic" which is also tall and long headed, but has a long, narrow nose
41 Gobineau, A. de, Essai sur Vinegalite des races humaines.
42 Verneau, R., BMSA, Paris, ser. 2, vol. 2, 1876, pp. 408-417; Arch des Missions
Scientifiques et Litteraires, Paris, 1887, ser. 3, vol. 13, pp. 567-817.
48 Meyer, H., Die Insel Tenerijfe; Uber die Urbewohner der Canarischen Inseln.
Luschan, F. von, article in Meyer, Tenerijfe.
44 Paudler, F., Die hellfarbigen Rassen. See also his earlier article in Anthropos, vols. 12-
13, 1917-18, pp. 641-694.
286 THE RAGES OF EUROPE
and face form. The first is considered to be the primary Cro-Magnon
descendant.
From this thesis has arisen the idea, in conjunction with philology and
archaeology, that the Germanic peoples, as descendants of Cr6-Magnon,
represent the racial and linguistic nucleus of the Indo-Europeans; that
European Neolithic civilization and Indo-European speech both had
their origin in northern Germany and Scandinavia; that the Corded
people, a Nordic variety, originated and spread from here; and that in
effect, the Nordic race, Indo-European speech, and European culture in
its basic form, arose from Palaeolithic racial and cultural origins in this
northwestern European glacial center. This theory, bolstered on the
archaeological side by Kossinna,45 is popular in Germany, but is by no
means endorsed by all German physical anthropologists.
The modern German school has made a great advance over Deniker
and his contemporaries, and over Ripley, in the realization that an im-
portant element in the modern European racial conglomerate is of glacial
antiquity in Europe. The difference between their conclusions and those
of the present study lies mainly in my acceptance of Childe's derivation
of the Neolithic economy, and Menghin's as well, rather than that of
Kossinna. Von Eickstedt,46 the most articulate of the modern German
raciologists, in his derivation of European peoples from Asia at various
periods, does not emphasize the introduction of the food-producing
economy in this connection.
It would be outside the scope of the present study to attempt a complete
survey of current ideas and current classifications which concern the
European races. A partial survey would, on the other hand, be unfair to
those who might, through limitations of space, be neglected. 1 shall,
therefore, limit my exposition to the systems of two authors,47 von Eick-
stedt and Czekanowski, who have been particularly occupied with the
question of racial taxonomy and who are the most vocal members of the
German and Polish bodies respectively. Their influence has been con-
siderable, and their schemes are articulate and orderly.
Von Eickstedt, whose Rassenkunde und Rassengeschichte der Menschheit
represents the most ambitious attempt at world-classification yet made,
follows, in his European sections, three masters: Ripley, Deniker, and
Montandon. It is the combination of these three, skilfully blended,
which has produced his system. In the first place, he agrees with Ripley
that there are but three basic races in Europe; Nordic, Alpine, and Med-
iterranean. These three are typically confined to three climatic and
46 Kossinna, G., Ur sprung und Verbreitung der Germanen, MannusB, #6a, 1928.
46 Eickstedt, E. von, Rassenkunde und Rassengeschichte der Menschheit.
47 1 am omitting Giinther, despite his great vogue, since his system is a close Germani-
zation of Deniker's, with a few changes.
INTRODUCTION TO THE LIVING 287
geographical zones; the cold northern plain, the central mountain belt,
and the warm belt reaching along the Mediterranean shores, and over
Arabia and Iran to India.
He differs from Ripley, however, in that he divides his three zones into
sub-races, and here he follows, for the most part, Deniker. The northern
zone is occupied, at its western extremity, by the Nordics; at its eastern
by his Osteuropid race, the Orientale of Deniker, and the East Baltic of
Nordenstreng and of authors writing in English.48 The central mountain
belt is occupied, reading from west to east, by the Alpines, the Binaries,
and, in Asia, the Armenoids, and the Turanids, the latter being the leptor-
rhine brachy cephalic central Asiatic Turkish racial form. The southern
zone is occupied by the Mediterraneans on the west, then the Orientalids
(Beniker's Indo-Afghan) in North Africa, and thence over to Khyber
Pass, where the Indid race begins.
In the differentiation between the segments of each zone, Montandon's
ideas,49 elaborated from those of Rosa, come into play. Von Eickstedt,
following the principles of the ologenesis theory, has decided that some
races are progressive in the evolutionary sense, while others are primitive.
The two words, here simply Anglicized from the German, are apparently
translations of Montandon's precoce and tardif. The distinction is that one
is capable of further evolution, the other is not. In the von Eickstedt
sense, the primitive branch is usually earlier. Thus he makes the Alpines,
in particular, primitive; the Binaries, in contrast, are progressive forms
of the same original root.
According to von Eickstedt, the races which come under his classifi-
cation entered Europe in post-glacial times. First came the Mediter-
raneans, during the Mesolithic; then the Alpines, who approached the
Swiss lake dwellings from the east, but still in Mesolithic times; the
Binaries go back only to the Bronze Age. The Alpines were a forest
people, and spread out into the forests of northern Europe as well as of
those which covered the mountains in the center. An extra-primitive
proto-Alpine type went to Benmark to associate itself with the Magle-
mose culture. Then the Nordics broke through along the newly-formed
northern steppes, and entered Scandinavia over Benmark, passing into
Norway by two routes: around by Oslo; and through the gap between the
two melting nuclei of the glacier, into Trondelagen. Earlier brachy-
cephals are found at the termini of these routes.
According to his system the Lapps are Alpines isolated in the north;
they are the purest Alpines of all and are not mongoloid. The Nordics
48 Nordenstreng, R., Europas Manniskoraser och Folkslag.
Lundborg and Linders, Racial Characters of the Swedish Nation, pp. 50—52.
Hooton, E. A., Up from the Ape, pp. 508-5Q9, 535.
49 Montandon, G., La Race, Les Races.
288
THE RACES OF EUROPE
are divided into three sub-divisions: Teuto-Nordic, the original and basic
form; the Dalo-Nordic, which is the same plus Cr6-Magnon mixture; and
a Fenno-Nordic, reddish haired and water-blue eyed, which is the eastern-
most, largely Asiatic branch, now found only in solution. The Osteuropids
are a separate race, a Nordic-Mongoloid transitional form, dating from
the time of differentiation between these two stocks; and not a Nordic
Mongoloid mixture, since its superior blondism and possession of dis-
tinctive traits make its mixed derivation impossible. This race developed
in the swamps and forests of the Obi drainage, and entered Europe only
in modern times; its penetration of eastern and central Europe is a recent
phenomenon.
So much for von Eickstedf s classification. It fits with some fidelity the
facts of racial distribution in Europe, but it does not fit all of the facts of
history. In this respect we may apply the same criticism to the system of
Czekanowski, which is illustrated by the diagram below: 50
According to Czekanowski, there are four basic white races, located
schematically at the corners of the square; and six sub-races or mixed
types, which result from the crossing of the four fundamental ones. These
races and sub-races, with their Greek letters, may be listed as follows:
alpha
epsilon
lambda
chi
iota
gamma
omega
rho
beta
delta
PURE RACES
Nordic
Ibero-Insular
Lapponoid
Armenoid
MIXED TYPES
Northwestern
Subnordic
Alpine
Littoral
Pile Dwelling
Dinaric
(alpha — epsilon)
(alpha — lambda)
(alpha — chi)
(epsilon — chi)
(epsilon — lambda)
(lambda — chi)
This scheme is obviously an attempt to place Deniker's system in a
mathematically orderly form. Czekanowski defines his Lapponoid in
» Czekanowski, Jan, AAnz, vol. 5, 1928, pp. 335-359; AASF, ser. A, vol. 25, #2,
1925.
INTRODUCTION TO THE LIVING 289
such a way as to include the Alpine of Ripley, as well as the Lapps proper.
In this identification of Lapps and Alpines, Czekanowski and von Eick-
stedt agree. The Dinaric becomes a mixture of Lapponoid and Armenoid,
which is difficult to follow; the "Pile Dwelling," being a mixture of Lap-
ponoid and Mediterranean is, however, fully in accordance with the
facts in regard to the crania of Swiss Lake Dwellers, 61 concerning which
Gzekanowski is a specialized authority.52 It seems unfortunate that the
word "Alpine," should be torn from its context, immortalized by Ripley,
and applied to a hypothetical Nordic- Armenoid cross, thus further abet-
ting the confusion prevalent among even professional anthropologists,
a confusion which Gunther, in his wholesale swapping of names, has done
much to foster.58
It is not the purpose of the present survey to criticize in detail the two
schemes chosen for presentation. Czekanowski, like Gunther, von Eick-
stedt, and others, has rescued the Armenoid, which was first carefully
described by von Luschan,54 from the obscure companionship of Aus-
tralians and Ethiopians in which Deniker had thrown it; he also, antici-
pating von Eickstedt and following the early example of Pruner Bey,55
has attempted to salvage the Lapps from a mongoloid category and to
make them full-fledged if primitive Europeans. But his scheme is mani-
festly too pat, too regular, and too mathematical, to agree fully with
nature, and, furthermore, it disagrees in many respects with the findings
of the historical discipline.
In making our own classification, let us first review the system which
grew out of the skeletal study in Chapters II to VII. The groundwork of
this system, and the list of types, may be gathered from the study of the
lower half of Fig. 30. In this chart an attempt is made to separate the
purely sapiens Mediterranean group from the Upper Palaeolithic mixed
sapiens and Neanderthal races. Thus the Mediterranean sub-groups,
races of food- producers which had already become differentiated before
the great migrations into Europe, are listed as follows: Irano- Afghan,
Corded, Atlanto-Mediterranean, Cappadocian, Mediterranean Proper,
and Danubian. The old hunting and fishing population is divided into:
Brunn, Borreby, and Alpine; while that branch which bears a considerable
strain of incipient mongoloidism, includes Lappish and Ladogan, the
latter being the vaguely mongoloid mixed meso- and brachycephalic
element which appeared sporadically in the forest region of Russia, and
occasionally to the south, from the beginning of the Russian Neolithic
61 See Chapter IV, pp. 113-115.
52 Czekanowski, J., AFA, vol. 48, 1925, pp. 65-76.
88 Gunther, H., Rassenkunde der deutschen Votkes.
** Luschan, F. von, JRAI, vol. 41, 1911, pp. 221-244.
86 Pruner Bey, F., MSAP, vol. 2, 1865, pp. 417-432.
290
INTRODUCTION TO THE LIVING 291
onward. To this same side of the chart arc added the modern mongoloids
and the mongoloid element in the American Indian.
The lower half of the chart seems relatively simple in comparison with
the upper portion, in which an attempt is made to show the relationships
between these skeletal races and the living. The comparative simplicity
of the lower portion, however, may reflect ignorance on our part rather
than actual genetic isolation, since there was undoubtedly much mixing
back and forth between the branches of each of the major lines, as well
as between the lines themselves.
The proposed classification of living whites and near-whites, which is
shown on the top of the chart, may be listed in more detailed form as
follows:
A. LARGE-HEADED PALAEOLITHIC SURVIVORS
(1) Brunn: (Cr6-Magnon, to some extent) found in solution with Borreby,
Nordic, and other elements, mostly in Scandinavia and the British Isles,
also in North Africa and Canary Islands. May appear in comparatively
pure form among individuals although nowhere as a total population.
(2) Borreby; Large-headed brachycephals of Omet-Afalou type, the unreduced
brachycephalic strain in Cro-Magnon; found in solution in peripheral re-
gions of northwestern Europe, and as a major population element in most
of northern and central Germany, and in Belgium. Like the. Briinn race,
with which it is often associated, it occurs also in North Africa and the
Canary Islands.
B. PURE AND MIXED PALAEOLITHIC AND MESOLITHIC SUR-
VIVORS OF MODERATE HEAD SI^E™
(3) Alpine: A reduced and somewhat foetalized survivor of the Upper Palaeo-
lithic population in Late Pleistocene France, highly brachycephalized; seems
to represent in a large measure the bearer of the brachycephalic factor in
Cr6-Magnon. Close approximations to this type appear also in the Balkans
and in the highlands of western and central Asia, suggesting that its ancestral
prototype was widespread in Late Pleistocene times. In modern races it
sometimes appears in a relatively pure form, sometimes as an element in
mixed brachycephalic populations of multiple origin. It may have served
in both Pleistocene and modern times as a bearer of the tendency toward
brachycephalization into various populations.
(4)' Ladogan: I propose to give this name to the descendants of the mesocephalic
and brachycephalic forest-dwelling population of northern Europe east of
the Baltic in Kammkeramik times. This type is a blend of a partly mongo-
loid brachycephalic element with a mesocephalic form of general Upper
Palaeolithic aspect; these elements are seen in crania from Lake Ladoga
and Salis Roje. (See Chapter IV, section 13, pp. 125-126.) Corded and /or
Danubian elements are inextricably blended here, although the mongoloid
66 Foetalization in a skeletal sense, which is, for obvious reasons, the only sense im-
plicit here, involves a reduction of male secondary sex characters in the skull, and at
the same time a reduction in skeletal sex differentiation.
292 THE RACES OF EUROPE
and Upper Palaeolithic elements seem at present more important. In its
present form this composite type shows two numerous variants:
(a) Neo-Danubian: Strongly mixed with the old Danubian, and to a lesser
extent other elements, to form the common peasant type of eastern
Europe, with many local variants.
(b) East Baltic: Strongly mixed with Corded, Iron Age Nordic, and western
Palaeolithic survivors to form the predominant population of much of
Finland and the Baltic States.
(5) Lappish: A stunted, highly brachycephalized, largely brunet relative of the
Ladogan, originally living to the east of the Ladogan type area, in the Urals
and western Siberia. Has probably assimilated some evolved mongoloid,
but owes its partly mongoloid appearance more to the retention of an early
intermediate evolutionary condition. In modern times much mixed with
Ladogan and Nordic.
C. PURE AND MIXED UNBRACHTCEPHALI^ED MEDITERRANEAN
DERIVA TIVES
(6) Mediterraneans: Within this general class, which still retains much of its
original racial unity, the following sub-classes may at present be distin-
guished:
(a) Mediterranean Proper: Short-statured, dolicho- and mesocephalic form
found in Spain, Portugal, the western Mediterranean islands, and to
some extent in North Africa, southern Italy, and other Mediterranean
borderlands. Its purest present-day racial nucleus is without doubt
Arabia. Most of the Cappadocian, isolated in the skeletal material,
seems to have been absorbed into the western Mediterranean variety
after its early Metal Age migration, while that which remained in Asia
Minor became assimilated into the Dinaric and Armenoid. It still ap-
pears, however, among individuals in its original form, and is particu-
larly common among Oriental Jews.
(b) Atlanto-Mediterranean: The tall, straight-nosed Mediterranean, not meso-
cephalic, as Deniker erroneously stated, but strongly dolichocephalic.
Today this race forms the principal element in the population of North
Africa, and is strong in Iraq, Palestine, parts of Arabia, and the eastern
Balkans; in solution with varying degrees of negroid it is also the prin-
cipal race in the whole of East Africa. In Europe it is a minority ele-
ment in the Iberian Peninsula, Italy, and the British Isles.
(c) Irano-Afghan: The long-faced, high-headed, hook-nosed type, usually of
tall stature, which forms the principal element in the population of
Iran, Afghanistan, and the Turkoman country, and which is also present
- in Palestine, parts of Arabia, and North Africa. It is probably related
to the old Corded type of the Neolithic and Bronze Age.
(7) Nordics: The basic Nordic is the Corded-Danubian blend of the Aunjetitz
and of the Early Iron Age in central Europe. This type includes some Bell
Beaker Dinaric absorbed in early Metal Age times. Although Danubian
and Corded types may appear as individuals, they may nowhere be isolated
as populations. The most important living Nordic varieties are:
(a) Keltic Iron Age Type: The Keltic sub-type, mesocephalic and low-vaulted,
with a prominent nose. Commonest in the British Isles where in places
INTRODUCTION TO THE LIVING 293
it forms the principal element in the population, Also a major element
in Flanders and the Prankish country in southwestern Germany.
(b) Anglo-Saxon Type: The old Germanic Reihengraber type, a heavy-boned,
rather high-headed Nordic variety, most prevalent in northern Germany
and England.
(c) Trondelagen Type: A hybrid type of Nordic with Corded and Briinn
elements, frequent in the central coastal provinces of Norway, north
of the Dovre Mountains; the principal form in Iceland, and among
the Frisians, and common in the British Isles, The Anglo-Saxon type
lies between it and the true Nordic.
(d) Osterdal Type: The original Hallstatt Nordic, smaller-headed and finer
boned than (b) or (c); occurs in many populations as individuals,
typical only in Sweden and in the eastern valleys of Norway.
D. BRACHYCEPHALIZED MEDITERRANEAN DERIVATIVES, PROB-
ABLT MIXED
(8) Dinarics: A tall brachycephalic type of intermediate pigmentation, usually
planoccipital, and showing the facial and nasal prominence of Near Eastern
peoples. The basic population of the whole Dinaric-Alpine highlands from
Switzerland to Epirus, also in the Carpathians and Caucasus, as well as
Syria and Asia Minor. Apparently a brachycephalized blend in which
Atlanto-Mediterranean and Cappadocian strains are important, with Alpine
acting as the brachycephalizing agent in mixture. Borreby and Corded
elements, also Nordic, appear to be involved in some regions.
(9) Armenolds: A similar brachycephalic composite type, with the same head
form as the Dinaric, but a larger face and nose. The pigmentation is almost
entirely brunet, the pilous development of beard and body abundant, the
nose high rooted, convex, and the tip depressed, especially in advanced age.
The difference between the Armenoid and the Dinaric is that here it is
the Irano-Afghan race which furnishes the Mediterranean element, brachy-
cephalized by Alpine mixture.
(10) None: A blond, planoccipital brachycephal frequently encountered in South
Germany and elsewhere in central Europe. This is apparently an Iron Age
Nordic brachycephalized by Dinaric mixture and seems in most respects to
take the form of a blond Dinaric variant. Both Deniker and Czekanowski
have recognized this type, and it is a standard race, under various names, in
most Russian studies. The name Noric was given it by Lebzelter. A brachy-
cephalized Neo-Danubian, common in Jugoslavia, is a parallel or variant
form.
The ten racial types within the white race listed above, with their sub-
types, form two of the three main divisions of the white race, in its widest
sense, when segregated on the basis of head size. The third division, that
of the peoples with small heads, includes the aboriginal population of
southern Arabia east of the Yemen, and various groups in Baluchistan,
and again in southern India. This third variety is characterized by an
abundance of wavy or ringleted hair, and facial features of a Veddoid
character which in some instances suggest Australoid affinities. This third
FACIAL
DISTRIBUTION
o o oo.ooo o o o o.o
O O o'l O O O O O O O O
o o o o o o o o o oooooo
O Q Qj O O O O O O O O O OOP
MAP
Mongoloid
Mongoloid
Lappish
strain, Tronder, etc., yn
d,only partly bradiycepna
LBaltic
istocene^Mediterra
rvivor (Teviec Type,
Alpine
(Ladogan+Danubian)
Neo-Danubian element as
mority
Mediterranean
Atlanto-Mediterranean
A A
A A A A A A
AAAAA .. .
A. A A A A A A
A A A A A A
A - -v*-A,/
A A - -
AAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAA
OA\A A AAA AAAAAA A
A A^AK A A 'A A AAAAAA
A° A 'A~\A A A A A A A
296 THE RACES OF EUROPE
division need not, however, concern us here, because it falls outside the
major range of the white race. It will be dealt with in some detail in the
proper section of the regional study.
Besides the European races proper, as listed in the preceding para-
graphs, and' their Veddoid collaterals, there are certain fully evolved non-
white races which have influenced the European population by intrusion
and blending. These include at least two of the sub-divisions of the mon-
goloid family — the Buryat- Mongol, to which the Avars in part belonged,
and which is today represented on European soil by the Samoyeds; and
the Tungusic, the type of the early Huns. To these may be added an
apparently stabilized mixed form, resembling a partially mongoloid
Dinaric, to which many central Asiatic Turkish tribesmen belong. In
addition to these Asiatics, there remains the African Negro, which has had
certain influences upon the formation of race in the Mediterranean region,
especially in North Africa, and in parts of Arabia. Other non-white
stocks, such as the Australoid, Negrito, and Khoi-San (Bushman-Hotten-
tot), have not affected the white group in its homelands in any discernible
way.
Chapter IX
THE NORTH
(1) INTRODUCTION
The remaining chapters of this book will be devoted to a rapid survey
of the continent of Europe, country by country and people by people, and
of the contiguous portions of Asia and Africa occupied by basically white
populations. The treatment of the skeletal documents in prehistory and
history, and the survey of the living material as a whole, which have pre-
ceded this section, will make elaborate introductions unnecessary. Here
it is proposed to cover the geography of the white race piecemeal, for the
convenience of the reader interested in specific local problems, as well as
to examine in further detail the nature of the white human division as a
whole.
Every map is two dimensional, and every consecutive written work one
dimensional. There is a conflict, therefore, at the start between the nature
of any geographical material and the medium through which it is to be
described and explained. The choice of a starting point is a purely arbi-
trary affair, and the sequence of areas followed must be equally dogmatic.
Perhaps because of our European habit of starting a written page at the
upper left hand corner and working down, strip by strip, we shall follow
this system, more or less, in our study of the map of Europe.
By following this method we shall first deal with the very northernmost
zone, which is, in effect, a more or less unified environmental area. It is
at the same time the last portion of the European land-mass to receive
permanent settlement, and the last to receive the cultural stimulus
of agriculture. For these and other reasons, all of which resolve them-
selves ultimately into the fact that northwestern Europe was the center
of Old World glacial activity during the last age of ice, the far north has
played the zoological r61e of a marginal area. Its racial history, while
complex enough in the absolute sense, is relatively simple and relatively
easy to untangle, as has been shown in previous chapters.
Aside, from the Russian Slavs whose appearance in the north is of
recent historical date, ,we have, in this zone, to deal with two linguistic
groups — the Uralic, with sub-divisions into Finnic, Ugric, and Samoyedic;
and the Indo-European, in Scandinavian and Baltic forms. From the
standpoint of race in the sense of major world groupings, we are con-
cerned with two — the white and the mongoloid. In the historical sense,
297
298 THE RACES OF EUROPE
we are confronted again with a division between Palaeolithic survivors,
and the descendants of the farthest wandering of Mediterranean food-
producers. From the standpoint of environmental conditioning in its
effect upon the human form, we have reached an area of maximum
differentiation. Northern Europe, especially northwestern Europe, has
served not only as a refuge area for archaic humanity, but also as a source
from which migrations of vast compass have spread southward into
warmer lands at times of environmental distress. Emigrants forced out
by the vagaries of its treacherous climate have not only affected in varying
measure the rest of Europe, but have likewise played a principal part in
the peopling of the New World.
(2) THE LAPPS
If the white race spreads far beyond the arbitrary boundaries of the
European continent to the south and east, the opposite may be said of
the north. In the circumpolar zone which fringes the Arctic Sea, Asia
encroaches upon Europe, and except for Iceland, the racial uniformity
of this frigid ring is, superficially at least, complete. In a far less super-
ficial sense, is the cultural uniformity valid. From Greenland to Lapland
one finds short, lank-haired people driving across the frozen tundra in
bone-shod sleds, drawn by dog or reindeer; these hyperboreans dress
themselves in warmly tailored fur garments, with trousers for both sexes
alike; they live in conical huts of birch bark, or domes of rock and sod;
they venerate the bear and witness the supernatural spirit flights and
ventriloquistic conversations of their shamans.
With few exceptions they are all short in stature, and this shortness
reaches its extreme at the two ends of the circumpolar zone, Greenland
and Lappland. This shortness is accentuated in all of the circumpolar
groups by a relative reduction in leg length, with a greater trunk height.
The same reduction in length, probably produced by the same mechanism,
has been noted in the case of the Magdalenian hunters in late glacial
times. These same Magdalenians, notably Chancelade and the male
Obercassel, showed at the same time an incipient degree of mongoloid
adaptation, insofar as this adaptation is visible in the skull and especially
the facial skeleton. It is likely that the occurrence of partial mongoloid
traits in many Upper Palaeolithic survivor groups may be due to the
retention of traits acquired during the final glacial maximum. In the
same way all of the circumpolar groups show, in one degree or another,
a certain amount of mongoloidism, and it is possible that the mongoloid
stock as a whole represents a progressive mutation from a proto-white
stock, of Upper Palaeolithic variety, which began in the Late Pleistocene
and reached various degrees of specialization in post-glacial times.
THE NORTH 299
The westernmost representatives of this circumpolar ring of peoples are
the Lapps, who call themselves, in their own archaic variety of Finnic
speech, Samen. Their country, Lapland, has no political existence, but
is no less real an entity. It consists of the forested highlands of northern
Sweden, which afford ideal reindeer pasturage, and the tundra-covered
stretches of northern Finland, with the Norwegian coastal provinces of
Troms and Finnmark, and much of the Russian Kola Peninsula. Except
for small patches of forest and mountain, the Lapps are not alone in this
country, but share it with a more numerous population of Finns and
Norwegians, with whom they have, for centuries, been mixing.
There are, in the whole world, probably no more than 32,000 Lapps.1
Of these about 21,000 live in Norway, 7000 odd in Sweden, and 3000
more are evenly divided between Finland and Russia. In Norway, which
holds thus two- thirds of the total, between ten and eleven thousand are
concentrated in the province of Finnmark, where, in 1920, they formed
24 per cent of the population. In Sweden the greatest concentration is in
Norrbottens Ian, which holds 4500. The Lapps are not, from the stand-
point of numbers, an important people in the world. They are one of
the marginal, vestigial groups destined to disappear by the process of
absorption. Their importance lies, however, in their taxonomic position,
and in the influence which they have had in the past, and may have in
the future, on other European peoples with whom they have blended and
will blend.
Their predilection for this blending process is so great that it is really
very difficult to estimate their numbers, and the figures given above are by
no means definitive. They include Lapps who speak their own language
and call themselves ethnically Samen, and exclude those who have passed
over into other populations, notably the northern Norwegian. At the
same time they include many Norwegian, Swedish, and Finnish genetic
lines which have been incorporated intcf the culturally Lappish body.
Norwegian writers usually divide the Lapps into two main classes, the
Reindeer Lapps, living in the forests and mountains, and the Sedentary
Lapps, living along the coast and rivers, subsisting mostly on fish. It is
generally believed that the original Lapps who entered Scandinavia were
reindeer-herders, and that for many of them the sedentary life is a rela-
tively recent readaptation. Today, however, no more than five thousand
still herd reindeer, and of these five, three live in Sweden. Thus although
Norway holds the majority of the world's Lapps, those who preserve the
purest Lappish type, both in culture and race, live over the Swedish border.
The Lapps present a distinct problem to students of race, which has
been answered in one way or the other by various authors since the middle
* Wiklund, K. B., GE, vol. 13, 1923, pp. 223-242.
300 THE RACES OF EUROPE
of the last century. The problem is: are they primitive European brachy-
cephals, related to the Alpines of west central Europe, or are they mon-
goloid invaders from Asia? This question is of more than taxonomic
value, because it is intimately concerned with the historical position of
all the western European brachycephals as well as with the validity of the
classifications employed by the present schools in Poland and Germany.
Fortunately, with the publication in 1935 of Schreiner's %ur Osteologie der
Lappen^ we are at length in a position to answer the Lapp question in a
definite manner, and with some degree of assurance. The answer lies
partly in the historical field, and partly in that of somatology.
The historical evidence does not favor the Alpine or local shrunken-
Palaeolithic-survivor theory. In the first place, the Lapps speak a Finnic
dialect which is classified with the extinct Chude, spoken in the early
centuries of the present era in Finland and the regions immediately east
and north of the present city of Leningrad. 3 The Chudes were Volga Finns
who migrated in early times into the regions later to be occupied by their
modern Finnish and Esthonian relatives, who eventually absorbed them.
In the Lappish language are also found certain loan words from Letto-
Lithuanian, and others from early Scandinavian. Letts and Lithuanians
arrived in the Baltic lands only in the middle of the first millennium A.D.
Then the Lapps could not have moved to the far northwest much before
this time. Furthermore, in order to have borrowed their language from
the Ghudes, who themselves did not arrive there much earlier, the Lapps
must have mixed to some extent with them, and indeed the Lappish
skeletons disinterred in Scandinavia show mixture with a Finnic type
from the beginning.4
In the fourteenth century the Lapps were mentioned in the Lake Onega
region, and tax registers from the sixteenth century establish their pres-
ence as far south as Lake Saima, a short distance farther north; hence it
is certain that the Lapps had not been fully pushed up into their Arctic
environment until recent times. In Norway, the earliest graves, found in
Finnmark, may date from late "Roman" times, near the middle of the
first millennium A.D., but the presence of the Lapps in this country is not
absolutely certain before the ninth century. At this time Norse traders
and settlers were sailing around the North Cape, into the previously un-
known provinces of Troms and Finnmark, and they met Lapps there and
mixed with them. A rich Viking grave of the tenth century, in eastern
Finnmark, contains the skeleton of a twenty year old youth of manifestly
mixed Norse and Lappish ancestry.5
2 Schreiner, K. E., %ur Osteologie der Lappen.
8 Wiklund, K. B., loc. cit.
4 Schreiner, K. E., op. cit., vol. 2, p. 279.
6 Schreiner, Alette, Antkropologische Untersuchungen in Norge; Hellemo.
THE NORTH 301
Schreiner has collected some 300 Lapp skeletons from graves along the
Norwegian coast, all of which were of Lappish construction or contained
typically Lappish grave furniture; there is no reason to confuse them
either with contemporary Viking graves or with the earlier remains of
the Stone Age people of this region, for the Lapp graves are manifestly
late and intrusive. Furthermore they are geographically restricted, for
the Lapps did not, before the sixteenth century, range below 63° N. Lati-
tude, and the most southerly Lappish burials yet found are at Steinkjaer
on the inner Trondhjem fjord. The Lapp inroad of the eighteenth century
into South Trondelag and Hedmark came not from the north, but from
the Swedish provinces of Jamtland and Hardjedalen, to the east. The
Lapps did not, therefore, extend south into central Norway until very
recent times, and had no opportunity to mix with Norwegians in any
numbers south of Tydsfjord, the northernmost fjord-valley of Nordland.
They cannot, therefore, have been responsible for the brachycephaly in
southern Norway. Although there is no skeletal material from the Stone
Age sites of northern Norway, there is no reason to suppose that these
people were the ancestors of the Lapps, since Lapp sites and Stone Age
sites are distinct, and nothing transitional has been found.
On the historical side, the evidence is clear. In regard to somatology
we may be equally positive, since there is no lack of anthropometric
material. Series by Bryn,6 Alette Schreiner,7 Gjessing,8 Geyer,9 Kajava,10
and Zolotarev n represent Lapps from Norway, Sweden, Finland, and
Russia; these studies are all modern and cover the living material fully,
while K. E. Schreiner's skeletal series provides a check upon the dead.
All of these series show that the Lapps are very mixed, and that they
contain not only Nordic blood, derived from Norwegian contact, in-
tense during the last four centuries, but also a blond brachycephalic
element which presumably comes from their even commoner mixture
with the Kvaens, the northernmost of Finns. Several attempts have
been made to isolate "pure" Lapps, but this isolation must be relative
since they were probably mixed before they arrived in the present Lapp-
land.
It is generally assumed that the Lapps were originally brunet, and that
what blondism they possess has been acquired through this mixture.
There is, of course, no factual basis for this assumption, and if it be true,
the Lapps must have more non-Lapp than Lapp blood. Hair color was
«Bryn, H., MAGW, vol. 62, 1932, pp. 1-74.
7 Schreiner, A., Die Nord-Norweger; Hellemo (Tysfjord Lappen).
8 Gjessing, R., Die Kautokeinolappen.
9 Geyer, E., MAGW, vol. 62, 1932, pp. 163-209.
10 Kajava, Y., Beitrage zwr Kenntnis der Rasseneigenschaften der Lappen Finnlands.
11 Zolotarev, D. A., Kolskie Lopari.
302 THE RACES OF EUROPE
observed by means of the Fischer scale in six modern studies,12 while in
two others l3 no scale was employed, but the material is capable of com-
parative use. In these series the adult male Lapps vary, in black to dark
brown hair colors, from forty to eighty per cent; the beard color, when
observed, is lighter. There is some argument as to whether the pure
brunet Lapp hair is really black or dark brown, which would indicate
that it often falls into a borderline category. When blond, it is usually
ashen, and almost never golden or red. The selected "pure" groups,
Bryn's Reindeer Lapps, and some of Geyer's mountain and forest Lapps
from Sweden, have seventy per cent or over of this dark hair, while the
fairest Lapps, with a majority of brown and blond shades, are found in
Finland and in the Kola Peninsula.
Pure dark eyes are found among one-third of Reindeer Lapps, and
among as few as eight per cent in the total of Lapps from Norway.14 Pure
light and light-mixed eyes are commonest among the Lapps of Finland,
where they total between thirty and forty per cent, and least common
among the Reindeer Lapps of interior Norway and Sweden. Even among
the purest selected sub-groups, such as that of Geyer, who isolated from a
larger Swedish Lapp sample a few individuals of most pronounced Lap-
pish type, at least a third are light or light-mixed in iris color.
The skin color of Lapps with light hair and eyes is as light as that of
Norwegians and Finns, but in the majority, with mixed or dark hair and
eye pigmentation, the skin tends to a grayish yellow to yellowish brown,
with some moderately dark individuals, equivalent in pigment intensity
to Spaniards or Italians.15 On the whole the skin is lighter on the face
and darker on the body, and is usually darkest on the abdomen and
genitalia.16 Among the old this skin becomes deeply wrinkled, since it is
then deficient in sub-cutaneous fat. The eyes are set in deeply excavated
sockets in senility, owing to the same fat deficiency.
The Lapp hair is thick on the head, usually straight or but slightly
wavy; it is of moderate texture, and seldom coarse or wiry in a truly
mongoloid manner. Graying begins late, and baldness is rare. The beard,
12Bryn, H., MAGW, 1932.
Geyer, E., MAGW, 1932.
Gjessing, R., Die Kautokeinolapptn.
Schreiner, A., Die Nord-Norweger; Hellemo.
Luther, M., unpublished data in Peabody Museum. Actual hair samples collected,
and later matched in the laboratory.
13 Kajava, Y., Beitrage %ur Kenntnis der Rassemigenschaftm der Lappen Finnlands.
Zolotarev, D. A., Kolskie Lopari.
14 Schreiner, A., Die Nord-Norweger, Martin's numbers 2-4, total of 254 males.
16 Bryn, H., MAGW, 1932, finds 20 per cent to have von Luschan #3; the darkest
shade which he records is #12.
16 Schreiner, A., Hellemo^ p. 15.
THE NORTH 303
except where much Nordic blood is apparent, is very scanty, consisting
of a few widely separated hairs. The body hair again is largely deficient,
for there is seldom any on the chest or abdomen; even the pubic hair is
scanty, and on men as well as on women its area of growth is sharply out-
lined at its upper border. The external genitalia which this hair partly
conceals are as a rule small.
Thirty different series give the stature of the Lapps over a span of
130 years. Eleven series published between 1870 and 1900, give means
of 138 to 156 cm., which could be averaged at 151 cm. Twenty-seven
others, measured between 1905 and 1934, and including several thousand
Lapps, range from 155 to 164 cm.; 17 during this period the Lapps grew,
apparently, seven or eight centimeters. This may be accounted for either
as evidence of continuous progressive mixture, or the influence of the
stature increase tendency in northwestern Europe, or both.
A study of Lapp bodily proportions shows that the trunk is long in
proportion to the legs, which are especially short in the tibial segment,
and often bowed; the arms are relatively long, especially in the humeral
segment. The hands and feet are as a rule small and delicate. Despite
the great relative arm length, both shoulders and hips are narrow, and
these peculiarities are especially accentuated in the more brunet, shorter,
and presumably less mixed segment of the Lapp population.18
The head of the Lapps, while large in proportion to the body size, is
absolutely small. The length ranges in the low 180's, and the breadth
in the 150's, while the height is probably about 122 mm. The cephalic
index means range from 80 to 88; and a large list of series shows no change
during the last century. There are, however, regional differences; the
center of extreme round headedness lies among the inland groups in
northern Norway, while the Swedish, Finnish, and Kola Peninsula Lapps
become progressively narrower headed. The mean for the purest Rein-
deer Lapps of Norway is 87; for the easternmost Lapps, 80 to 83.
The forehead of the Lapps is narrow in proportion to the parietal
breadth; the profile of the head from above is a short ovoid. The occiput
is flat-curved, with some flattening at lambda. Browridges, as a rule, are
absent, and the forehead is usually steep, and frequently equipped with
frontal bosses. The faces of the Lapps are extraordinarily short, with well-
substantiated means of 112 mm. for nasion-menton height. These may be
compared with the means of 124-126 mm. usual among either Norwegians
or Finns. In this the Lapps differ from known whites or mongoloids to
an extraordinary degree, and an extreme absolute facial shortness must
17 For a complete bibliography of early Lappish series, see the lists of Bryn, the two
Schreiners, Geyer, Kajava, and Zolotarev.
»8 Geyer, MAGW, 1932.
304 THE RACES OF EUROPE
be considered a distinctive Lapp feature. Upon further examination, it
may be seen that this shortness lies almost entirely in the masticatory
segment of the face height; the alveolar borders of the maxillae are extra-
ordinarily shallow, and the mandible is very low, weak, and feebly de-
veloped.19 The jaw is not, however, narrow at the rear, for the bigonial
diameter is as great as 108 mm. on Norwegian Lapps, and greater even
among "pure" Nomads.20 The jaw converges rapidly toward the chin,
which is small, pointed, and frequently receding. The teeth are very small,
and their roots short. Thus the Lapp face is distinguished by a reduction
of jaw size and an oral shallowness extreme and perhaps unique among
mankind. It must be considered as a Lapp specialization coincident with
their extremely short stature, and especially with the shortening of the
distal leg segment.
Otherwise the Lapp face takes a position midway, in many respects,
between whites and rnongoloids. The bizygomatic diameter, of 140 mm.,
or thereabouts, is in the white range; it is narrow in proportion to the
vault, but it seems wide in relationship to jaw and forehead. The malars,
while not notable for lateral jut, project forward prominently. The nose
is on the whole low and flattish; with a straight or concave bridge, low
root, and a peculiar snubbed or pointed, up-turned tip. This prominence
of the tip is retained characteristically in mixture. On the whole the nose
is mesorrhine, and is in this respect not unlike those of many of the
Finnish and Slavic peoples in eastern Europe. The eyes are widely
separated, set in low orbits, and overhung in some instances with median
or external folds, rarely with the mongoloid epicanthus.
On the whole, the Lapp crania, as the Lapp soft parts, take an inter-
mediate position between mongoloid and white standard forms. In some
special characters the Lapps are unique, as in the masticatory develop-
ment, and in the orbit, where Hisinger-Jagerskiold has found a curiously
primitive bony conformation.21 The possession of these peculiar special-
izations and primitive traits should prevent the Lapps from being con-
sidered a hybrid mongoloid-white racial form. Compared to central
Asiatic mongoloids, the Lapps are little specialized. The soft and often
fine head hair, the absence of the blue-black hair pigment shade, the
infrequency of the mongoloid eyefold, and the absence of an excessive
lateral malar development or of great facial width, are evidence of this
lack of specialization in a mongoloid direction.
There are many features which give the Lapps an infantile appearance
which cannot be accidental; these include the body and limb proportions,
19 Schreiner, K. E,, £ur Osteologie der Lappen.
2°Bryn, H., MAGW, 1932.
21 Kajava, Y., Beitrdge zur Kenntnis der Rasseneigenxchaftm der Lappen Finnlands, p. 35,
after Hisinger-Jagerskiold, E., FFVS, vol. 55, 1913.
THE NORTH 305
the sparseness of body hair, the small genitals, the bulbous forehead with a
smooth supraorbital region, the weak chin, and the low, child-like nose.22
Some environmental mechanism working upon the mineral economy of
this peripheral human group has probably produced this size reduction
and infantilism.23
Schreiner's opinion, based upon a detailed study of Lapp craniology
as well as upon the living material, is simple and adequate. Translated
into the terms of the present study, it signifies that the original ancestral
Lapps represented a stage in the evolution of both the Upper Palaeolithic
Europeans and the mongoloids, and that while the mongoloids have
specialized in their own characteristic way, and while the Ice-Age Euro-
pean strain was modified by mixture with and virtual absorption by the
encroaching post-Pleistocene food producers, the ancestral Lapps were,
in their turn, modified largely by a general size reduction and an increas-
ing infantilism. The jaw reduction of the Lapps is their most easily iden-
tified specialization.
In view of the known history of Upper Palaeolithic whites and of mon-
goloids, this divergence of the Lapps from the others must have taken
place as early as the Laufen glacial retreat. Their area of specialization
was presumably western Siberia, where they found room in which to
specialize with little interference. From here they must later have spread
over Finland and northwestern Russia, whence they entered northern
Scandinavia sometime during the first millennium of the Christian era, by
a gradual trickling process. In their northern wanderings they may have
met the Samoyed, and from them acquired their domestic reindeer and
the habit of reindeer milking. Since, according to both Laufer and Hatt,24
this last trait did not develop in its central Asiatic home much before the
middle of the first millennium B.C., the Lapps could not have acquired this
practice much before their arrival in Scandinavia. The acquisition of this
superior economy must have given them an impetus for northward ex-
pansion, as it did, farther east, with the'Tungus.
We must not look for Lappish ancestors, therefore, in the large-headed
Borreby people of Mesolithic and Neolithic Denmark, nor in the occu-
pants of the Stone Age sites of northernmost Norway; if we find Lapp-like
22 This general estimate of the Lapp racial position is for the most part a paraphrase
of K. E. Schreiner's conclusions in his %ur Osteologie der Lappen, by far the most erudite
work yet to appear on the Lapp question.
23 Gjessing, R., Die Kautokeinolappen, pp. 90-95.
Marett, J. R. de la H., Race, Sex, and Environment.
24 Hatt, G., Notes on Reindeer Nomadism, MAAA, vol. 6, 1919. This is one of the few
points regarding the history of reindeer husbandry upon which these two authorities
agree.
Laufer, B., The Reindeer and Us Domestication, MAAA, vol. 4, #2, 1917; AA, vol. 22,
1920, pp. 192-197.
306 THE RACES OF EUROPE
physical traits, as do Czekanowski, Mydlarski, and others, among eastern
European brachycephals, and even among western European Alpines,
we must remember that some of the Lappish peculiarities, including
perhaps their specialized nasal tip form, may have been common posses-
sions of the Upper Palaeolithic European peoples as well. As we shall see
later, there may have been transitional forms between Lapps and Euro-
peans, and this general class of humanity may be responsible for the wide-
eyed brachycephals who, as we saw in our historical chapters, appeared
now and then in southern Russia and Poland from the beginning of the
Neolithic onward.
(3) THE SAMOYEDS26
In the eastern extension of their territory the Lapps share the Kola
Peninsula with their neighbors and fellow reindeer-herders, the Samoyeds.
The Lapps represent, however, a much older population, for the Samoyeds
have only lived there for a few centuries. There are, according to Russian
authorities, only V>,500 Samoyeds in the world; of these 4000 live on the
Kola Peninsula, another 5000 range between the White Sea and the
mouth of the Yenisei River, and the rest hunt between the Obi and
Yenisei rivers, and in the Yenisei drainage. Thus the bulk of the Sam-
oyeds still inhabit their Siberian home. All of those mentioned speak a
language which constitutes one of the two primary divisions of Uralic
speech. It seems to be definitely related to Finno-Ugrian, although its
supposed kinship to Tungus, Mongol, and Turkish has been questioned.
Other Samoyeds, who have been Turkicized in language, and to a large
extent in manner of living, dwell in southern Siberia, in the provinces of
Yeniseisk, Tomsk, and Irkutsk, and also in Mongolia. These go under
the names of Soyots, Karagas, and Uriankhai; they are more numerous
than the Samoyeds proper. Whatever their earlier history, the Samoyeds,
without reasonable doubt, may be considered to have developed as an
ethnic and linguistic group in the region north of the Altai Mountains,
the general center of Altaic-speaking Mongoloids.26 Their spread north-
ward into Siberia and thence to the Arctic rim of Europe must have been
a relatively recent phenomenon.
In . central Asia the Turkicized Samoyeds are definitely and fully
mongoloid, and belong to the Buryat-Mongol variety, which we have
encountered historically among the Avars. Those who live in Europe have
brought the same physical type with them with but little modification.
26 Non-anthropometric data mostly from Jochelson, W., Peoples of Asiatic Russia; and
from Les Voyages du Professeur Pallas.
26 Professor G. J. Ramstedt of Helsingfors University has expressed the opinion that
the original bearers of Samoyedic speech must at one time have moved to the Altai
region from a point nearer the Finno-Ugrian homeland. — Private Communication.
THE NORTH 307
Cranially they resemble the Lapps in vault size and dimensions,27 but the
Samoyed facial skeleton is wider and larger, with a more nearly mon-
goloid development of the malars.
Our material on the living is sufficient in numbers and detail to permit
a confirmation of this mongoloid character.28 The stature, with a mean
of 154 cm. in 1887, had risen to 156.8 cm. in 1914, providing that the
same groups were represented. Like the Lapps, the Samoyeds are short,
and like them relatively long bodied. They are brachycephalic, but not
to the extent attained by the western Lapps in Norway; they are eury-
prosopic and mesorrhine.
Although the mongoloid character of the Samoyed may easily be seen
in their flattish, round faces, everted lips, and up-tilted, low-bridged nose,
and in their scarcity of beard, one cannot call them purely or completely
mongoloid. Photographs of Samoyeds 29 show a considerable number
with partially European features. Sommier's data on hair and eye color,
again, shows some thirty per cent with mixed or light eyes, and the same
number with hair ranging from medium brown to blond. As with the
Lapps, the women are notably darker in hair and eye color than the men.
This pigmentation variability, in view of the sex linkage, would indicate
that the Samoyeds as well as the Lapps, but in lesser degree, had been
subjected to mixture with peoples of European racial character. This
mixture may be explained in several ways: (a) by the retention of an
early non-mongoloid condition derived from ancient Uralic-speaking
ancestors; (b) by contact with central Asiatic Nordics before the depar-
ture of the Samoyeds for Europe; (c) by mixture with Ugrians, Finns,
Slavs, and others in western Siberia and northern Russia.
(4) SCANDINAVIA; NORWAY
The northern zone of Europe which we have chosen as the subject of
our first regional chapter is in reality two zones; besides the northern-
most, which runs closely around the Arctic rim, is a second, that of Scan-
dinavia and the lands to the east of the Baltic. Here food production is
possible, and the effect of environment does not necessarily take the form
of infantilism and stunting. In contrast to the first, this second zone is
occupied by large, typically European groups of people.
27 Schreiner, K. E., %ur Osteologie der Lappen, pp. 280-281.
Sommier, S., APA, vol. 17, 1887, pp. 71-222.
Klimek, S., ibid., vol. 59, 1929, pp. 13-31.
^Roudenko, S. I., BMSA, set. 6, vol. 5; 1914, pp. 123-143.
Sommier, loc. cit.
Zograf, N, J., AAM, 1879, vol. 2, pp. 61-87. From resum6 by Stieda, AFA, vol. 14,
1883, p. 291.
29 Peabody Museum Collection. Courtesy of the Institute of Northern Peoples,
Leningrad.
308 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Norway occupies the poorer and more rugged half of the Scandinavian
Peninsula. The mountain crest which separates it from Sweden runs to
the west of a central line, and swings to the northeast in such a way as to
give to Norway the northernmost part; so that much of Norway, and rela-
tively little of Sweden, lies within the Arctic circle. Deep fjords along
most of the Norwegian coast cut far into the land, in some cases nearly
bisecting the kingdom. A large proportion of the country is mountainous,
but aside from the central spine, only one range deserves mention here —
that of the Dovre Mountains, which separates M0re and Tr^ndelagen
on the north from Opland and Hedmark on the south. Only in the long,
eastern valleys such as 0sterdal and Gudbrandsdal, and on the plain of
Oslofjord, are large unbroken stretches of reasonably flat farm lands to
be found.
The topography of Norway, as outlined above, is important in its effect
upon the present distribution of its peoples. While Sweden, a lake-
studded plain sloping gently from the western mountain barrier to the
Baltic, is inhabited by a regionally uniform population, Norway, with its
rugged fjords and deeply folded valleys, provides shelter and differentia-
tion room to a number of local types. Norway's geography, in combina-
tion with her climatic and cultural history, makes her one of the most
marginal areas, in a racial sense, in Europe. Yet, despite her marginal
character, Norway has played an important part in European racial his-
tory, since this nation has been a source of emigration to Iceland, to
Normandy, and to the British Isles. Hence it has had much to do with
the modern settlement of the New World, which Norwegians discovered.
The physical types of many British and Americans may be traced directly
to a Norwegian origin.
The racial history of Norway has been covered, insofar as we know it,
in the preceding chapters. The northern coastal regions had a very late
age of chipped stone, and an even later Neolithic. Food-producing peoples
were few in Norway before the Middle and Late Bronze Ages, and
not until the Iron Age and the full Viking period was this country fully
inhabited. The greatest pre-Iron Age concentration was along the south-
western coast. Nordland, Troms, and Finnmark were explored during
the pre-Christian Viking period; Troms and Finnmark were abandoned
during the Middle Ages and only resettled from the sixteenth century
onward. Our skeletal material, wholly Iron Age in date, shows a medley
of normal Iron Age Nordic crania with Borreby brachycephals and other
skulls which could be fitted without difficulty into a dolichocephalic
Upper Palaeolithic category. That the Norwegian climate has not
exerted a size-reducing tendency such as that which somewhere modi-
fied the ancestors of Lapps, is therefore shown by the survival of
THE NORTH 309
what appear to be full-sized Ice-Age cranial types into the present millen-
nium.
The study of living Norwegians has been carried on with excep-
tional competence by three modern investigators — Halfdan Bryn, K. E.
Schreiner, and Mme. Alette Schreiner. The monumental Somatologie der
Norweger^ by the first two named, supplemented by the regional studies
of the first and third,31 continue the earlier work of Arbo, Helland, Larsen,
and the Daaes,32 and present us with a body of accurate and objectively
interpreted anthropometric data unsurpassed elsewhere.
The Norwegians, as a whole, are tall by absolute standards, and blond,
with moderate body proportions which include relatively long legs and
short arms. Most of them are mesocephalic, with meso- to leptoprosopic
faces, and their noses are usually leptorrhine. Regional variations in
Norway are relatively great for Scandinavia, but are no greater than those
found in many European countries. Except for the far North, local
stature means run from about 168 to 175 cm., while the cephalic index
varies by parishes between the extreme means of 76 and 84. In hair and
eye color, blonds and mixed forms are everywhere more numerous than
brunets; dark eyes, for example, never reach the figure of 20 per cent.
Within these relatively restricted ranges there is a definite pattern of
regional distribution, and there are four definite areas, each of which has
its own racial peculiarities. These four areas are, (1) Eastern Norway,
(2) Western Norway, (3) North-central Norway, (4) the Far North.33
Eastern Norway consists of the seven following provinces: Hedmark,
Akershus, Ostfold, Vestfold, Opland, Buskerud, and Oslo. This section of
the country, which includes the Oslofjord region and the long valleys
which run towards the Dovre Mountains, forms a definite ethnic unit,
within which much internal movement takes place between valleys and
provinces, and much migration from the country districts to the city of
Oslo. It has, however, but little to do with other parts of Norway, which
are isolated from it by a number of barriers. The population of this eastern
section is relatively uniform, both locally and as a whole.
Although there seems to be an almost completely submerged brachy-
cephalic element along the coast, this is not very much in evidence, for
the main racial type of eastern Norway is a regular Halstatt Iron Age
80 Bryn, H., and Schreiner, K. E., Somatologie der Norweger.
81 Bryn, H., Homo Caesius; Bryn, H., AAnz, vol. 9, 1932, #2, pp. 141-164, and earlier
works.
Schreiner, Alette, Die Nord-Norweger; Anthropologische Lokaluntersuchungen in Norge;
Voile, Hdlandsdaly und Eidfjord.
32 For bibliography of these authors, see Bryn and Schreiner, pp. 607-608.
33 Unless otherwise designated, the following pages are based upon Bryn and
Schreiner.
310 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Nordic. This type, although predominant throughout the region, seems
to be especially concentrated in the five valleys of 0sterdal, Gudbrandsdal,
Valders, Hallingdal, and Numendal, forming parts of the three provinces
of Hedmark, Opland, and Buskerud. Here, in a region almost unoccu-
pied before the Iron Age, Bryn 34 believes to have found a refuge area of
the classic Nordic race, with less admixture of other stocks than is the case
elsewhere in Norway, or for that matter, in Europe. Hence his specifica-
tions, both metrical and morphological, may serve as a standard of future
comparison for use in the study of less typically Nordic populations.
Army recruits from this region serve as a basis of study, while a series
of farmers of old, indigenous ancestry forms a check series which repre-
sents the original Iron Age population with a minimum of more recent
admixture. These people must be considered tall, since the men attain
in adult life the mean height of 172 cm., but from the Norwegian stand-
point this stature is not unusual. In bodily proportions this type is rela-
tively long legged and short bodied, moderately broad shouldered, and
relatively short armed. The bones are typically small and fine, and the
general musculature tends to leanness, while corpulence is very rare. On
the whole the impression is given that the muscles lie close under the skin,
and stand out in clear relief. A predominantly leptosome constitutional
type seems to be characteristic.
The mean vault dimensions of the recruits from these valleys are:
length, 195 mm., breadth, 149 mm., and auricular height, 126 mm., with
a cephalic index of 76.8. The native farmers are even longer headed, with
a mean index of 75.5. Since these indices reflect figures of 73-75 on the
skull, it may be readily seen that the original Iron Age Nordic vault form
has been transferred to eastern Norway with little or no modification.
Frontal and bigonial diameters average 105 mm., while the bizygomatic
mean is 135 mm. The face height, given by Bryn as 122 mm.,35 is only
moderately long. The nasal dimensions, of 55 or 56 mm. by 33.8, produce
an index of 60 or 6 1.36
Ash-blond hair is typical of one-half of the native farmers, the rest
having light brown and brown shades; only four per cent have hair that
is black or dark brown. The rufous tinges of hair color are especially rare.
Among the recruits, unselected as to provenience of ancestry, dark hair
is twice as common, and the ash-blond shades are found in only one-third
of the group. Thus we may, from this material, specify that the typical
84 Bryn, H., AAnz, 1932; also Homo Caesius.
86 It seems likely that Bryn located nasion a little lower than did A. Schreiner, judging
by comparisons elsewhere. It is also likely that this mean should be nearer 125 or 126
mm.
36 Here again I feel that Bryn's mean nose height of 54.7 mm. is a little too low, and
that his nasal index of 61.8 is somewhat high.
THE NORTH 311
hair color of the living examples of the Iron Age Nordic race ranges from
a medium brown to an ash-blond, with a minimum of rufosity, and a
small brunet minority.
The hair form most prevalent in Norway is a low waviness. Although
low waves are characteristic of the southeastern valley country as well as
of other regions, there is, nevertheless, a higher ratio of straight hair among
this long-headed population than in other parts of Norway. Although the
ratio is only 30 per cent, as against 66 per cent for the low- waved variety,
yet these figures are so at variance with those for the rest of the kingdom
that one may specify the hair form of this type as low-waved to straight.
The beard is of but moderate abundance, although it increases consid-
erably with age, and the body not especially hairy.
In eye color as in hair color, the native farmers are lighter than the
recruits, with 86.5 per cent of light and light-mixed eyes (Martin #12-16)
as against 76 per cent. Of the recruits, 38.5 per cent have pure light eyes
(Martin #15-16). This is by no means the lightest-eyed region in Norway.
This material shows us what had been previously suspected, that the
Nordic eye must be considered light mixed in typical form, rather than
pure light. According to Bryn the commonest form of unpigmented eye
found in this region is a light blue one, with large meshes and iris fibers
set quite far apart, so that the iris pattern appears open.
The skin color in this area, as in most of Norway, is almost invariably a
pinkish white (von Luschan #3). This skin is of a fine texture; according
to Bryn it is soft and easily punctured by a hypodermic needle. Owing
to this thinness and the delicate quality of the skin, the cartilaginous and
osseous structure of the face is often clearly discernible beneath it.
The forehead of this type is for the most part sloping, forming a profile
line parallel to that of the nose. It is medium to narrow in breadth, and,
in comparison to other Norwegian types, relatively flat in both planes.
The browridges are usually present, but are weakly developed, and the
depression of the nasal root moderate. The nose may be described as thin,
steep-walled, and high-bridged. In profile, it is for the most part straight
or slightly convex, with a high incidence of wavy forms, and there is
usually a noticeable transition between the bony and cartilaginous por-
tions. Owing to the thinness of the skin, the line of suture between the
two nasal bones may frequently be observed. The tip of the nose is thin,
and for the most part raised slightly above the horizontal plane. The
nasal wings are compressed, and the nostrils form long ovals, set at a very
acute angle from one another. These nostrils are visible from the side,
and slightly visible from in front.
The bony orbit of the eye is rather high, and the eye normally quite
wide open, with the upper lid reaching down over the upper quadrant of
312 THE RACES OF EUROPE
the iris, and the lower lid touching its rim. The eye slits themselves are
horizontal, and are often partially covered, especially in old age, by a
fold which hangs from the outer corner of the upper orbit.
The eyebrows are thin, somewhat bowed, and seldom concurrent over
the nasal bridge. The malars, small in size, are typically flattened in front.
The zygomatic arches, however, are often bowed outward enough to give
the face a pentagonoid appearance. This appearance is due to the flat-
ness of the temples and the thinness of the soft parts of the arches, rather
than to their skeletal prominence.
The cheeks are in most cases thin, and the lower jaw long and deep,
curving in front to a well-developed chin, with the gonial angles com-
pressed and usually not visible. One of the outstanding features of this
type, and of the Nordic race as a whole, is the great distance between
the borders of the lower teeth and the point of the chin. The total im-
pression of the face is that of a long, narrowish oval, often slightly rhom-
boid, with prominent bony portions when seen in profile. The lips are
usually thin, the mouth rather small, and the nasal sills well developed.
The cranium itself is a long oval when seen from above, with almost
parallel sides, and a marked transition from the frontal to the temporal
bones. The greatest breadth is located as often in front of the center as
behind it. Seen from the front, the cranium looks steep or parallel sided,
and arched or vaulted on top. From the side, the contour of the head
sweeps flatly back from a somewhat retreating forehead to a curved or
projecting occiput. The highest point of the head is over the ears, and
there is no pronounced tendency for either the forward or rear portion of
the head to be higher than the other. Judging by gross bulk measure-
ments the heads of individuals of this type may not be classed as large,
nor high; their principal character is narrowness, a feature which con-
tinues down to the face, and also to the nose.
Although this distinctive type is today most concentrated in the long
valleys of southeastern Norway, it is by no means confined to that region.
It is found all over Norway in greater or lesser solution, as is to be ex-
pected, since it is the racial type of the invaders who brought Iron Age
civilization to Scandinavia. Besides this clearly differentiated Nordic
type, there seem, however, to be various submerged minority elements in
the eastern Norwegian population which are not limited to any one dis-
trict, but are diffuse throughout. One is a shorter, somewhat darker and
less dolichocephalic element which may in part represent an aboriginal
coastal population, but which may, to a greater extent, consist rather of
racial elements brought from central Europe in solution by the Iron Age
Nordic invaders. Some of it, again, is undoubtedly descended from the
thrall population brought from many parts of western Europe by the
THE NORTH 313
Vikings. The fact that it is shorter, darker, and less dolichocephalic than
the more clearly designated Nordic type does not mean that it is very
short, very round headed, or very dark.
Besides this submerged element, or medley of elements, which is ex-
tremely difficult to isolate, there is a third type, characterized especially
by a broad face and a broad mandible, which may be attributed without
question to recent Finnish influence. Finns settled here in the Grue
district of Hedmark some 300 years ago, and have since been largely as-
similated to Norwegian nationality and absorbed into the Norwegian
population. Very few members of this colony still speak Finnish, or
identify themselves as Finns.
On the whole, despite these influences, the eastern provinces of Norway
form, apart perhaps from Sweden, the most characteristic concentration
area of the central Nordic racial form in the world. This residual enclave
is directly descended from the Iron Age Nordic population which once
occupied an immense area on the plains of central and eastern Europe
and western Siberia, and which elsewhere has been replaced, altered, or
absorbed.
Western Norway, the next section under consideration, includes the
provinces of Telemark, Aust-Agder,. Vest-Agder, Rogaland, Hordaland,
Sogn og-Fjordane, Bergen, and M0re. Within these provinces there are,
in contrast to those farther east, considerable local differences; as a rule,
many round-headed peoples live along the coast, while rnesocephals pre-
dominate in the inland valleys.
In the province of Rogaland the brachycephalic element reaches its
maximum and here, in fact, is located its center of greatest concentration
in all Norway. The inner nucleus of this brachycephalic area is Jaeren,37
a flat coastal plain, locally uniform in race, but regionally distinct. Here
alone, in all of Norway, occur natural deposits of flint, and for this reason
Jaeren must have been an important source of implement material for
both Mesolithic and Neolithic peoples. On the plain the pre-Iron Age
population must have been particularly dense.
In Jaeren, Arbo found 82 per cent of brachycephals,88 a ratio as high
as that usual in southern Germany, and a mean cephalic index of 83.2.
The three other districts of Rogaland, by comparison, have mean indices
of 81-82. The Jaeren people form, as a whole, a very definite and easily
observed type which has been most fully described by Larsen.39 This type
is most concentrated in the parishes of Haaland, H^iland, Klepp, and
37 Bryn and Schreiner, pp. 431-449. Arbo's and other previous studies are covered in
this section.
88 Arbo, using the Broca system of parti tionment, included all indices of 80,1 and
over, pooling Broca's sub-brachycephalic and brachycephalic classes.
89 Larsen, C. F., Om Jaedertypen.
314 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Time. It has a large cranial vault of medium height, very broad, and of
considerable length. Individual cephalic indices go as high as 90 or more,
but the mode for the type as a whole is 84. The occiput, nearly vertical,
often shows a slight degree of flattening. The temporal bones are weakly
curved, but the parietal tuberosities are strong. The forehead is broad,
only slightly curved, and quite high, and usually of but little slope. The
browridges are, on the whole, of moderate size. The head exhibits from
above a roundish, oval form; it is not an evolved planoccipital skull, al-
though individual crania have a tendency in this direction. The face is
notable for its breadth, both between the zygomata and in the mandible,
which is frequently heavy and deep. The nasal profile is usually straight,
but in one case out of six it is concave. The chin is pronounced, and some-
times pointed. Together, the face and head give an impression of square-
ness, owing to the prominence of frontal and parietal tuberosities, and to
the breadth of the face and jaw.
In pigmentation, these brachycephals are slightly less fair than the
few dolichocephals found in the same region, but they are still predom-
inantly blond. Eighty-one per cent have blue eyes, and only 3 per cent
brown. Most of the hair is either light or medium brown; only 30 per
cent have dark brown hair, and less than 2 per cent black.
Correlations within the Rogaland population prove little. The few
dolichocephals jare very little taller than the brachycephals, who are as
tall as the eastern Norwegian Nordics, with a mean of 172 cm. Red hair
and brown hair are associated with the highest cephalic index level, and
the round-heads tend to have longer and heavier bodies, and broader and
heavier faces, than the long heads. That the brachycephalic type in
Jaeren is basically of light- mixed pigmentation is made especially clear
by the fact that what few brunets there are in Rogaland run taller, longer-
headed, and finer-nosed than the population as a whole. The Jaeren
brachycephals, therefore, are not short and dark as often stated,40 but arc
tall and predominantly light-mixed people with large heads. There is
no question here of a short, dark, brachycephalic population having been
absorbed into a Nordic body, since the brachycephalic group in Jaeren
is numerically the principal one.
In Hordaland, north of Rogaland, one finds a continuation of the same
contrast between coast and inland valleys which occurs farther south.
The brachycephaly of Jaeren, which extends southwards into the two
Agders, also stretches northward in an attenuated form into Mid-Horda-
land, where it is gradually submerged in the mesocephalic population.
40 Arbo, to whom this statement has often been attributed, stated merely that the
Jaeren brachycephals were shorter and more brunet than their long-headed brethren.
The differences are actually very slight.
THE NORTH 315
Secondary nuclei of brachycephaly occur sporadically farther north,
notably in Sunnfjord on the northern bank of the great Sogn fjord, and in
the coastal districts and islands of M0re.
So great has been the interest in the coastal brachycephals of western
Norway that the equal importance of the mesocephalic population living
more typically in the inland valleys and mountains of this part of the
country has been somewhat obscured. On the basis of the cephalic index
alone, it would be easy to dismiss them as a transitional form between the
Iron Age Nordics of the east and the Borreby type brachycephals of the
coast, but a number of considerations make this disposal impossible. The
western Norwegian mesocephals are taller, blonder, and larger headed
than either of the two types mentioned. In these and in other respects,
they form a special population of their own.
In many districts of these provinces mean recruit statures of 175 cm.
have been recorded, with a record mean of 178 cm. in the Voss district
of Hordaland. The cephalic index of 78 or 79, which is so constant here,
is not a composite of dolichocephals and brachycephals, but represents a
truly mesocephalic condition.
Mme. Schreincr, in order to study this special group in greater detail
than the recruit material permits, selected the high mountain district of
Valle in Setesdal, in the northern part of Aust-Agder; and also two iso-
lated districts of Hordaland, Halandsdal and Eidfjord.41 Of these three,
Valle yielded the largest series, and the most extreme local form of the
population under consideration. This site was especially chosen because
it is probably the most secluded, most conservative place in all Norway;
its inhabitants are still living in many respects in the saga period, and
mingle little with outsiders.
Valle was first settled in the second and third centuries of the present
era, while a second wave of colonists arrived in the ninth. Since the dia-
lect spoken in Valle is purely west Norwegian, we may assume that the
present inhabitants represent a survival of that segment of the coastal
population which, during the first millennium, forsook the shore for the
mountains behind it.
In body measurements the Valle people are large, although the mean
stature of 174.7 cm. for one hundred adult males is not the greatest in this
region. The women, with a mean of 160.0 cm., are much smaller. The
sex difference in height, as in many other features, is particularly great
here, and much greater than in Norway as a whole; it totals 14.1 cm. in
Valle, as against 10.0 cm. in the entire country. The Valle people are, as a
rule, heavy boned, and like the rest of the population of which they are a
part, longer and heavier bodied than members of the eastern Nordic type.
41 Schreiner, A , Valle ^ Halandsdal, und Eidfjard,
316 THE RACES OF EUROPE
The mean head length of the Valle males reaches the extreme figure of
198 mm., considerably longer than that of the dolichocephalic eastern
Norwegian Nordics; the breadth, 154.9 mm., is as great as that among
many brachycephals, although in this case, in view of the exceptional
head size, the resultant cephalic index mean is only 78.9. A mean head
height of 125 mm. is, however, moderate. The face is large, with a mean
nasion-menton height of 128.3 mm., and a bizygomatic breadth of
142.9 mm. The forehead and jaw are broader, likewise, than in most of
Norway, with means of 106.6 and 109.2 mm.
By and large, the morphological observations bear out the impression
of robusticity shown by the measurements; the forehead is often quite
sloping, the browridges frequently heavy, the faces angular, the jaws firm
and deep. In keeping with the cultural recessiveness of Valle, the palate
and dental regions are large and primitive, in a mediaeval or Iron Age
sense. The pigmentation is exclusively light or light mixed, for in Mme.
Schreiner *s sample which included one-fourth of the total population, not
a single brown eye nor head of black or dark brown hair was discovered.
Among the men, 90 per cent of pure and nearly pure light eyes were found,
with but 3 per cent dark mixed; among the women, as is frequently the
case elsewhere, the light-eyed category is smaller than that of the men by a
full 10 per cent. In hair color the Valle males show 40 per cent of ash-
blond, an equal number of various shades of brown, and the remaining
20 per cent of light golden blonds.
Mme. Schreiner, as well as Arbo thirty years earlier, considered that the
Valle people represent a retarded sample of the Viking population which
lived in western Norway a thousand years ago, and this conclusion is based
on geographical and ethnological as much as on racial grounds. If this be
true, and there seems little reason to dispute it, then we may at last have
found the living counterparts of the Iron Age crania which might, in many
respects, have been those of Upper Palaeolithic men. Historically we
know that from the Neolithic onward no racial types could have entered
this region except for a pre-Iron Age Borreby-Megalithic-Corded blend,
and, later, the Iron Age Nordic race which we have already seen in the
provinces to the east. Both Arbo and Mme. Schreiner detected a minor
element in the Valle population which was smaller and finer boned, and
which was presumably Nordic in the Iron Age sense.
The third section of Norway, usually designated as a racial center, is
the north central group of three provinces, M0re, South Tr^ndelag, and
North Tr^ndelag, with especial emphasis upon the two latter. The two
Tr0ndelags include several great valleys: Namdal, Orkdal, Meldal,
Galdal, and Tydal, and a number of large islands as well. To the south-
east, this region is effectively blocked from contact with eastern Norway
THE NORTH 317
by the Dovre Mountains. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries,
this was the most populous and most important part of Norway, in which
was located Nidaros, the capital of the Norse kings. This region was a
center of Norwegian aristocracy, and a base for extensive Viking expedi-
tions. As a result of these voyages, the whole Trondhjem region must
have received a relatively large influx of foreign slaves and thralls, while
in some of the valleys, Saxons and Bohemians were especially imported as
skilled laborers. Tyrker, the famous Rhineland German who discovered
the grapes on Vinland and made the New World's first wine, was probably
one of these immigrants.
The modern population of the Tr^ndelag region is notable in that it
exceeds the rest of Norway in a number of important features. One is in
stature, for the tallest provincial means are found here; another is in the
height of the cranial vault, which reaches a mean of 128 mm.; a third is
in the percentage of blue eyes, for this is the lightest-eyed region of Norway.
The hair, by contrast, is by no means the blondest, but there are significant
deficiencies of ash-blond, and excesses of golden and of brown. This type
is also characterized by a considerable face length, with narrower bizy-
gomatic and bigonial diameters than are found in Norway as a whole.
The type which possesses the characters enumerated above is especially
concentrated in South Trjzfndelag, and most strongly in the valley of
Orkdal. The other districts of the two Tr0ndelags show a tendency for
this special Nordic type to blend into the mesocephalic western form which
reaches its culmination in Valle.
Bryn has compared the Tr0ndelagen people in observations with the
eastern Norwegian Nordics, and his contrast here is as valid in most re-
spects for the western Norwegian mesocephals as for the Tr0ndelagen
people themselves, since the latter two are morphologically much alike.
The Trj^ndelagen population has the same proportion of dark hair as is
found in the eastern Norwegian valleys; but differs from the classic Nordic
type in a low ratio of ash-blond (26 per cent) and a correspondingly high
proportion of golden and brown. The hair form in Tr^ndelagen is usually
wavy; it is coarser, and more abundant on beard and body.
Although the Trjzfndelagens are the two lightest-eyed provinces in
Norway, their commonest iris type is very light mixed (Martin 13-14)
rather than pure blue. According to Bryn, the typical Tr0nder iris is
close grained and opaque, for the fibers are dense and closely imbricated.
Bryn contrasts this iris type with that of eastern Norway. The skin, while
as light in color as that of the eastern Nordics, is coarser in texture and
much tougher. As a result of this density of the integument, the bony and
cartilaginous parts of the face do not stand out in fine relief.
The forehead of the special Tr^nder type is higher, broader, and much
318 THE RACES OF EUROPE
less sloping, and the profiles of the forehead and nose are not parallel, but
form a distinct broken angle. Frontal bosses, which do not appear in the
Eastern Valley type, are frequently found, and the temporal region is
fuller. The transitions from frontal to temporal and frontal to parietal
regions are smooth and difficult to find, whereas with the eastern type
they are clearly marked. The nose of the Tr0nder type, while equally high
or higher, is typically straight or convex, with many wavy or undulating
profile forms. The side walls are less steep, and the transition from bone
to cartilage difficult to find without palpation. The tip is somewhat
thicker, especially in old age, and the wings less compressed.
On the other hand, the zygomatic arches are less prominent than those
of the eastern type. Not only are they somewhat more compressed, but,
at the same time, the temporal region above them is broader and fuller,
so that the lateral profile of the face falls usually in an unbroken sweep from
the side of the head to the lower jaw line. As with the Eastern Valley type,
the gonial angles are not noticeable. The cranium as a whole is shorter,
higher, and more rounded, and the occiput less prominently curved. On
the whole, the impression is given of a better filled, more rounded, and
less angular head and face. If one leaves in the description of hair and
integument, and adds a prominence of zygomata and of mandible, this
description will apply to the other end type of the tall, mesocephalic
population of western and central Norway, that of Valle.
In reviewing the data on the coastal and mountain population of western
and north central Norway, from Aust-Agder to North Trjzfndelagen, we
find ample evidence of the major survival of a pre-Iron Age population.
Within this population at least three elements are seen.
(a) A tall, heavily built, large-headed type, with a stature of about
170-172 cm.; the cephalic index is about 84, which would correspond to
82 on the dry cranium; the face is broad, the jaw broad and heavy, the
occiput often flattish, the skull square in appearance more frequently than
round; the pigmentation is partly but not extremely blond, with light-
mixed eyes, and hair which is medium brown to light brown on the golden
side in the majority of cases.
(b) An extremely tall, somewhat slenderer type, with a stature of
174 crn.; mesocephalic, with a more moderate head size in length and
breadth diameters, but with a vault attaining 128-130 mm, in auricular
height, which is very great for living races; a long face, narrower in bi-
zygomatic and bigonial widths than (a), and as narrow in these respects
as that of Iron Age Nordics; heavier, with craggier facial features and
thicker, coarser soft part anatomy than the Iron Age Nordics, in this re-
spect approximating type (a); characterized in pigmentation by almost a
totality of very light-mixed eyes, especially of the blue variety with a
THE NORTH 319
minimum of yellow and brown spotting; and by a brown or golden-brown
to golden hair color range.
(c) A type which in reference to (b) is equally tall, equally meso-
cephalic, but lower-vaulted and larger in length and breadth dimensions
of the vault; equally long-faced, but wide in both malar and gonial diam-
eters, heavy-jawed, large faced; similar in pigment characters to (b), but
not, in all regions, equally blond; large-bodied, rugged, and large-boned,
with a great sex difference in stature.
In all three of these, the later Iron Age Nordic element has blended.
Despite this influence, type (a) in its concentrated form, as at Jaeren,
seems to have reemerged as what appears to be a faithful replica of the
Borreby race in its various forms, while (b), a blend of Corded with (a)
and with elements of glacial age, forms a special and very characteristic
and historically important Nordic sub-type. In both (a) and (b) the
Borreby element, which entered Norway from Denmark during the Neo-
lithic, is probably more important than the local post-glacial race of
Palaeolithic tradition, remnants of which are probably masked in both,
but appear in strongest solution in (c) . Individuals of type (c) may well
recapitulate, in most essential features, Upper Palaeolithic Western
European man.
In any case, the deviation of the western and north-central Norwegians
from the standard eastern Norwegian form is indicative of the absorption
of the latter by pre-food-producing Scandinavian strains, as well as by
pre-Iron Age Corded blood. The oft-stated and overemphasized resem-
blance between the western Norwegians and central European Alpines
reflects merely the common origin in the glacial period of Borreby and
Alpine ancestors. The Alpines, however, have undergone modifications
involving size reduction below the earlier form, while the Norwegian sur-
vivors have retained their ancestral dimensions.
For the purposes of classification, I, propose to lump the types (b) and
(c) together, using Bryn's name of Tr^nder type, to designate all tall,
coarsely built, mesocephalic blonds who show a predominance of Corded
and Upper Palaeolithic elements, in contrast to the classic, finer Nordic
type. This lumping may be justified by the supposition that (b) and (c)
form but local end types of a larger population in which both are present
but less distinct.
The fourth Norwegian area which merits separate consideration is the
Far North, including the provinces of Nordland, Troms, and Finnmark.
In this region it is not the description and identification of a special type,
but the interactions of several different ethnic elements, and their reactions
to a rigorous environment, which are important. These elements are the
Lapps, whom we have already discussed; the Kvaens, who are Finlanders
320 THE RACES OF EUROPE
of late arrival and who will be discussed in a later section of this chapter;
and the Norwegians, most of whom are recent immigrants from other
parts of the kingdom.
At the beginning of the Norwegian historical period, HlUogaland, which
included Nordland and the southern part of Troms up to Malangenfjord,
was thickly settled with Norwegians who lived along the coast and es-
pecially on the islands, and whose ancestors had come up in open boats in
order to carry on fishing. These prehistoric settlers came from Tr^ndelag,
M0re, and also from more southerly parts of the country. In the ninth
century, at the latest, Norwegians from HMogaland sailed farther north
to hunt walrus and to exchange goods with the Lapps. A number of them
settled, and in the thirteenth century the whole coast of Finnmark had a
scattered Norwegian population. In the sixteenth century, Finnmark con-
tained at least 6000 Norwegians.
For the next three hundred years the Bergen merchants held a trade
monopoly which prevented private enterprise, and destroyed the incentive
for northward migration. Many of the earlier settlers returned southward,
leaving a shortage of workers. In consequence of this, King Christian V
sent a mixed company of thieves, prostitutes, and other undesirables to
the north country from southern Norway and from Denmark, in order to
reenforce the population of the fishing villages. In 1815, however, Nor-
wegians began coming north in large numbers, most of them from the
southern part of the kingdom. Up until the eighteenth century, fishing
and trade were almost the only occupations, but about that time agricul-
ture was begun in the broad valleys of Nordland and Troms, and, under
the influence of the newer settlers from the south, it became an important
economic factor.
During the fifty years which elapsed between 1869 and 1920, the popu-
lation of the north country grew from fifty to ninety-eight thousand. That
of Nordland increased 88 per cent, of Troms 92 per cent, and of Finnmark
102 per cent. The bulk of this increase was caused by the influx of Nor-
wegians. In 1920 Norwegians or people who considered themselves Nor-
wegians constituted 99 per cent of the population in Nordland, 89 per cent
in Troms, and 61 per cent in Finnmark. Since these figures include,
especially in Troms and Finnmark, a number of mixtures between Norwe-
gians and Lapps, Kvaens, and both, the Norwegian population of these
provinces deviates from the means of the kingdom in several respects,
especially in a lowering of stature and a heightening of the cephalic index.
Kvaen influence may be detected most clearly in an excessive breadth of
face and mandible.
Norwegians of pure descent from immigrants born in the south-eastern
provinces have retained their original stature and head form, as well as
THE NORTH 321
their high incidence of ash-blond hair, but they have been modified
through an increased bigonial breadth and a decreased minimum frontal
diameter. Mme. Schreiner, who has studied with great diligence a large
series of North Norwegians of all ancestries, suggests that this condition
may be a result of environmental influences which have caused a thicken-
ing of the tympanic plate and the development of a palatal torus among
most circumpolar peoples, including such varied groups as Eskimos,
Lapps, and Icelanders.42
In studying the racial characters of the Norwegian people we have
made use of a body of well-documented material, unique in Europe. By
means of it we have been able to reconstruct a probable scheme of Nor-
wegian racial history. There is one further source, however, which should
not be overlooked, and that is the large corpus of Norse mythology and
oral history. This source should not, as is commonly the case with folklore,
be relegated to the ash-heap of what the scientist is wont to call mere litera-
ture, since a careful study of the social attitudes, descriptions, and events
so well recorded in the saga material shows that these documents agree
with and supplement the findings of archaeology and of physical anthro-
pology. Two sources which, in this regard are of especial value are the
Rigsthula lay of the Poetic Eddaf* and the historical work of Snorre
Sturlason,44 a prominent political and scholastic figure in twelfth century
Iceland.45
According to the Rigsthula, the social classes of the Norse people were
begotten in a mythical and rather simple way. The early god Heimdal
travelled about his domain in disguise, making use of the assumed name
Rig. In this capacity he had sexual relations with three women, each of
whom bore him children. The first woman gave birth to a brood of short,
dark, and ugly offspring, who became thralls, and were relegated to
agricultural toil and unskilled manual labor. The second produced the
carls, large, healthy, red-faced, red-haired men, with big muscles, who
became smiths and craftsmen, who performed skilled tasks, ,and who
were also, in many cases, small land owners. The third woman was de-
livered of the jarls, the aristocrats, tall, lean men with blond hair and hard,
cold, snake-like eyes, who fought and practiced the use of weapons, hunted,
played games, and did no work.
The poet who described so vividly these three classes in the Norse popu-
lation has given us a priceless picture of the people of Scandinavia during
42 Hooton, E. A., AJPA, vol. 1, 1918, pp. 53-76.
Schreiner, A., Die Nord-Norweger.
Schreiner, K. E., £ur Osteologie der Lappen^ vol. 1, pp. 161-177.
43 Bellows, H. A., Poetic Edda (translation), pp. 201-216.
44 Sturlason, Snorre, Heimskringla, edited by Erling Mousen, see esp. pp. 1-12.
15 See also in this respect, Shetelig, Falk, and Gordon, Scandinavian Archaeology.
322 THE RAGES OF EUROPE
the pre-Christian Iron Age, as he saw them. The thralls, landless serfs,
were, in part, prisoners brought to Scandinavia by the Norse seafarers, but
this explanation cannot apply to the thrall class as a whole. A three class
system was an old Nordic institution, common to most Indo-European-
speaking peoples, and it is unlikely that the Iron Age invaders from
central Europe had entered Scandinavia without their henchmen. Part,
at least, of the thrall class must be considered the descendants of Danubi-
ans, Binaries, and Alpines who were imported by their more aristocratic
overlords, and who formed, in solution with Nordic, the lower class of the
original population.
The carls find no ready counterpart in central Europe, and were prob-
ably largely indigenous, the Bronze Age prototypes of the peoples of
Jaeren, Tr^ndelag, and Valle. The physical attributes of these carls are
clearly contrasted with the more purely Nordic description of the jarls,
who formed obviously the upper class of the Iron Age invading group,
including many of the bondi, or free land owners without title, and who
were apparently a numerous body.
Let us turn for a moment to consider the historical work of Snorre
Sturlason. This erudite scholar deals with the gods as if they were men,
and treats their mythical actions as history. His rationalization seems to
have been uncannily accurate. In the first place, Asgard, the home of
the gods, was a town on the northern shore of the Black Sea. These gods
fought a people called the vanir, with whom they eventually agreed to
exchange hostages. Odin, the king of the gods, agreed to take Frey and
Freya, two of the vanir, and these were soon deified along with their hosts.
The gods then left Asgard; and moved northwestward; they sojourned in
Denmark, and passed without much ado into Sweden. This country be-
came their main home, and Uppsala their chief center. Odin worship,
which arose among their descendants, the kings and jarls, was centered
especially in this neighborhood, and the worship of Frey and Freya as
well. ,
Thor, who was a rough-and-tumble bucolic god, is little mentioned in
this Asgardian history; he was apparently an earlier god and the especial
deity of the coastal people of Norway. Odin was a sophisticated person-
age, wearing a finely woven blue cape and carrying an iron spear; Thor,
who clothed himself in skins, carried a hammer as his weapon, and drove
about in a goat-drawn chariot. If we grant that Odin was the chief
god brought in by the Iron Age invaders, and surrounded with their
classically-inspired trappings of luxury, then Thor was apparently the
god of the older people, of the carl class, and he represents in his per-
son and attributes a blend between the robust Mesolithic hunters and
fishermen, and the Megalithic and Corded people. His association
THE NORTH 323
with the last named is clearly shown by his devotion to the double-
headed hammer, which was probably nothing more nor less than the
boat-axe.
The worshippers of Odin and Frey were especially interested in the
horse; horse sacrifices were made to these gods, and to Frey was dedicated
the cult of the embalmed horse's penis. In Norway the horse was replaced
to a certain extent as a funeral object by the ship; and the ships were made
by the carls, who had learned their craft from their Megalithic predeces-
sors and ancestors. With the introduction of iron, ship-building flourished,
and the Viking was nothing more nor less than a sea-going central Euro-
pean Nordic, who had exchanged his horse for a steed suited to a new
environment, with the cooperation of a vigorous body of indigenous
craftsmen and warriors, into whose racial body his own group was soon
blended.
(5) ICELAND
Iceland 46 was first discovered by the Irish, but when this event took
place we do not know. Our first reliable account of their voyages to Ice-
land is the book of the Irish monk Dicuil, written in 825 A.D. At that time,
and presumably for some years before, the only occupants of the island
had been Irish hermits, who found their arctic retreat an excellent asylum
from the ills of the world. It was probably from the Irish that the Norse-
men obtained their knowledge of this island, before the motive had
arrived for them to go there and live in it.
Toward the end of the ninth century King Harald Fairhair united
Norway under his own command, and then tried to extend his authority
to the Norsemen living in the Orkneys and other outlying regions. As a
result of his activities the noblemen who refused to submit sailed forth on
Viking expeditions, and the Norse population in the British Isles increased.
Iceland, however, being a country which was practically uninhabited,
offered a ready refuge to these political malcontents, who comprised, it is
said, the highest nobility of Norway.
In 870 A.D. Ingolf Arnarsson first settled in Iceland, and a period of
intensive colonization followed which lasted from 874 A.D. to 930 A.D. The
high nobles, including kings, jarls, and peers of lesser rank, brought with
them their entire households, consisting of wives, concubines, housecarls,
and slaves. Four hundred such chiefs are mentioned in the Landnamabok,
the unique document describing in detail the settlement of Iceland and the
parti tionment of its land. Various estimates reckon the population at the
46 The bulk of this section is derived from Harmesson, G., Korpermasse und Kbrperpro-
portionen der Islander, and from Seltzer, C. C., The Physical Anthropology of the Mediaeval
Icelanders, unpublished MS. in Peabody Museum. Author's permission.
324 THE RACES OF EUROPE
year 950 A.D. between the figures of 20,000 and 50,000. The lower figure
is probably more nearly correct than the higher. At any rate, the chances
are that the servants and other undistinguished persons made up the
majority, and that although the proportion of noblemen was high, it was
not high enough to predominate in a numerical sense.
The Landnamabok names the homes of 1003 of these immigrants. Of
them 846 came from Norway, 30 from Sweden, 1 from the Faroes, and
126 from the British Isles. Of those coming directly from Norway, the
homes of 461 are known, as follows: Nordland, 51; Tr^ndelag and M0re,
95; Sogn og Fjordane, 128; Hordaland, 77; Rogaland 10 (3 from Jaeren);
Agder, Telemark, Vestfold, 67; the eastern valleys, 33. Of 113 known
homes in the British Isles, the list is: Ireland, 52, Scotland, 31, Hebrides,
26, and Orkneys, 4. Thus the Norsemen who came from Norway came
mostly from the coastal regions, and especially from Hordaland, Sogn og
Fjordane and points northward. Few were from the eastern valley region
and fewer from the brachycephalic nucleus in Rogaland. Those from the
British Isles were presumably Norse who had not occupied their new
homes long enough to lose their Norwegian identity.
The Vikings who came from the British Isles brought with them Keltic-
speaking slaves and concubines, who formed a considerable community
and who are frequently mentioned in the sagas. Some of the leaders un-
doubtedly had Irish mothers. The exact ratio of these people to the total
population is, however, a matter of controversy. Hannesson, who has
measured the living Icelanders, estimates the Irish and other Keltic ele-
ments to have formed some 1 3 per cent of the whole. At any rate, since
the tenth century no new immigrants have entered Iceland in any num-
bers, and hence the living Icelanders are the direct and unassimilated
descendants of the Viking settlers and of their retainers.
In a total of 33 of the longer poems,47 the bards who composed the sagas
gave physical descriptions of 67 early Icelandic persons, all important
and drawn mostly from the noble class. Of these 54 were called large or
tall, and only 3 medium sized. In regard to hair quantity, 8 out of 9 men
were said to have long hair, and one thick. Six out of seven men had
curly hair, and one straight. The following hair colors were observed for
19 males: gray 2, white 1, golden blond 2, blond 3, red 3, light brown 1,
brown 4, black 3. One female was given black hair. Of three beard colors
noticed, two were red and one gray. One man had blue eyes, and two
women black. Although these observations do not form a statistically
valid series or a random sample, yet they may be regarded as ample proof
that the ancestors of the Icelanders were of variable pigmentation. Since
the persons described were all of high rank, the chances are that most of
« Heinzel, R., SAWV, vol. 97, 1881, p. 107.
THE NORTH 325
them were pure Norwegians, and that the pigmentation map of western
Norway was not very different a thousand years ago from what it is
today.
The modern Icelanders, with a mean stature of 173.6cm., are taller
than most Norwegian groups, and come closest in general bulk to the
Valle and Tr^ndelagen populations. In bodily proportions, too, they seem
to be moderately thick-set and heavily muscled, and to be long spanned
and relatively long bodied. In these general somatic characters they reveal
the fact that their ancestors came more from the coast than from the in-
terior of Norway.
Their heads, being very long, with a mean of 197.3 mm., and rather
broad (154.1 mm.), may be duplicated in size only in Valle, and in Ire-
land. A head height of 126 mm. likewise fits into the general West Nor-
wegian picture, as does a mean cephalic index of 78.1.
The Icelanders, with a nasion-menton height of 130.1 mm., are very
long faced, but their excess over the Norwegians in this character is partly
a matter of technique.48 They are actually not much longer in this char-
acter than the people of Valle. The breadths of the face, the minimum
frontal, bizygomatic, and bigonial (106.5, 140.6, and 108.5 mm.), are all
broader than the corresponding dimensions in Norway as a whole, but
they are comparable to those found in the provinces from which the Ice-
landic ancestors came. The excess of the jaw breadth over that of the fore-
head may indicate an adaptation resulting from rigorous dietary condi-
tions,49 as Mme. Schreiner also observed in northern Norway.60 The
noses are very high (58.8 mm.), and of moderate breadth, with a nasal
index (60.2) on the lower border of leptorrhiny. One-half of the nasal
profiles are straight, one-third concave; the remaining 17 per cent are
mostly undulating, with a few convex. On the whole, less convexity is
found here than in most districts of Norway or of Ireland.
Hannesson, although he used the Fischer chart, divides his hair color
categories in such a way that one cannot distinguish the ash-blond from the
golden class. Other evidence, however, clearly indicates that, of the two,
the latter is in the majority. Of pure blond hair (Fisher #12-24) he finds
but .8 per cent as against 13.1 per cent for Norway,61 and 5.5 per cent from
Sogn og Fjordane, the province from which the largest number of settlers
to Iceland came. In his light brown class (Fischer #7-11, 25-26), which
includes what other authorities usually call ash-blond, he finds 52 per cent
48 In recruit material used in the Somatologie nasion is quite apparently located lower
than is consistent with either Hannesson's or Mme. Schreiner's techniques. A series of
Icelanders measured by Ribbing includes a face height mean of 122 mm.; cf. Ribbing,
L., LUA, N. F. Afd. 2, vol. 8, #6, 1912, pp. 1-8.
49 Hooton, E. A., AJPA, loc. cit.
60 Schreiner, A., Die Nord-Norweger. il Recalculated from Bryn and Schreiner.
326 THE RACES OF EUROPE
of his series, as compared to 64.8 per cent for Norway and 59.8 per cent for
Sogn og Fjordane.
Thus although the Icelanders are still prevailingly light haired, they are
darker than any purely Norwegian population in Norway. In Norway
black hair is everywhere, except among the Lapps, in a very small minor-
ity; in Iceland it rises to the figure of 9 per cent, while red hair accounts
for 3 per cent more. The presence of these two colors in such quantities is
an excellent indication of the persistance of a strong Irish strain.
This indication is strengthened by a study of Icelandic eye color. The
ratio of light- and very light-mixed eyes (Martin #13-16) rises to 76 per
cent, as high as the Tr^ndelagen ratios. But in Tr0ndelagen the majority
are light-mixed eyes (Martin #13-14) while in Iceland, as in Ireland,52
over half of all eyes are pure blue.
On the whole, the Icelanders represent a racial population which is
most closely related to the mediaeval inhabitants of the western Norwegian
coast, from Hordaland to Tr^ndelagen; they fit typologically into a mid-
point between the two extremes of the Tr0nder category. They show
certain developments of their own, particularly in their excessive face
length, and in what seems to be an Arctic modification of the palate and
jaws. In some respects they show perceptible Irish affinities; as in the re-
tention of an excessive head size, and in the disharmony between very light
eyes and hair of but intermediate blondness. In this series, even more than
in the living Norwegian material, the resemblance to Upper Palaeolithic
cranial and facial types is manifest.53
(6) SWEDEN64
Sweden, which occupies the more southerly, less mountainous, and
larger side of the Scandinavian Peninsula, is in area the fifth largest coun-
try in Europe. Most of its land is of high economic utility, since the low,
well-watered slope of southern and central Sweden, dotted with lakes, is
well suited for agriculture, while in the north, large forests and plentiful
mineral deposits furnish materials for industry. Since 1775 Sweden's
population has grown from two to six millions, not including the million
and a half who have emigrated to the United States. Much of this increase
has been fostered by the growth of industrial life, especially in the mining
areas and in the cities. Central Sweden, in a belt reaching southwestward
62 See Chapter X, section 2.
63 Seltzer, G. C., op. cit. Seltzer finds a Cr6-Magnon-lifee type in a mediaeval cranial
series from Haffiarderey, collected for the Peabody Museum by Vilhjalmur Stefansson.
His opinion as to this resemblance is substantiated by both metrical and morphological
comparisons.
64 The principal sources for this section are :
Lundborg, H., and Linders, F. J., The Racial Characters of the Swedish Nation.
Retzius, G., and Fiirst, G. M., Anthropologia Suecica.
THE NORTH 327
from Stockholm, and the peninsula of Sk&ne, are the regions of thickest
settlement. Most of the Swedes who have gone to the United States
originated in Gotaland, the southwestern part of the kingdom.
In prehistoric times, Sweden, although less populous than Denmark, was
far more important than Norway. From Ancylus times until the begin-
ning of the Iron Age, the southwestern portion opposite the Danish Islands
was a center of cultural activity, while the central and northern parts of
the country were conservative and rustic cultural outposts. The brachy-
cephalic Mesolithic population so typical of the Danish islands was less
firmly rooted in Sweden, and the successive invasions of Megalithic and
Corded people passed over into Sweden relatively unaltered, and produced
a greater proportionate effect upon the racial composition of this country
than upon that of Denmark. The Corded people, especially, moved north-
ward into the central portions of the kingdom, and probably entered Tr0n-
delagen, where their racial type is still important, by the Swedish route.
The Iron Age invaders, the linguistic ancestors of the modern Scandi-
navians, again chose Sweden as their especial sphere of colonization, and
settled here in greater numbers than in Denmark or in Norway. Sweden
became a great breeding ground for Nordic peoples, chief worshippers of
Odin and of Frey, and after less than a thousand years, the country became
so crowded with them that overpopulation, coupled with the onset of an
adverse climate, forced a huge mass exodus southward.
This movement was, in effect, the great series of Germanic migrations,
the Volkerwanderung, which spread from Schleswig-Holstein and the
Low Countries, on the west, and from the mouth of the Vistula on the
east. The Goths, the Burgundians, and the Vandals, except for the Franks
and Saxons, the most numerous and most important tribes of Germans, all
had their origins in Sweden. As a womb of peoples Sweden was more
important than Norway, and at an earlier date. Sweden was, in fact, to the
continental world what Norway was to Britain, Iceland, and Normandy.
Although, since the Iron Age, Sweden's historical role has been that of
a feeder of peoples, she has at various times, and to a lesser extent, acted in
the opposite capacity. During the Volkerwanderung the remnants of the
Herulians and various bands of disappointed Goths returned to the Nordic
homelands, tired of wandering, and it is not unlikely that they brought
with them new racial elements picked up in Hungary and in the lands
north of the Black Sea. Later on, during the Viking period of the ninth
to eleventh centuries, Swedes, as well as Danes and Norwegians, raided
many countries and brought back with them thralls from the British Isles,
France, and the lands across the Baltic. According to Nordenstreng 65
56 Nordenstreng, G., Origin, Growth, and Racial Components of the Swedish Nation^ in
Lundborg and Linders, pp. 41-49. Special ref. to p. 44.
328 THE RACES OF EUROPE
these prisoners were settled most commonly in the present county of Upp-
land, immediately north of the city of Stockholm.
The development of cities in Sweden drew to that country large numbers
of traders and merchants, from Viking times onward, and these commer-
cial people were largely of Germanic origin. Frisian and Saxon chapmen
were the first, and these were followed by others, in later times, from vari-
ous parts of Germany, including the southern principalities. During the
period of Sweden's great military expansion (1611-1718 A.D.), when the
kingdom extended over large parts of Germany, many Germans were
made noblemen, and went to live in Sweden. Thus the German blood in
Sweden is a factor to be reckoned with, and has influenced, chiefly,
the city population and the nobility. The latter class has also received
strong infusions from Scotland, for Scotsmen, who served under Gustavus
Adolphus in large numbers, were in many instances rewarded for their
bravery by elevation to the Swedish peerage. Furthermore, Walloons,
who represented a much darker and rounder- headed racial element than
these other immigrants, were brought to Sweden during the seventeenth
century to work in the iron foundries. Some thirty or forty thousand of
their descendants can still be identified.
More important than any of these absorptions, in all likelihood, has
been the influence of the Finns upon the Swedish people. In the Middle
Ages, Kvaens wandered into the northern counties, but not in great num-
bers. The same Kvaenish migration which affected the northern provinces
of Norway from 1700 A.D. onward, also reenforced this element in northern
Sweden. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, other Finns
settled in Varmland and Dalarne, counties bordering on the Norwegian
provinces of Ostfold and Hedmark, and the Finns of Grue 56 in Norway
came as part of this same migration. Other Finns remained in scattered
settlements between the Varmland and Dalarne nucleus and the head of
the Gulf of Bothnia, while still others penetrated as far south as Stockholm.
Although this migration ceased about 1700, over 13,000 Finns had come
to Sweden and to a small district in Norway. Although these Finns were
not numerous, the population of Sweden at that time was no more than
one and a half millions, and the Finns were particularly prolific. Today
only .two villages in Varmland retain Finnish speech from the time of this
migration. In Norrbotten, in the valleys of Torne and Muonio, more
recent colonies of Finns, from southwestern Finland, still speak their own
language, and form a distinct alien bloc. In all there are, at present,
about 30,000 Finnish speakers in Sweden, in addition to whom it is esti-
mated that well over 100,000 Swedes are at least partially of Finnish
descent.
66 See p. 313.
THE NORTH 329
In comparison with most European countries, Sweden has, in post-Iron
Age times, been subjected to remarkably few foreign influences which
would affect her racial composition. Despite the absorptions and immigra-
tions noted above, Sweden remains one of the most homogeneous nations
in Europe both in race and in pedigree. This homogeneity is largely the
result of geography, for in contrast to the rugged Norwegian landscape,
with its mountains and fjords and distinct centers of racial concentration,
the flat surface of Sweden, with its modern industrial development and
fluidity of population, has brought about a striking racial unity. In
Sweden social and occupational differences in physical type are almost as
great as regional ones. In no racial character are Swedish sub-groups,
whether geographical or social, strongly differentiated.
The same basic Hallstatt Nordic type which found such a favorable
breeding ground in Sweden during the Iron Age is still the predominant
race in that kingdom. It has absorbed into its ethnic body both older and
newer peoples, and has spread the resultant blend with remarkable even-
ness over the surface of the nation. On the whole, Sweden is the most
Nordic nation in Europe in the Iron Age sense, and it is much more Nordic
than Norway. At the same time, owing to geographical factors again, the
valleys of southeastern Norway contain as unaltered an Iron Age Nordic
population as any in Sweden. The metrical characters of the recruit
material for the entire Swedish nation are very similar, in fact, to those of
the southeastern Norwegians.67 The stature mean of the Swedes is
172.2 cm., and their characteristic bodily proportions are equally close to
the Norwegian standard. Regional variation in stature stretches only
from 169.9 cm. in the northeastern manufacturing districts to 172.5 cm.
in the central provinces contiguous with Tr0ndelag. In the far north,
where Finnish influence is common, and in the south, where the older,
more brachycephalic populations of the Neolithic and Bronze Ages were
seated, the length of the trunk is relatively greater, and of the legs smaller,
than in the central parts of the kingdom, but these regional differences are
less pronounced than those between social and occupational groups in the
nation as a whole. As in Norway, the population drawn to the cities is
notably shorter-armed than that which remains upon the land.
The mean head length of Swedish recruits is 193.8 mm., and the
breadth 152.3 mm., yielding a cephalic index of 77.7. The longest heads,
with regional means running up to 195 mm., are found in the west, over
against Norway, and the shortest in the north. The lowest cephalic index
mean is 76.7, and the highest, concentrated in the north, are all below 80.
The three principal breadth diameters of the face, minimum frontal,
bizygomatic, and bigonial, have national means of 104.6 mm., 136.0 mm.,
67 Lundborg and Linders, op. cit.
330 THE RACES OF EUROPE
and 103.4 mm., respectively, all of which are typically Nordic and com-
parable to those of the eastern valley Norwegians. Slight regional differ-
ences place the narrowest foreheads and faces in the western counties, and
the broadest in the north and south. The total face height of 126,6 mm.
is again a typically Nordic mean, comparable to that obtained by Bryn
in his later work on the Eastern Valley people.58 While the narrowest faces
are found in western Sweden, as is to be expected, the longest are typical
of farmers in the north, where the Corded element may be slightly more
prevalent. The Swedes are typically leptorrhine,69 and the commonest
nasal profile form is straight. Concave noses, which reach the rather high
figure of 28 per cent in the kingdom, are commonest in the north and
least frequent in the south.
According to the Anthropologia Suecica, 52 per cent of Swedes had
ash-blond hair, and 23 per cent golden. Thus the proportions of these
two classes of blondism are reversed in comparison to Norway. The two
countries are about equal in amount of dark hair shades, but, by and large,
Norway would seem to be lighter haired than Sweden,60 if we may rely
upon a comparison based on a correlation of two scales. In any case, the
most numerous category is a medium to light brown, with extreme blonds
in the minority. Regional differences, though slight, are suggestive.
Gotaland, the Goth country, as southern and southwestern Sweden was
anciently designated, is lighter than Svealand, or central Sweden; Norr-
land, the north country, is in turn the darkest. The most red hair is found
in the west and south, and the least in the east, toward Finland.
Retzius and Fiirst found 67 per cent of light eyes, 29 per cent of mixed,
68 Bryn, H., AAnz, vol. 9, 1932, pp. 141-164. It is higher than the Norwegian recruit
material means, which were apparently taken with a different technique.
69 The only nasal constants in the L. and L. material are for Skaraborgs Ian, where a
N. I. of 62.7 is found. The nasal dimensions of 61.37 mm. for height and 30.18 for
breadth (p. 102) are presumably misprints.
60 This statement is in direct contradiction to the opinion of most anthropologists,
especially of W. Scheldt, as expressed in his Die rassischen Verhdltnuse in Nordeuropa,
(ZFMA, vol. 28, 1930, pp. 1-198) and is by no means certain It is based on the fol-
lowing correlation of the L. and L. material with that from the Somatologie der Norweger:
FISCHER Nos. DESIGNATION SWEDEN NORWAY
12-25 flaxen 6.9% 27.9%
7-11,26 light brown 62.5 50.0
5-6 brown (medium) 25.1 17.2
4 brownish black 2.0 3.7
27-28 black .2 .1
1-3 red 3.3 1.3
The Swedish recruits were observed for hair color by means of a local chart, which was
later correlated with the Fischer standard. (L. £ L., p. 10.) The c6mparison between
the Swedish and Norwegian results was made by recombining the total Norwegian
series according to the Swedish divisions. The difference in amounts of red is un-
doubtedly due to a difference of standards, as Conitzer has previously stated. (Co-
nitzer, H., ZFMA, vol. 19, 1931, pp. 83-147.)
THE NORTH 331
and 4 per cent of dark. In the first category were presumably included
light eyes with a slight spotting, as in the Martin numbers 13 and 14.
The Lundborg and Linders study, made with a different observational
scheme,61 raised the first category to 87 per cent, and the third to 5 per
cent. In any case, there can be no doubt that the eye colors of the Swedish
people are predominantly light mixed and light, as in Norway; and that
the lightest eyes in the kingdom are found in western Sweden, and the
darkest in the north.
Correlations within the Lundborg and Linders series of 47,000 men show
certain slight linkages, which could be dismissed as insignificant if found
on smaller samples. The cephalic index decreases slightly, and the facial
index rises, with an increase in stature; similarly, the tallest statures have a
tendency to go with brown hair and light eyes. It is not unreasonable to
suppose that this combination may be a faint reflection of the absorption
of a Corded racial element into the population of Sweden. In the same
way an association of flaxen hair, moderate stature, mesocephalic head
form, and convexity of nasal profile, makes it unlikely that all high cephalic
indices in Sweden are due to East Baltic influence, and suggests rather a
survival of mesocephalic and brachycephalic elements in southern Sweden,
comparable to those in western Norway. Truly short stature, linked with
dark pigmentation and round head form, furnishes an infrequent com-
bination, but one which may imply a Lappish strain in the far north, sub-
merged Alpine elements, or both.
The Swedish material, and especially the correlations, confirms the
opinion formed in Norway, that the Nordic race as such is not and was
never wholly blond. The characteristic eye color is blue or gray, and the
presence or absence of a small amount of superficial iris pigment seems
racially irrelevant. At the same time, it is likely that all hair color shades
from a light medium brown to the lightest, whether on the ashen or golden
side, should be considered as "pure" lights, since, as the Swedish material
shows, persons having these shades on the head have, as a rule, the same
colored pubic hair. In Sweden, as in Norway, what linkages there are
which point to the survival or resegregation of a Corded type indicate
that this type was characterized by exceptionally light eyes, but a pre-
dominantly brown shade of hair.
Abundant anthropometric data from Sweden make it clear that the
basic, and by far the most numerous element in the population is, as in
eastern Norway, an Iron Age Nordic one, transferred from its central and
eastern European home; earlier elements have survived less here than in
6i " #1 -s light iris (blue, gray, pale yellow, or green), also light iris with insignificant
brown spots, points, or patches; 2 — mixed iris and light iris with brown aureole;
3 = light brown or dark iris." L. & L., p. 10.
332 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Norway. There is, however, a strong concentration of unreduced Briinn
and Borreby types, as illustrated in plates 4 and 5, in the fishing and sea-
faring population of the southwestern coast, across from Denmark; the
presence of these types, although not clearly indicated by existing surveys,
cannot, nevertheless, be denied.
At the same time, Corded elements within the Nordic racial body are
most evident in the north, and especially near the Norwegian provinces
of Tr0ndelagen. Lappish influences are also to be felt in the far north,
while modern Finnish invasions and infiltrations have introduced the
East Baltic type into central Sweden in some numbers. The nature of this
type need not be discussed here, but will be studied in later sections of
the present chapter.
(7) DENMARK62
Denmark, the smallest and most southerly of the three Scandinavian
kingdoms, is also the most densely populated, being inhabited by two and
one half millions of people. It consists of the peninsula of Jutland, the
isthmus of Schleswig, acquired since the World War, and the Danish
archipelago. These islands, the largest of which are Zealand, Funen,
Laaland, Falster, Moen, Langeland, and Sams0, although smaller in total
area than the mainland, contain the bulk of the population. The island
of Bornholm, situated to the southeast of Skane, is likewise Danish terri-
tory, as are the islands of Lesso and Anholt, which lie in the midst of the
Cattegat. On the southwestern coast of Denmark the Frisian Islands begin
their chain, which is only broken by the mouth of the Elbe in its stretch
from Denmark to Holland. Some of these islands are Danish, some are
German, and others are Dutch in nationality. Far separated from Den-
mark, but under its sovereignty, lie the Faroe Islands, between the Shet-
lands and Iceland, and Iceland itself is an autonomous state under the
Danish crown, while Greenland, a restricted crown colony, is the home of
a few thousand Danes.
Throughout the prehistoric period Denmark was the cultural center of
62 The principal sources for the physical anthropology of the living in Denmark are :
Bardenfleth, K. S., MODA, vol. 3, 1929, pp. 3-49.
Burrau, C., MODA, vol. 1, 1907-11, pp. 243-260, 277-284.
Hannesson, G., op. cit.
Hansen, Andreas M., NMN, vol. 53, pp. 202-266.
Hansen, S0ren, MODA, vol. 1, 1907-11, pp. 69-81, 204-220, 222-240, 287-307;
vol. 2, 1920-28, pp. 363-389.
Hansen, Sjzfren, and Topinard, P., RDAP, vol. 3, 1888, pp. 39-41.
Heiberg, P., MODA, vol. 2, 1920-28, pp. 296-300, 353-360.
Mackenprang, E., MODA, vol. 1, 1907-11, pp. 11-68.
Ribbing, L., MODA, vol. 1, 1907-11, pp. 193-202.
Steensby, H. P., MODA, vol. 1, 1907-11, pp. 85-148.
Westergaard, H., MODA, vol. 1, 1907-11, pp. 353-391.
THE NORTH 333
Scandinavia, and likewise the center of greatest population. The profusion
of Neolithic and Bronze Age monuments and graves shows that before the
Iron Age invasions both the mainland and the islands were densely in-
habited; in view of this crowding, it is not surprising that the newcomers
found greater room for expansion in Sweden and eastern Norway. From
Ertebjzflle times onward the Danish Islands, and to a lesser extent the main-
land, was the focal point in northern Europe for the settlement of the
brachycephalic Borreby people. With them had mingled Megalithic sea-
farers in large numbers, while the Corded people had concentrated their
activities on the mainland. It is not surprising; therefore, that a population
so firmly attached to its milieu as that of pre-Iron Age Denmark should
have survived the vicissitudes of centuries and eventually have reemerged
in considerable strength. That this is exactly what has happened is the
sense of the present section.
During the Iron Age Denmark continued in its cultural leadership of
Scandinavia, owing largely to its greater proximity to the source of civilized
influences farther south, for Denmark was greatly affected by the reper-
cussions of Roman civilization. In the Volkerwanderung period, Den-
mark, furthermore, contributed heavily to the stream of migration south-
ward; the Cimbri, the first Germanic people to come under the eyes of
Rome, were natives of Jutland; the Jutes and the Angles who settled
England with the Saxons from Schleswig-Holstein again came from
Denmark. The later inroads of Danes into Britain strengthened the earlier
contingents. Hence, Denmark played an even greater part in the settle-
ment of the British Isles than did Norway.
In contrast to Norway and Sweden, existing documents which cover the
physical anthropology of the living Danes are scattered and incomplete.
It is not possible to study the distribution of characters from village to vil-
lage and county to county, nor to examine the special racial attributes of
individuals. It is possible, however, to make a few general observations,
and to supplement these with deductions based on common knowledge.
In the first place, the Danes are not as tall as the Swedes and Norwegians,
although their king is the tallest monarch in Europe. The mean stature of
twenty-one year old recruits in 1925 was 169.4 cm., which varied between
172.3 cm., on the island of Anholt in the middle of the Cattegat, and
167.1 cm. for Fan0, the northernmost of the Frisian Isles. In general,
Jutland and Schleswig are comparatively tall, with mean statures of
170 cm., while the island population is a centimeter or two shorter, es-
pecially on Sams0, southern and eastern Zealand, Laaland, Falster, and
Moen. Copenhagen and the adjoining counties of northern Zealand are,
by contrast, quite tall.
Aside from stature, there is no metric character in which all of Denmark
334 THE RACES OF EUROPE
has been regionally studied. In other measurements and indices one is
obliged to refer to material which covers the country as a unit, or certain
sections of it only. Data referring to bodily build indicate that the Danes
are longer armed, wider spanned, longer trunked, and, in general, more
heavily built than the common run of other Scandinavians, and resemble
in these respects the western Norwegians more than any other group.
Several series show that the mean head lengths of Danes in various parts
of the kingdom are uniformly 194 mm., as long as the Swedish national
mean, and comparable to that of the mesocephalic population of western
Norway; variations in cephalic index are dependent rather upon variations
in head breadth, which ranges from 154.7 mm. on the island of Bornholm
to 158.8 mm. in the northern part of Sams0. That the higher cephalic
indices in Denmark result from greater breadths instead of from lesser
lengths, is a sure indication that we are dealing with a Borreby form of
brachycephaly.
The mean cephalic index of Denmark, however, is but 80. 6 ;63 and this
sub-brachycephalic mean condition is not subject to much regional varia-
tion. Although Denmark is the least long headed of the three Scandinavian
kingdoms, nowhere in it may be found a regional population as round
headed as that of Jaeren. Denmark, like Sweden, is flat and lacks natural
barriers; one must expect a great national uniformity. The highest means
yet recorded are 81.8 for northern Sams0, 81.4 for western Jutland, and
for the isle of Anholt. No regional mean is under 80.
Facial measurements on Danes are extremely rare; what there are show
breadth diameters high for Scandinavia. Hannesson, in a small series of
Danish sailors, finds a minimum frontal of 106.5 mm., a bizygomatic of
139.5 mm., and a bigonial of 107 mm. In northern Sams0, an unusually
brachycephalic area, the bizygomatic rises to 142.5 mm. Thus the Danish
facial breadths resemble those found in coastal Norway, especially the
rounder- headed districts, and in Iceland.
Data on the hair and eye color of Danes is as extensive as that on
stature, and covers the entire kingdom. Although no scales were used,
the categories employed seem clearly defined and there can be little doubt
as to the character of Danish pigmentation. Hansen found that "fair"
hair decreased from 52 per cent at the age of 6 years to 33 per cent at 14,
and fell to 16.6 per cent at the recruit age of 20 years. This "fair" category
must, therefore, include pronounced degrees of blondism only, and ex-
clude the light brown hues often designated as blond elsewhere. On the
island of Sams0 Bardenfleth found only 7.5 per cent of hair which he was
willing to call light, and 40 per cent of medium, 43 per cent of dark, and
9 per cent of black. Sams0 is one of the darkest-haired regions of Denmark.
68 Hansen has 80.6, Burrau 80.69.
THE NORTH 335
Judging from the distribution of the school children material, the southern
part of the Danish mainland, toward Schleswig-Holstein, is the blondest
section of the country; two regions are darkest: Thirsted, the northwestern
county of Jutland, and the islands.
What appears to be the most accurate division of eye colors is that of
Bardenfleth, who finds 38 per cent of light, 59 per cent of mixed, and 3 per
cent of dark eyes on Sams0. This is comparable to the eye color situation
elsewhere in Scandinavia. Sams0 is one of the darker-eyed sections of
Denmark, and regional eye color variations, though not great, follow those
of hair color.
In its available form, the Danish material is not so arranged that many
correlations and regressions can be made from it. In Sams0, light-haired
individuals are a half centimeter taller than dark-haired ones, and slightly
higher in cephalic index. This regression runs counter to the slight geo-
graphical association between darker hair, shorter stature, and rounder
heads, from which racial inferences have been deduced. The associations
noted in Sams0, however, agree with the similar correlations found in
southern Sweden, which would point to the presence on both sides of the
Cattegat of a special tall, blond brachycephal, particularly common among
Swedish immigrants to the United States where the vulgar term "square-
head55 is used to designate it. Popular, subjective labels in the designation
of races, used among persons ignorant of the existence of physical anthro-
pology, are often truer than the hesitant results of erudite wanderings in
the labyrinth of numbers.
A knowledge of the racial history of Denmark, and a familiarity with the
appearance of modern Danes, makes the interpretation of existing data,
however fragmentary, possible. On the whole, the Danes form, as Burrau
feels, a composite type which is inextricably blended, but which shows in
individual variations leanings toward different ancestral forms, as well as
toward new combinations. The blond /'square-head5' noted above is an
important type, heavy-boned and sturdy, basically Borreby in inspiration.
The minority of brunet pigmentation, in Denmark not associated with
brachycephaly, reminds one that the Danish Islands held the greatest
concentration of Megalithic people in the whole north, and that these
Megalithic people blended with the Borreby aborigines before the arrival
of either Corded folk or Iron Age Nordics. On the whole, Denmark, like
Sweden and Norway, may be called a Nordic country, but Nordic only in
the modern Scandinavian sense.
Before leaving the description of the living Danish people, two special
problems remain, the racial character of the island of Bornholm, to the
east of Denmark proper in the Baltic, and that of the Faroes. Ribbing, in
a study of the Bornholm people, finds them taller, fairer, and somewhat
336 THE RAGES OF EUROPE
longer headed than most of the Danes, and considers that they are most
closely related to the southern Swedes inhabiting the island of Gotland.
The Faroes, isolated in the northern seas between the Shetlands and
Iceland, preserve a picturesque and mediaeval Danish population of
fishermen.64 These islands were first inhabited by the Scotch, who may or
may not have left before the coming of the Vikings, which took place
shortly before the settlement of Iceland. The Faroe males are as tall as
Danes (169-170 cm.), and about the same in head form. (C. I. — 79. 6.)65
The faces are distinguished by a considerable breadth of the mandible,66
found also in Iceland and among the northernmost Norwegians. Until more
extensive information appears than that at present available, we may con-
sider the Faroe Islanders typical descendants of Viking Age Danes and
coastal Norwegians.
In all three Scandinavian kingdoms, changes have been observed in
stature during the last century. The normal amount of increase in young
men draughted for recruiting has been somewhere between 6 and 8 cm.
It would appear that one hundred years ago Danes of military age were
only 164 cm. tall, on the average, while Swedes and Norwegians varied
regionally between 166 and 168 cm. If one recalls the statures of the
inhabitants of these countries before and during the pre-Christian Iron
Age, it will at once appear that this increase has been actually a process
of returning, under new stimuli, to an older condition. The depletion of
these countries during the Volkerwanderung and the adverse climatic
conditions of the Middle Ages must have had in the first instance a selective,
in the second a depressing, effect upon national stature.
In all three countries comparisons between city and country populations
show that there is a tendency for the Iron Age Nordic type to be drawn to
the cities, and to be, in general, the most restless element in the population;
undoubtedly because it was the last to arrive and because it formed in
many regions the upper social stratum. For these reasons again it is not
64 Chief works on the Faroes are :
Annandale, N., TRSE, vol. 25, 1906, pp. 2-24. Arbo, C. O. E., DGT, vol. 12,
1893-94, pp. 7-14.
Hansen, S0ren, JRAI, vol. 42, 1912, pp. 485-492; DGT, vol. 21, 1912, pp. 251-
256; vol. 25, 1920, pp. 53-54.
66 Considerable confusion is extant concerning the head form and stature of the
Faroe Islanders. Arbo (1893) measured a series of 20 men from the northernmost and
20 others from the southernmost island. He found that the stature and C. I. of the first
group were 169.5 cm. and 75.2; of the second, 165.2 cm. and 83.2. His series of 60 men
from Thorshavn fell into an intermediate position, approximating the means above
given. These latter are taken from Hansen's series of 493 males from Suder0, and from
Arbo's Thorshavn series. The startling regional differences of Arbo's work may be
attributed partly to the small size of his samples, partly to the chance selection of iso-
lated family groups.
M Annandale's mean bigonial diameter on 20 men is 111.8 mm.
THE NORTH 337
inconceivable that the Volkerwanderung drained off this element in dis-
proportionate numbers, and that the reemergence of older forms has been
a result of this process, especially in Denmark, in western Norway, and in
southern Sweden, where the older forms were originally most numerous.
The three Scandinavian kingdoms, and especially eastern Norway and
Sweden as a whole, remain the greatest single reservoir of the Iron Age
Nordic race, but it is conceivable that that race was numerically more
important in Scandinavia at the time of Christ than it is today.
(8) THE FINNO-UGRIANS, INTRODUCTION
The next step in our survey of the living peoples of northern Europe
leads us from Scandinavia, the present Nordic homeland, across the Baltic
Sea to the countries in which the East Baltic race is most characteristic;
the four republics of Finland, Esthonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. We pro-
pose to study first the two northernmost, in which languages of the Finno-
Ugrian family are spoken. But this will be done in a roundabout fashion,
since before the racial history of the Baltic Finns may be fully understood,
it will be necessary to deal with the entire ethnic and linguistic group of
which they form a part. For this reason it will also be necessary to inter-
rupt the geographical order tentatively followed, and to start with the
Finnish homelands in eastern Russia. In an earlier chapter (Chapter VII,
section 1), a survey was made of the skeletal remains of early Finno-
Ugrian-speaking peoples of this region; some mention was also made con-
cerning their early ethnic movements. It is the purpose of the present
section to explain in a little more detail the linguistic and historic relation-
ships of modern Finno-Ugrian-speaking peoples.67
For the sake of clarity, we will repeat that Finno-Ugrian, along with
Samoyedic, forms the Uralic linguistic stock or sub-stock which may or
may not be united with Turkic, Tungusic, and Mongolian in a Ural-
Altaic supcrstock. It is now believed that early Finno-Ugrian was one of
the two elements which blended to form basic Indo-European.68 Although
today their use is not as extensive as that of Indo-European, modern
Finno-Ugrian languages are by no means archaic, and show no tendency
toward disappearance. They are, in fact, spoken by a large number of
peoples, living under extremely variable environmental and cultural con-
ditions, and scattered over a wide expanse of territory. In three nations,
67 Useful sources are :
Atlas of Finland, 1925, esp. Wichman, Y., pp. 19-22.
Jochelson, W., The Peoples of Asiatic Russia, esp. pp. 16—21.
Sirelius, U. T., The Genealogy of the Finns.
Zolotarev, D. A., Etnickeskil Sostav Nasalenifa Sev.^ap. Oblasti i KareVskot ASSR;
ibid., TKIP, vol. 15, #2, 1928, pp. 1-26.
68 See Chapter VI, sections 1 and 8, Chapter VII, sections 1 and 3.
338
THE RAGES OF EUROPE
Finland, Esthonia, and Hungary, divisions of Finno-Ugrian are the
official languages, spoken by millions of people. In western Siberia, as
well as in these countries, Finno-Ugrian speech occupies a large space on
the map, but in this wilderness of forest and swamp it is actually spoken
by very few persons. Elsewhere, throughout eastern central Russia and
MAP 10
THE DISTRIBUTION OF URALIG AND ALTAIC SPEECH ON EUROPEAN SOIL
This docs not include Osmanli Turkish as spoken in the former Turkish Empire.
All Turkish speech is represented by crescents, Mongols by cross-hatching, and Sam-
oyedic by small circles. Finno-Ugrian is represented by various types of lines and
stipples, except for Lappish, which is indicated by crosses, and Livonian, which is
solid. The northern instances of Carelian are Kvaenish.
thence in a narrow band across to the mouth of the Gulf of Finland, it is
found in little islands standing out in the midst of Slavic territory.
Linguistic affiliations within the stock may best be illustrated by Ka-
java's chart, reproduced in slightly altered form below.69 In this chart the
term Ingrians is used to include the various groups of Finnic speakers native
to the Leningrad region; namely, the Vodes, the Lyds or Ijores, and the
«»Kajava, Y., EA, #8, #9, 1922, pp. 353-358.
THE NORTH 339
two tribes called Evremeiset and Savakot, who live among Russians in the
city of Leningrad itself.70
The early home of the united Finno-Ugrians is supposed by linguists to
have been in the region which extends from the headwaters of the Dnieper
and the western Dvina to the western slope of the Ural Mountains. The
country around the Oka, the bend of the Volga, and the Kama are thought
to have been occupied by Finno-Ugrians by the time that some of their
southeastern tribes mingled with Caucasic-speaking peoples to produce
I ndo-European .
In their early home, during the first millennium B.C.,71 the Finns were in
contact, on their southern flank, with the Scythians, who lived west of the
Finns Carelians Vepses Ingrians Esths Livs Muromaf Meriansf Cheremisses
/^^«*— r — "'
1C FINNS VOLGA FINNS Votiaks
Zyriand Permiaka
Voduls Ostu
1 i ' r1
FINNS PEfeMiANS
OB-UGWANS
Magyars
FINNS - PERM ANS UGRJANS
RNNO-U6R1AN SUB-STOCK
Fio. 31. LINGUISTIC RELATIONSHIPS OF FINNO-UGRIAN SPEAKING PEOPLES.
After Kajava, Y., EA, #8, #9, 1922, pp. 353-358.
Don, and with the Sarmatians, who occupied the plains to the east of it.
Baltic peoples seem to have touched them on the west, for Baltic words
are in use among Mordvins, who have never been near the sea. In the time
of the earliest Greek accounts, Finns seem to have occupied all of the
country which stretched from the Polessje district of White Russia to the
central and lower reaches of the Volga. Herodotus located a people called
Budinoi in the eastern part of this region, presumably in the Volga coun-
try; west of them he placed the Androphagoi, then the Melancheles
(Black Mantles), and in the very west, the Neuroi. The name Androphagoi
or Cannibals, has the same meaning as the Iranian word Mord-Chvar,
whence are derived Mordva and our own term, Mordvin. The black
mantle to which Herodotus referred is still a part of the national costume
of the Volga Finns.
During the centuries immediately preceding the Christian era, the
ancestors of the Baltic Finns migrated westward from their original home
70 The Ijores number roughly 11,000, the Vodes about 700. Exact figures for the
Evremeiset and Savakot have not been obtained.
71 The chief source for the following historical resume" is Bunak, V., ZFMA, vol. 30,
1932, pp. 441-503.
340 THE RACES OF EUROPE
to the eastern shore of the Baltic, south of the Gulf of Finland, where they
occupied the country north of the Dtina and the northern half, at least, of
Kurland, thus taking over most of what is now Latvia, as well as Esthonia.
After the beginning of the Christian era, some of them crossed the Gulf of
Finland and settled near Abo and in the Kokemaki and Kyro valleys of the
present Finland. This country was already inhabited by an Iron Age
population, of Scandinavian cultural affinity, which the Finns completely
absorbed. The invaders gradually spread eastward until, about 700 A.D.,
they reached the present Carelia. Thence they went to southern Savo,
which seems to have been permanently occupied by 1000 A.D. From there
on the occupation of Finland spread gradually northward until eventually
the Finns spilled over into Sweden, as related in an earlier section. The
Finnish penetration of parts of Sweden was only one-half of a reciprocal
action, however, for even earlier, in the thirteenth century, the Swedes,
coming by sea, made crusades against the Finns, and many Swedes re-
mained on the eastern shores of the Gulf of Bothnia and the northern shore
of the Gulf of Finland. It was at this period that the migration began
which gave Finland her present Swedish coastal population. Meanwhile
the ancestors of the Baltic-speaking Letts had moved northward into
Kurland and Livonia, partly forcing the more southerly Baltic Finns out
of what is now Latvia, and partly absorbing them.
Between Leningrad and the Finnish homeland may be seen the rem-
nants of the early migrant groups, who, when the Slavs first appeared,
between the sixth and eighth centuries A.D., formed a continuous belt
of Finnish-speaking peoples. Nearest the Gulf are the Vodcs and Ijores,
and the Leningrad tribes; on the shores of Lake Onega and the
headwaters of the Oyat River live the Vepses, who formerly possessed
a large territory and were a powerful people well into Slavic times.
To the south and east of the Vepses lived the Merians, now linguis-
tically extinct, who covered the territory between the Oka and the
upper Volga. Farther south and east lived the now equally extinct
Muroma, and then various tribes of Cheremisses, and finally the
Mordvins. The connecting links between the Vepses and the Chere-
misses have disappeared, and the groups that have survived have
suffered great losses of territory.
The position of the Carelians in this picture is not quite clear; it is
known, however, that they had settled the shores of the White Sea as early
as 900 A.D., and were later largely dislodged by Russians. They are lin-
guistically a branch of the Baltic Finns most closely related to the Estho-
nians, but it is not known whether they ever were actually in Esthonia, or if
so, whether they moved northward across the Gulf of Finland with the
Finns, or around its eastern end. In any case, the Carelians now living in
THE NORTH 341
Ingria and the Volga country seem to represent a secondary infiltration
from the present Carelia rather than an early survival.
Although the departure of the ancestors of the Baltic Finns from their
Volga homelands took place so early that the movements of the central
Asiatic nomads did not affect them directly, these incursions were re-
sponsible for other Finno-Ugrian migrations. In the first century A.D.,
the Huns entered the Volga country and remained along its lower and
middle course until after having routed the Ostrogoths, when they went
on to the present Hungary. In the fifth century, after their misadventure
in France, the Huns returned to the Don Basin and joined their relatives
the Bolgars, who had come from the region of the Ural and Kuban Rivers
in southeastern Russia, and had settled between Finns and Ugrians on
the lower Volga and Kama. There they founded a powerful empire,
which was to last from the eighth to the fourteenth centuries. Some of
these Bolgars migrated to the lower Danube country and defeated the
southern Slavs, settling in what is now Bulgaria. These Bulgarians later
lost their Uralic speech, and adopted a Slavic language.
The Bolgars of the Volga ruled or at least influenced a number of Finno-
Ugrian peoples; the Mordvins, Cheremisses, Votiaks, Syryenians, and
Magyars. The modern Chuvash of eastern Russia are the linguistic de-
scendants of the Bolgars, but are thought to be largely Finnish in blood.
It was at the time of the Bolgar empire or later that the Syryenians moved
northward, as did the Votiaks, who remained somewhat nearer the center
of dispersion. Only the Cheremisses and Mordvins still remain in the
original Finno-Ugrian home territory.
Under Turkish leaders a large body of Ugri left this region and migrated
to the southern steppes, whence in the ninth century they moved to
Hungary, and mixed with the remnants of the Huns and Avars who dwelt
there. These Ugri became the Magyars, the modern Hungarians, whose
language is still basically Ugrian, modified by much Turkish influence.
The closest linguistic relatives of the Magyars are the Voguls and
Ostiaks, members of primitive hunting and fishing tribes of the Obi country
in Siberia. By the end of the first millennium A.D., they had moved to the
northeastern section of European Russia, where they are said to have
lived with the Samoyeds. The northward movement of Russian colonists
forced them over into Siberia, and by 1364 they were already entirely
located on the Asiatic side. Today they are still primitive hunters and
fishermen, and shamanists in religion. It is believed, however, on philo-
logical grounds, as well as on historical, that before their migration north-
ward and eastward they were farmers and herdsmen.
The Finno-Ugrians today include peoples in every stage of culture
from hunting and fishing to that of modern civilized states. They are
342 THE RACES OF EUROPE
held together by a bond of language and by a certain modicum of old
cultural traits, particularly those concerned with music and poetry, with
which high and low cultural levels fail to interfere, Although aggressively
persistent on the peripheries of their radius of migration, they have be-
come recessive in the center of it, where the great surges of invasion and
of empire from central Asia, and the subsequent steady and irresistible
expansion of the eastern Slavs, have reduced their cultural survivors to a
minimum, while their physical survivors, since they form an important
element in the composition of modern Russia, are much more numerous.
In view of their history the Finno-Ugrians are a much more important
factor in the building of eastern Europe than their present numbers
would, on the surface, indicate.
(9) RACIAL CHARACTERS OF THE EASTERN FINNS
Before studying in detail the physical characters of the Finno-Ugrian-
speaking peoples apart from the Baltic group and from the Hungarians,
it will simplify matters considerably to state one fact which the existing
anthropometric documents make evident: these peoples are all very much alike.
The Mordvins, the Cheremisses, the Perrnians, the various Ingrian groups
of the Leningrad region, and the Carelians as well, vary among themselves
to only a very minor degree. In this respect they differ not only from the
Baltic Finns and Magyars, but also to a lesser extent from the Ugrian-
speaking peoples of Siberia. In order to define the basic racial type of
the present-day central Finnic peoples, it will be easiest to describe that
one group which has been subjected to the most thorough and most de-
finitive modern racial study, the Carelians,72 and afterwards to see how
the description so obtained applies individually to the other Finnic peoples.
There are nearly half a million Carelians in Europe; approximately
half of these live in eastern Finland, and the rest are divided between the
Carelian Republic of the USSR, which is adjoining, and small ethnic
islands in the upper Volga country.78 Zolotarev's adult male sample
includes 728 from the Carelian Republic, and 277 from the Volga country,
In both divisions, what he considers dark hair is found among 9 per cent
of the whole, and the same is true for dark eyes. The Volga group has
27 per cent of hair designated as quite blond, while the remaining ma-
jority falls into the light brown and brown category. The Carelians of
the Republic have, in contrast, 40 per cent of the lightest class. The
opposite disproportion is true of eye color; 42 per cent of the Volga
Carelians are called light eyed and 49 per cent mixed; in the Republic
the figures are 35 per cent and 55 per cent respectively. To begin with,
72 Zolotarev, D. A., Kareli, SSSR.
» Atlas of Finland, 1925. Zolotarev, TKJP, 1928.
THE NORTH 343
therefore, the Carelians are typically light or mixed in pigmentation, and
fully or nearly as blond as most Scandinavians. There is little difference
in degree of hair and eye pigment between these Finns and Iron Age
Nordics. The Carelians are prevailingly ash-blond rather than golden,
and only 4 men out of a thousand show any rufosity.
The mean stature of the total Carelian group is 165.7 cm., with the
Volga males slightly taller than those farther north and west. This is a
moderate or medium height, neither notably tall nor short; it is short by
Nordic standards, and about average when compared with that of most
Russians. The bodily proportions as indicated by Zolotarev's data as well
as by those of other investigators do not show the lateral, heavily built type
predicted by the study of Finnish influence in Scandinavia; on the contrary,
the relative sitting height index of 53 is little higher than that expected
among Nordics. The shoulder and hip diameters are similarly of an in-
termediate European form. The Carelians are not distinguished by any no-
table peculiarity in body build, and are more nearly slender than massive.
The head dimensions, while variable, are smaller than those we have
found among Scandinavian peoples. The mean length for the total group
is 187.8 mm., for the Volga sample 186.0 mm.; ten whole millimeters
shorter, for example, than the Icelandic head length. At the same time
the breadth, 152.1 mm. for the total group and only 151.7 mm. for the
Volga Carelians, is less than that of many dolichocephalic Scandinavians.
The cephalic index, which varies between the extremes of 69 and 90, has
a mean of 81.1 for the total, 80.9 for the Republic sample, and 81.6 for
the Volga group. The standard deviation of 3.3 index points for the total
shows that the Carelians form a reasonably homogeneous group in this re-
spect. The head form of these basic Finns is therefore sub-brachycephalic,
or falls into an extremely high mesocephalic category. In size, as well
as in proportions, the Carelian head stands close to the old Neolithic
Danubian racial standard. The vault elevation of 127 mm. is high, but
not extremely high; it is equal to that of Iron Age Nordics in Scandinavia,
and comparable to that found on the skull among Danubians.
The forehead breadth of 105.8 mm. is again equal to that of Nordics,
while the bizygomatic of 139.4 mm. is slightly wider; the total face height
of 120.8 mm. is between short and medium. The facial index of 86.8
falls into a moderately broad-faced category. The nose is absolutely quite
short (50.9 mm.) and of only moderate breadth (35.5 mm.)» The resultant
nasal index, 70.2 in the total group and 69.5 in the Volga sample, lies
on the borderline between leptorrhiny and mesorrhiny. One of the most
distinctive measurements in this Carelian group is the interorbital diam-
eter, with a mean of 34.1 mm., which shows the expected wide-eyed Fin-
nish form.
344 THE RAGES OF EUROPE
On the whole, the Carelian sample shows nothing in common metrically
with the large-headed mesocephalic and brachycephalic populations of
western Norway and Denmark; it may be compared, however, most
profitably with the Iron Age Nordic type of eastern Scandinavia; in com-
parison with the latter, the Carelians are short in stature, short in ab-
solute head length, short in face height and nose height, and slightly
broad in face breadth. The metrical position of the Carelians among
living European races is comparable to that of the Danubian type in the
skeletal series. Both in pigmentation and in basic metrical character it
shows a certain fundamental relationship to the Iron Age Nordic form.
The observations tabulated by Zolotarev confirm this general impres-
sion. The facial outline is called rectangular in 55 per cent of the series,
and ovoid in 33 per cent; the nasal profile is straight in half the sample,
concave in 40 per cent, and convex in the remaining tenth. The tip of the
nose points upward twice as frequently as downward; the lateral profile
of the forehead is as a rule steep; in only one out of ten instances are the
two profile lines parallel, as in the characteristic Nordic form. Mongoloid
features, including an internal eyefold and extreme malar projection,
are not typical, but are more frequent in the series from the Garelian
Republic than in that from the Volga country. Only six men out
of 1008 have the true Mongolian eyefold and these are all in the Repub-
lic series.
From these observations as from the measurements, we derive a com-
posite picture of a moderately variable racial type which is more blond
than brunet, but prevailingly light mixed in pigment character; square
or oval faced, with a straight to concave snub-tipped nose, a steep, often
protruberant forehead, and only moderately projecting malars. A slight
facial flatness gives a superficial mongoloid impression, but evolved mon-
goloid features are usually lacking. Throughout there is an incipient
Nordic suggestion, and in roughly ten per cent of the whole, the Nordic
head form and facial features, with a longer, elliptical face and parallel
forehead and nasal profiles, appear. There is undoubtedly a submerged
Nordic element here, as well as a lesser mongoloid one.
In view of the general position of the central Finnic type, as exemplified
by these Carelians, it has seemed most in accordance with the facts to
leave the designation East Baltic for the larger-bodied, larger-headed,
and quite different population of the eastern Baltic states, whether Finnic
or Baltic-speaking, and not to attach it to this clearly differentiated racial
group which has its geographical center elsewhere. In view of the close
similarity between this central Finnic type and the Danubian racial en-
tity suggested -by the early skeletal material, and in view of the fact that
the earliest identifiable Finnic skeletal remains were mostly of this type,
THE NORTH 345
it has seemed appropriate, as stated in the concluding section of Chap-
ter VIII, to name this racial type Neo-Danubian.
In the early Finnish skeletal remains there was evidence of considerable
admixture with wide-eyed, broad-faced, meso- and brachycephals from
the northern forest, and to a lesser extent with what seemed to be Corded
people or evolved Nordics; these same admixtures are equally apparent
in the present amalgam, which however remains, for the most part, of
the same basic racial type to which the earliest agriculturalists to enter
central Europe overland from the east belonged. It is a mistake to asso-
ciate the origins of the Finnic people and Finnic speech with a forest
culture, on the basis of modern associations; the Finns were from the start
agriculturalists, and have remained such when circumstances have per-
mitted.
Let us now study the other Finnic groups inhabiting Russian territory.
Data on the physical characters of Ingrians are extremely scarce; the
Ijores,74 with a mean of 165.6 cm., equal the Carelians in stature, while
the two Leningrad tribes, the Evremeiset and Savakot,75 are taller
(167.1 cm.). The Ijores have a mean cephalic index of 82.6, the Vodes 76
of 83.2. Thus the deviation of the Ingrians, as shown by this evidence
from the Carelian standard, is in the direction of brachycephaly. The
Vepses, who live in a more northerly habitat, are close to the Carelian
means in these two criteria, with 164.0 cm. for stature, and 81.9 for the
cephalic index.77 Observations on a small series of Vepses,78 however,
show a majority of brown hair shades, of gray eyes, of broad noses, and
of oblique eyes, with a weak beard development in many cases, indicating
a higher Mongoloid content in this group exposed to Lappish and Sam-
oyed influences, than in most other Finnic samples.
Of the original Volga Finns, but two tribes, the Mordvins and the
Cheremisses, retain their ethnic identities, while still living in the center
of the original Finnish territory. The Mordvins are scattered in single
villages and groups of villages throughout the middle Volga provinces;
these settlements, although not continuous, contain collectively a large
population, officially enumerated by Zolotarev at 1, 167,537. 79 Some
35,000 more live apart from their own people in the Bashkir and Tatar
republics, while over 50,000 more have been settled in Siberia and in the
central Asiatic khanates. Since the Mordvins are excellent farmers and
74 Zolotarev, D. A., TRIP, 1928, after Prelov, E. I., Alexandrova, A. I., and UP,
E. F.
76 Ibid.
78 Zolotarev, D. A., Kareli, SSSR, after Alexandrova.
77 Zolotarev, D. A., Kareli, SSSR, after Rozov.
78 Mainov, V. N., 1877, from a r6sum£ in AFA, vol. 11, 1879, p. 329.
w Zolotarev, D. A., TKIP, #15, 1928.
346 THE RACES OF EUROPE
hardy colonists, they were sent eastward in large numbers by the czars
to settle newly opened agricultural lands.
The Cheremisses, who call themselves Mari, number about half a mil-
lion, and live to the north of the Mordvins in the neighborhood of Kazan.
Owing to its compactness, their territory has been given the status of an
autonomous district. They are usually divided into two groups, the Forest
Cheremisses and the Mountain Cheremisses; the former live in the low-
lands on the western bank of the Volga, while the latter inhabit a more
isolated territory to the east, where they preserve many pagan customs.
Besides following the usual Finnish pursuits of farming and bee culture,
the Cheremisses, like the Siberian Ugri, are also hunters and stream
fishers.
The Mordvins and Cheremisses resemble each other closely in an
anthropometric sense, and both in turn deviate but little from the stand-
ard established by our study of the Carelians.80 The Mordvin stature mean
is 166.4 cm., that of the Cheremisses 163.7 cm. In bodily proportions the
Carelian similarity seems complete; in head dimensions the only difference
is that the Mordvin vault (134 mm.) and that of the Cheremisses (130 mm.)
may be slightly higher, although these differences may in part be due to
technical factors. The faces of the Mordvins and Cheremisses are again
slightly larger than those of the Carelians, with nasion-nienton heights of
124 and 123 mm., and bizygomatic diameters of 141 and 140 mm. The
Mordvin nasal index mean, 65.4, is leptorrhine, while that of the Cher-
emisses, 71.4, is mesorrhine.
In pigmentation and in soft part morphology, these Volga Finns re-
semble the Carelians less closely. Bunak, Sergeev, and Mainov find re-
spectively 33 per cent, 52 per cent, and 60 per cent of light eyes among
the Mordvins; while there is no specific information regarding the hair
color of these people, Bunak's statement that 50 per cent of his series
belongs to a brunet pigment type would indicate that brown was the
commonest color. Among the Cheremisses, Sommier finds 28 per cent
of light eyes as against 39 per cent of dark ones; 21 per cent of "light
blond" hair, and 35 per cent which is dark brown and black. Thus the
Cheremisses appear to be darker than their more southerly neighbors, and
both darker than the Carelians. A special series of eastern or mountain
Cheremisses, measured by Nikolsky, shows clear differences from the major
80 The chief sources for Mordvins and Cheremisses are :
Bunak, V., RAJ, vol. 13, 1924, pp. 178-207.
Sergeev, V. I., PCZA, 1930, pp. 318-319.
Older works include :
Maliev, N., r6sum6 in AFA, vol. 12, 1880, p. 392.
Nikolsky, B., r6sum6 in AFA, vol. 26, 1899, pp. 187-190.
Sommier, S., APA, vol. 18, 1888, pp. 215-257.
THE NORTH 347
group — with a mean stature of 167.4 cm., a cephalic index of 78.6, and
60 per cent of blue and gray eyes, and only 32 per cent of black and dark
brown hair.
Observations of statistical value which describe these people are scarce.
However, there seems to be a moderately high incidence of concavity of
the nasal profile, 18 per cent among Mordvins and 39 per cent among
Gheremisses; of a median eyefold, which is a sign, as a rule, of a low bony
orbit — 34 per cent among Mordvins and 46 per cent among Cheremisses;
and 64 per cent of weak beard growth among Mordvins, and 77 per cent
among Cheremisses. In general, the Cheremisses seem more mongoloid
than the Mordvins, but on the other hand the isolated Forest Cheremisses
preserve the least mongoloid type of all, and that closest to a Carelian
and to a Nordic form. The implication is that while both Mordvins and
Cheremisses preserve their original Finnic type with considerable fidelity,
the infiltration of Mongol and Tatar peoples into their country since the
time that the ancestors of the Carelians and other western tribes departed
has had some recognizable effect upon them.
Parallel, in linguistic taxonomy, to the combined Baltic and Volga
Finnic group is that of the Permians. These are divided into three living
peoples, the Votiaks, Syryenians (or Zyrians), and Permiaks. All of
these peoples live north of the Mordvins and Cheremisses, from whose
general area they are said to have migrated. The most southerly are the
Votiaks, who, numbering approximately half a million, live on the banks
of the Kama River, a branch of the Volga, in the southeastern part of
the former Viatka government. This region has been made into the
Votiak Autonomous S. S. District by the Soviet authorities. Some 25,000
other Votiaks live in the Bashkir Republic, 20,000 in the Samarsk govern-
ment, 1700 in Siberia, and others still in the Tatar Republic. In general,
the modern destiny of the Votiaks has been to a certain extent associated
with that of Turkish-speaking peoples. In their own language they call
themselves Udmurt, and this language contains many loan words from
Chuvash and Tatar speech. They have, however, failed to become Moslem;
their religion, at the time of the Russian revolution, was officially Orthodox
Christianity, which served as a cloak for the retention of much of the
original Finnish heathendom.
Metrically the Votiaks resemble the Cheremisses very closely.81 A
cephalic index mean of 82 is slightly higher, and reflects a slightly smaller
head length. The mean stature is 162 to 163 cm. The pigment characters
81 Chief sources on the Votiaks are :
Chomiakov, M. N., TKU, vol. 43, #3, pp. 1-294. R£sum6 in ZBFA, vol. 17, 1912.
Maliev, N., TKU, vol. 4, #2, 1874, pp. 1-17. R6sum6 in AFA, vol. 9, 1876, p. 227.
Khonuakov, 1911, after Zolotarev, TKIP, 1928.
Teploukhov, S. A., after Zolotarev, TKIP, 1928.
348 THE RACES OF EUROPE
of the iris are similar to those of the Mordvins and Cheremisses, since
between 30 per cent and 35 per cent of eyes are called brown, and the
rest divided between blue, gray, and mixed colors. In head hair color
however, a difference may be seen, for Maliev's series shows that but
2 per cent are black, 32 per cent dark brown, 29 per cent brown, 15 per
cent light brown, and 7 per cent flaxen. Of the rest, 11 per cent are listed
as reddish-brown. Chomiakov confirms this high incidence of rufosity,
with 6 per cent of red hair color. Among Maliev's subjects only 1 5 per cent
had black -or brown beards; of the others 47 per cent were listed as red.
These Votiaks, then, are not as blond as the Garelians, but blondism is
frequent and characteristic; rufosity, notably absent from both the Car-
elian group and from the Iron Age Nordic race, and not important among
the two tribes of Volga Finns, becomes a major factor among Permians.
The Votiaks are usually deficient in body hair, and the beard is fre-
quently sparse, although in individual cases very heavy beards and very
abundant body hair are found. The Ainu-like pilosity of many Russian
peasants is commoner among Slavs than among Finnic speakers, but is
exceptional in both groups. Neither, by and large, are as hairy as most
western European brachycephals. The hair form is predominantly
straight, only exceptionally wavy or curly. Forty per cent of Votiaks are
listed as long- or oval-faced; the remainder as round-, broad-, or flattish-
faced. The nose is straight in 60 per cent of individuals, convex in but
12 per cent. Maliev states that 37 per cent are "solid" in bodily build,
only 6 per cent linear or thin. All in all the Votiaks are typical Finns,
slightly shorter and rounder headed than Carelians or Mordvins, oddly
rufous, and not noticeably more mongoloid than their southerly neighbors.
North of the Votiaks live two allied tribes, the Syryenians and Permiaks,
both of whom call themselves Komi. These two peoples are generally
lumped into a single category, especially since they speak mutually in-
telligible languages and occupy contiguous territories. The Syryenians
occupy the wide expanse stretching from 58° N. Latitude to the Arctic
Ocean, and from the Ural Mountains on the east to the Pinega River, a
tributary of the Dvina, on the west. There are also a few Syryenians who
live on the Siberian side of the Urals. The chief town of the Syryenians is
Ishma, on the Pechora River. The Permians live more on the eastern side
of the upper Kama River. Population statistics regarding these peoples are
very variable. Zolotarev gives 186,000 as the total for Syryenians living
in Russia, and 9566 for Siberia. Jochelson estimates the Syryenians at
260,000, and the Atlas of Finland at 364,000. Zolotarev finds 130,000
Permiaks in the Komipermiaktsk and Berhuekamsk districts of Uralsk
province.
Below 65° N. Latitude the Syryenians and Permiaks farm, and are noted
THE NORTH 349
for their skill and perseverance in obtaining crops at such high latitudes.
Beyond the line at which agriculture becomes impossible, the Syryenians
breed reindeer and live a less settled existence. They are noted for their
ability at trading and their general financial sharpness. In religion they
are said to adhere strictly to Orthodox tenets and to have forsworn the
pagan practices which linger on among the Votiaks.
In stature, in body build, and in head dimensions and proportions
both the Permiaks and Syryenians seem to be identical with their rela-
tives the Votiaks; 82 a difference between these peoples and the Volga
Finns, however, may exist in nose form, for the nasal index mean of the
Permiaks is 64. 9, 82 of the Syryenians 65. 7. 82 Only 1 1 per cent of Syryenians,
and 14 per cent of Permiaks, are said to have dark eyes; thus these north-
ern Permians are perhaps both lighter eyed and more leptorrhine than
most of the Volga Finnic group. One sub-group of Syryenians, living in
the Ust-Sylosk district, seems to have mixed with Samoyeds or other non-
Finnic peoples, for the cephalic index is 83.3, as contrasted with the usual
mean of 81 for other Syryenians, and the ratio of dark eyes is twice that
for the others.
In hair color, for the Syryenians as a whole, we find at last a series of
observations based on the Fischer chart, and taken on a series of 400
individuals.83 The authors divide the scale into three categories; dark
(Fischer #4-8), golden (#9-15), and ashen (#16-26). The percentages
are 53.1 per cent, 9.6 per cent, and 37.4 per cent. It is to be noticed that
no individuals were listed as black, or as red. A medium or dark brown
is the most numerous shade, with ash-blond next commonest. One is led,
in view of this, to suspect that the high degree of rufosity reported among
Votiaks may be partly of technical origin.
Summarizing the data on these Permian speakers, we may state that
they seem to resemble the Carelian norm more completely in head and
face form, and in pigmentation, than do the Cheremisses or Mordvins.
It seems likely that those Finns and Permians who dispersed from their
homes during the early centuries of the present era in a northward as well
as in a westward direction carried with them the older Finnish features,
while those who remained in their Volga home were to a greater extent
affected by Tatar and other influences. On the whole, however, the
82 Sources on these peoples are :
Alexandrova, A., Nurk, L., and U1J, E., PCZA, 1930, pp. 287-288.
Ivanovsky, A. L., AFA, vol. 48, 1925, pp. 1-12.
Maliev, N., TKU, vol. 16, #4, 1887.
Naiimov (after Zolotarev, TKJP, 1928).
Sevastianov (after Zolotarev, TKIP, 1928).
Vishnevsky, B., Anthropologicheskifa Dannifa o Naselenil Permskaga
88 Alexandrova, Nurk, and UP, op. cit.
350 THE RACES OF EUROPE
generalization that the entire body of Finnic and Permian speakers,
apart from the Baltic groups which remain to be studied, are closely unified
in race has been shown to be accurate.
Before concluding this survey of eastern Finno-Ugrian peoples, one
further group requires examination, that of the Ostiaks and Voguls, the
Ob-Ugrians, the primitive hunters and fishers of western Siberia, who
are the closest linguistic relatives of the Magyars. The Ostiaks have been
reduced to less than 20,000 individuals, while the Voguls number be-
tween 5000 and 7000. Some of the Ostiaks have been thoroughly Russian-
ized, while others have mixed with Samoyeds, and have taken over
reindeer breeding. At the time of the Russian expansion eastward into
Siberia, the Ostiaks were the first to feel the pressure, and hence the
southern part of their territory was taken from them, and they were re-
duced to more primitive circumstances than before.
One must expect the modern Ostiaks and Voguls to show the effects
of centuries of reduced conditions of living, and this is, indeed, manifested
in their reduction in stature; various means place them at levels between
154 and 160 cm., but the largest series of both groups fall in the 158-159
cm. category. The bodily form of both is in most cases slight and lean.84
Sommier, with a series of 106 male Ostiaks, finds 50 per cent to have
brown eyes, and the rest mixed and light; the Voguls are apparently
somewhat lighter eyed.86 About 25 per cent of Ostiaks have light brown
or blond hair, and the Voguls are again slightly fairer.86 In both groups
and in all series, black hair is very much in the minority. Ten per
cent of it among Ostiaks may well indicate Samoyed admixture. On
the whole, these Siberian forest Ugrians are the darkest of the Finno-
Ugrian-speaking peoples, aside from the Lapps, whom we have already
studied.
The head form of the two Siberian tribes is the same as that of
the Volga Finns and Permians, the dimensions somewhat smaller. The
faces seem to be shorter, and the noses are definitely mesorrhine. Pho-
tographic evidence makes it certain that both the Voguls and Ostiaks
have absorbed a perceptible amount of mongoloid blood, which man-
ifests itself especially in facial features. They are still, however, bas-
84 Chief sources on Ostiaks and Voguls are :
Maliev, N. M., RAJ, vol. 5, 1901, pp. 73-81.
Rudenko, S. L, BMSA, vol. 6, ser. 5, 1914, pp. 123-143.
Sommier, S., APA, vol. 17, 1887, pp. 71-222. t,
86 Rudenko finds 87 per cent of brown eyes among 53 Ostiaks, 76 per cent among
75 Voguls
86 Rudenko, again, has 96 per cent brown hair for Ostiaks, 81 per cent for Voguls. I
have taken Sommier's figures in preference to Rudenko's because Sommier's series are
larger and his hair and eye color classifications more detailed, permitting judgment
and recombination.
THE NORTH 351
ically similar in most characters to their relatives on the other side of the
Urals.87
(10) THE BALTIC FINNS: LIVS AND ESTHS
For the sake of continuity, let us return to the beginning of section eight,
in which we expressed the intention of studying the racial composition
of the Baltic Finns. We have seen, in the meanwhile, that the basic Finnic
racial type, to which belong the Volga Finns and their relatives from
Carelia to the Obi River, is a modern counterpart of the prehistoric
Danubian race, with leanings in both a Nordic and a Ladogan direction.
This type has been, therefore, named Neo-Danubian. It was this Neo-
Danubian racial type that the ancestors of the Baltic Finns must have
brought with them from the Volga country in their westward migrations
during the centuries immediately preceding and after the time of Christ.
The deviations of the modern Baltic Finns from this type will reflect the
influence of the earlier inhabitants of the Baltic shorelands upon the in-
vaders, and to a lesser extent, the influence of later peoples who have been
amalgamated into the Finnic ethnic body.
The earliest Baltic lands occupied by the invaders were Esthonia and
much of modern Latvia, including especially Kurland and Livonia.
These countries had, however, supported a population of some density
for centuries before the Finnish arrival. The old Kammkeramik people
of the tardy northern Neolithic are represented by the skulls from Salis
Roje; large crania of at least two varieties, an incipient mongoloid, and
a wide-faced mesocephal of Palaeolithic appearance. Food-producing
people of a later date, who settled in numbers along the southern shore of
the Gulf of Finland, are represented by numerous skeletal remains, which
show them to have been a composite population characterized by ex-
tremely tall stature, robust bones and large bodies, large heads, with
dimensions suggesting a blend of Corded and Upper Palaeolithic elements,
comparable to that in western Norway. The early inhabitants of Esthonia
87 There has been much misunderstanding about the head form of the Voguls, who
are usually called dolichocephalic in secondary works. This misunderstanding is prin-
cipally due to a misprint in Maliev's article (Maliev, 1901) in which the Vogul head
length mean is given as 183 mm., and the breadth 148 mm., while the cephalic index
is printed as 77. Actually, =* 80.9. Rudenko, in his series of 75 Voguls,
183
gives a cephalic index mean of 78.3, with length and breadth means of 192.2 and
149.9 mm. This figure, however, cannot represent the Voguls as a whole, since 72 Vo-
gul crania in the Anthropological Museum of Moscow University have a mean cranial
index of 78.3, which would be two points higher on the living. In the same way early
and unreliable samples of Syryenians yielded cephalic index means as high as 87, which
were widely copied and which, in company with the false Vogul mean, did much to
mask the essential unity of the Finno-Ugrians in head form.
352 THE RACES OF EUROPE
were especially high headed, and long and broad faced. It is the com-
bination of the Kammkeramik forest types with this extravagantly pro-
portioned human form, and with the immigrant Finns from the Volga
country, that has produced the modern Baltic Finnish racial entity.
The most southerly of the surviving Baltic Finns are the Livs, who in-
habit twelve villages situated along a strip of coast which extends on
either side of the promontory of Domesnes, at the southern entrance of
the Gulf of Riga, in the province of Kurland, Latvia.88 The Livs are the
last of the Finns in what is now Latvia to retain their native speech, for
on the eastern side of the Gulf of Riga, the Livonian language died out in
1862. In 1852 there were 2354 Livs; in 1881, 2374; by 1920, however,
the number had been reduced to 831, and it is probable that the Livs
are destined to lose their language as well as their ethnic identity.
In view of this impending absorption, it is fortunate that the Livs have
been subjected to careful anthropometric study.89 Two series of 100 adult
males each, measured in 1878 and 1922, both yield a mean stature of
174 cm.; hence the Livs are very tall, and have derived none of their
height through the modern increase mechanism which has elevated other
peoples in northwestern Europe. They are large boned, long limbed,
and at the same time heavy and powerfully built; their shoulders are broad,
but their relative sitting height of 51.3 shows an excess of leg rather than
body length. Their heads and faces are both large, comparable in size
to those of western Norwegians. Length and breadth diameters of the
head, with means of 193.3 mm. and 155.1 mm., produce a cephalic index
with a mean of 80.2, which, although the range runs from 70 to 90, is
not especially variable. It will be observed that the head form of the
eastern Finns has been preserved, while the head size has been greatly
increased.
In the facial dimensions, however, a menton-nasion height of 122.5 mm.
equals that of Carelians and other Finns of smaller total size, while the
bizygomatic mean, 145.8 mm., greatly exceeds the Finnish standard.
The resultant facial index, 84.1, is therefore low, and the Livs are definitely
euryprosopic. Other facial widths are also extremely great; the minimum
frontal mean is 110 mm., that of the bigonial 113 mm. Hence a broad
brow, and an extremely broad jaw are essential Liv features, as is a wide
distance between the eyes. Although no nasal measurements have been
taken, observations show that the nasal profile is usually straight, with an
upturned snub tip in many instances. The orbits are horizontal, the lips
88 The villages are (in Livonian) Musta-Num, Waida, Kuolka, on the Gulf of Riga;
and Sonag, Pitrog, Kuostrog, Irai, Sikrog, Ud Kiilla, Ira, Piza Kiilla, and Luks Kiilla
on the Baltic. The Letts call them by somewhat different names.
89 Vildes, J., LUR, vol. 11, 1924, pp. 93-181.
Waldhauer, F., %ur Anthropologie der Liven.
THE NORTH 353
usually thin, the lines which stretch from the nose to the corners of the
mouth strongly marked. The hair form, although straight in three-
fourths of the sample, is not infrequently deeply waved or curly. Further-
more, the body hair and beard are characteristically heavy.
The head hair, most frequently ash-blond or light to medium brown,
is shown by a correlation based on the Fischer chart to be lighter than
that for the kingdom of Norway, which is, on the same basis, the lightest
in Scandinavia.90 At the same time the eyes are specifically gray 9I in
74 per cent of the group, while blue eyes are exceptional, and brown irises
limited to 8 per cent of the whole.
The foregoing description of the Livs shows that their metrical resem-
blance to the mother-type of the Finns is not close, and that they must
have derived much of their racial heritage from the earlier inhabitants
of the eastern Baltic lowlands. At the same time they preserve, whether
by convergence or by heredity, the head form of the eastern Finns,
and some of the most characteristic Finnish facial features. Their chief
difference from the Finnic prototype is an excess of body and head size,
an excess of facial breadths, of blondism, and of hairiness. They repre-
sent an extreme form of what is designated in the present work as the
east Baltic race, a racial entity in which the previously described Neo-
Danubian race, whether acting through a Finnic or an Indo-European
linguistic and cultural medium, is a contributing factor.
The Esthonians, who number over a million in their own country and
some 1 50,000 in Russia, resemble the Livs in most respects.92 Tall stature
of 172 cm. or over is typical of the Esths who live on the island of Osel
and along the northern and western coast; inland, means of 170 cm. are
usual, while in the southeastern parishes this is reduced to 1 68 cm. There
is some evidence that the tall stature of the Esths is in part due to a modern
increase, since in 1878 regional recruit means draughted into the Russian
90 A comparison between Vildes's series of 100 adult male Livs with the younger Nor-
wegian recruit total from Bryn and Schreiner, with a series of Finnish hair samples
studied by the author, and with a Lettish series which will be studied later, follows.
The grouping is that of Vildes.
FISCHER DESIGNATION Livs
NUMBERS (VILDES) (100)
T „,-«,
LETTS
16-22 Lt. blond 3 1.46% 2.23% 1.33%
12-15,23-24 Blond 17 11.6 8.99 4.00
9-11,25-26 "Brunet" 45 37.1 40.22 49.33
5-8 "Dk. brunet" 29 44.9 48.60 40.00
4, 27, 28 "Black" 4 3.7 - 4.00
1-3 Red 2 1.34 -- 1.33
91 Apparently pure gray, since Vildes places "gray with brown rim" and "gray with
brown speckles" under separate categories. Waldhauer's earlier work agrees closely
with that of Vildes in eye color designations and ratios.
92 Grube, O., Anthropologische Untersuchungcn an Esten.
Michelsson, G., ZFMA, vol. 27, 1928-30, pp. 439-463.
354 THE RACES OF EUROPE
army varied from 166 to 169 cm. In bodily proportions the Esths are
seen to be frequently heavily built, with long bodies and the extremely
high relative span of 107 or 108. It was this excessive development of the
arms and shoulders, along with a wide mandible, that the Norwegians
found most characteristic of the Finns who had affected the population
of their southeastern provinces.
In head size and head form the Esths resemble the Livs closely, but are
slightly longer headed, with a national cephalic index mean of 79.3. At
the same time their faces are somewhat longer (124.7), while the excessive
jaw breadth remains the same. What difference there is between the
Esths and the Livs anthropometrically points to a greater Nordic content
for the former, which is not surprising, since there have been a consider-
able mixture between Esths and Swedes, and a considerable absorption,
in Esthonia, of early North Germans. The pigment character of the Esths
is prevailingly blond, comparable to that of both Livs and Swedes; 56
per cent of the hair is called "fair," 43 per cent brown, and less than one
per cent each are red and black. The eyes are blue in 25 per cent of cases,
and gray in 51 per cent, while the brown class is said to include 13 per
cent of the whole.
Two series of crania about 300 years old, from Esthonia and Livonia,
show that the modern head form of the Livs and Esths dates back at least
to that time.93 At the same time these skulls show that the immediate
ancestors of these Baltic Finns were broad-faced, not infrequently wide-
nosed, and often low-orbitted. They serve further to define the East
Baltic racial type in this region.
Out in the Gulf of Riga, between the Liv villages and the larger island
of Osel, is a small island called Runo, inhabited by an old population of
Swedish fishermen. These Swedes, the subject of a special investigation,94
closely resemble the Livs in most respects. The stature and head dimen-
sions are the same, and the faces are equally broad. Nasal dimensions of
56 mm. and 37 mm. yield a nasal index of 66, which is leptorrhine as a
mean, but one-fourth of the group is mesorrhine. The hair and eye colors
are predominantly blond, and as great a blondism is found here as among
the Livs. Ash-blond hair is found in over 60 per cent of the group. This
series is not, however, as homogeneous as that of the Livs, but shows two
distinct modes in a number of characters; one represents a sub-group with
a stature of 176 cm., a cephalic index of 78.5, a high vault, and a nasal
index of 63, while the other sub-group is characterized by a stature of
MKnorrc, G. von, ZFMA, vol. 28, 1930, pp. 256-312.
Priman, J., LUR, vol. 12, 1925, pp. 429-480.
Virchow, R., ZFE, vol. 10, 1878, pp. 141-154.
Witt, H., Die Schadelform der Esten.
"Hildfa, K., Fcnma, vol. 47, #3, 1927.
THE NORTH
355
169 cm., a cephalic index of 80.5, a lower vault, and a nasal index of 67.
Both sub-groups are equally blond, and equally ashen in hair color. These
sub-groups may represent in the first case a Nordic of strong Corded in-
spiration, in the second case a more typically Finnic element. This divi-
sion serves to emphasize the fact that in the East Baltic countries as else-
where the predominant type of the population is not stable, but individuals
showing older combinations are common.
(11) THE BALTIC FINNS: FINLAND
As we have seen in our review of Finno-Ugrian tribal history, Finland
itself was the last region to be invaded and fully colonized by Finns. At
the same time it has always
maintained close relationships
with Sweden, before as well as
after
from
COUNTY
DIVISIONS
IN FINLAND
EI3 Swedish
Speech over 50%
the Finnish migration
Esthonia. Skeletal re-
mains from Ostrobothnia, dat-
ing from the Early Iron Age,
resemble closely the Iron Age
Nordic crania from Sweden,95
while other skulls, from the
thirteenth and fourteenth cen-
turies onward, include a ma-
jority of brachycephalic ex-
amples, and thus witness the
arrival of the Finns from their
ancestral homelands in the
Middle Volga country, whence
they had been impelled by
Slavic and Turko-Mongol pres-
sure.
Modern Finland is divided
into nine counties (landskap)
which are based on old tribal affiliations, and also into administra-
tive divisions (Ian) of more recent designation. The counties, in both
Swedish and Finnish, bear the names of, and contain the proportions
of Finnish and of Swedish speakers shown in the table on the following
page.
MAP 11
86 Retzius, G., Finska Kramer.
Westerlund, F. W., Fennia, vol. 18, #2, 1900, pp. 1-31, 90-96; vol. 32,
pp. 1-43.
4, 1912,
356 THE RAGES OF EUROPE
ENGLISH OR SWEDISH
FINNISH
PER GENT SWEDES
PER CENT FINNS
Aland Islands
Ahvenanmaa
99.12%
.88%
Finland Proper
(Swedish communes)
87.6
12.4
(Finnish communes)
Lansisuomi
3.4
96.6
Satakunta
Satakunta
.9
99.1
Nyland
(Swedish communes)
69.4
30.6
(Finnish communes)
Uusimaa
24.4
75.6
Tavastland
Hame
.9
99.1
Southern Ostrobothnia
(Swedish communes)
95.0
5.0
(Finnish communes)
Etela Pohjanmaa
1.2
98.8
Savolax
Savo
.66
99.34
Carelia
Karjala
.70
99.30
Northern Ostrobothnia
Pohjois Pohjanmaa
.9
99.1
The Swedish population of Finland is almost exclusively confined to
the Aland Islands, to Finland Proper, Nyland, and Southern Ostrobothnia,
being concentrated in two non-contiguous coastal areas. The old Gothic
settlement was largely located in Finland Proper and Satakunta, between
the two Swedish areas of the present day.
These county divisions, which have their basis in tribal origins, are
marked by dialectic differences. The Suomalaiset, or southwestern Finns,
inhabit Finland Proper and Satakunta, and speak a dialect which, al-
though closest to the Esthonian of any in Finland, has been influenced
by the language of the Germanic people who preceded them and whom
they absorbed. The Hamalaiset or Tavastians are said to represent, in
least mixed form, the original Finnish invaders from Esthonia. The Savo-
laiset, or people of Savolax, are linguistically a mixture between Tavas-
tians and Carelians; the latter are naturally identified with their tribal
companions who live over the border in the Carelian S. S. Republic, and
whom we have already studied. The Kainulaiset, or Kvaens, who live
in northern Ostrobothnia and Finnish Lappland as well as in northern
Norway and Sweden, although mixed to some extent with Lapps, are lin-
guistically close to the Carelians. Historically, the Kvaens are, although
partly of mixed Finnish origin, to be considered as an early, northern
Carelian offshoot. The southern Ostrobothnians speak a dialect which
is transitional between Tavastian and Kvaenish, the latter being their
earlier speech.
These tribal differences are clearly reflected in stature; the Finns of
Esthonian origin and those in districts where Gothic and Swedish blood
has been absorbed, are tall, with local means as high as 172 cm., while
in the Carelian and Kvaenish provinces the mean stature runs as low as
THE NORTH 357
165 cm. There is no difference in this respect between the Swedish
speakers and Finnish speakers in the southern and western counties.96
The early recruit material enlisted between 1767 and 1906 shows the uni-
form stature mean of 169.6 cm., with less local variation than is found to-
day, and no evidence of increase. The range of these early soldiers is
from 137 cm. to 207 cm., and the latter figure reflects the fact that Finland
has furnished some of the world's most famous cases of giantism. Like
the Livs, the Finns have, apparently, always been tall, and have not been
as much affected by the modern increase as have their neighbors across
the Baltic. The bodily proportions of the Finns show no unusual features;
a relative span of 104.5 97 is higher than that of most Scandinavians, while
a relative sitting height of 53 98 is moderate.
The cephalic index means of the Finns vary from 79.3 in Finland
proper, which is the same as that of the southern enclave of Swedish
speakers, to 82.2 in Finnish Carelia, and 82.6 in northern Ostrobothnia.
The distribution of this index takes the form of a gradual rise from the
southwestern corner of Finland outward, to the east and north, until one
reaches Carelian and Kvaenish country. These differences in the cephalic
index are almost entirely differences in mean head length, ranging from
193.3 mm. in Finland Proper, to 188.1 mm. in Carelia and 187.6 mm. in
northern Ostrobothnia. The breadth remains constant at a mean of 153
to 154 mm.99 Thus the Garelians of Finland, and their northern relatives
the Kvaens, preserve, to a large extent, the old Finnish head size and
form, while the Finns Proper keep, in varying degree, the dimensions
and proportions acquired by mixture with the descendants of earlier Baltic
peoples, and with Goths and Swedes, both in Esthonia and in their new
home. The Finnish head height mean, as determined by Luther, is
127 mm., which agrees both with the early Finnish condition and that
to be expected from mixture with Scandinavians.
The faces of the Finns are large, with a constant bizygomatic diam-
96 There is an abundance of data on Finnish stature, covering roughly 150,000 indi-
viduals, from 1768 A.D. to the present. Principal sources:
Hilden, K., AFA, vol. 47, 1923, pp. 36-40.
Kajava, Y., AAnz, vol. 2, 1925, pp. 228-253; AASF, ser. A, vol. 25, #5, 1925; Fcnnia,
vol. 48 (Atlas of Finland), 1929, pp. 141-143.
Karvonen, J. J., AASF, ser. A, vol. 25, #6, 1926.
Nickul, K., AASF, ser. A, vol. 25, #4, 1925.
Westerlund, F. W., Fennia, vol. 18, #2, 1900, pp. 1-31, 90-96; vol. 32, #4, 1912,
pp. 1-43.
Wilskman, I., Tilastollisia tietoja Suomen kansan ruumuliscsta kehityksesta, III, Miesten
hasvutilastoa.
97 From unpublished material collected by Mr. Martin Luther for the Peabody Mu-
seum, and seriated by the author with the collector's permission.
98 Westerlund, F. W., Fennia, 1912.
99 Westerlund, F. W., Fennia, vol. 20, 1903, pp. 1-67. Also Luther's material.
358 THE RACES OF EUROPE
eter100 mean of 141 mm., whereas the menton-nasion heights vary pro-
vincially in harmony with the distribution of stature and of head length.
The mean for the total is 126.5 mm., and the longest faces are found in
southwestern Finland, while the shortest occur in the north.101 The nasal
index mean for Finland is 66, which is moderately leptorrhine and prob-
ably typical of the East Baltic group as a whole.102 The bigonial di-
ameter of the Finns is very broad,103 quite equal to the standards of the
Livs, and gives the Finnish face the square appearance for which it is
noted.
The pigmentation of the Finns is as abundantly documented as are
their stature and head form. Skin color, however, has been tabulated in
only one study104 of 154 males, of whom 121 were found to be "white,"
presumably in the extreme Scandinavian sense, while the others were
listed as "yellowish" or "brunet." General observation of Finns, how-
ever, and descriptions by various authors, lead to the conclusion that the
skin color of these people is as a rule unusually fair, but that in many cases
it lacks surface vascularity.
If one may judge by a series of 1 76 hair samples from various parts of
Finland, l05 then the Finns, like the Livs, are blonder than the Norwegian
total, but less blond than Bryn's selected Eastern Valley farmers. The
ash-blond series (Fischer #20-26) accounts for 26 per cent of the whole,
while brown (Fischer #6-8) totals 47 per cent, and dark brown and black
amount to less than 2 per cent. Reds are negligible, and black and
really dark hair less frequent than in Scandinavia. Westerlund's recruit
material 106 on a series of 6000 agrees with that of Luther, and yields
less than one per cent of red. The Finns and Swedes of the western
and southern provinces are almost identical in hair color proportions,
although the Finns have a little more ash-blond, and the Swedes a
little more brown. The distribution of hair color shows the greatest
degree of blondism among the Finns living in Nyland, Finland Proper,
and Satakunta — these have over 60 per cent of ash-blond and golden
shades, more than the Swedish speakers; while in Carelia and the two
Ostrobothnias the lesser blondism already determined for Carelians is
found.
The eye color of the Finns is, as one would expect, prevailingly light,
w° Kolmogorov, A. J., AFA, vol. 34, 1907, pp. 228-231. Also, Luther's data.
Rctzius, A., CRCA, 8me sess., Budapest, 1876, vol. 2, pp. 740-771.
101 Luther. Retzius, whose means are 14 mm. lower, obviously located nasion too low.
lflz Westerlund, F. W., Fennia, 1912.
108 Retzius, op. cit. Mean = 114 mm.
104 Eliseev, A. V., r6sum£ in AFA, vol. 26, 1900, pp. 803-807; from a Russian source.
106 Collected by Luther, matched to the Fischer scale by the author.
m Westerlund, F. W., Fennia, vol. 21, 1904, pp. 1-58.
THE NORTH 359
with blue commoner than gray, Westerlund finds but 7 per cent of brown
eyes, and 15 per cent of mixed, while Luther's mixed group comprises
15 per cent. Since the eye color of the Finns and of the Swedes in the
coastal regions is equally distributed, it is reasonable to suppose that
Finland, in this respect, is about equal to Scandinavia. Blue eyes, with a
regional maximum of 53 per cent, are commonest in southern Ostroboth-
nia; while gray eyes, attaining 37 per cent, are concentrated in Finland
Proper. In four-fold correlation tables blue eyes go especially with brown,
and gray eyes with ash-blond hair. The regional distribution of eye color,
while following faithfully that of stature, head form, and hair color, is
not as strongly marked as is the case with the metrical characters; the
maximum of Westerlund's blue -f gray classes combined is 83 per cent
in Finland Proper, the minimum 71.8 per cent in northern Ostrobothnia;
dark eyes vary only from 5.7 per cent to 9.1 per cent, in the same
counties.
Morphological observations on modern Finns are rare. Those which
are available indicate that the foreheads are usually high, broad, and only
slightly sloping, and that, in general, the total facial profile resembles that
of the eastern Finns rather than of Scandinavian Nordics. The nose is
most often straight or slightly concave, and the nasion region smoothly
curved over glabella, so that it is difficult to locate nasion. Browridges are
usually only slightly developed. The nasal wings are usually of moderate
spread, and as often flaring as compressed. Heavy mandibles, with power-
ful chins, are as typical of these as of other Finns. Within any random
Finnish gathering, it is possible to pick out Nordic individuals of ordinary
Iron Age type, as well as broad-faced, snub-nosed individuals who are
exaggeratedly East Baltic. There is a considerable individual range, al-
though the regional trends are well marked and constant.
On the whole the Finns are physically just what one would expect from
their history; an amalgamation between an intrusive eastern Finnish
population, Scandinavian Nordics, and' earlier elements local to the east-
ern Baltic shores. The Finnish invaders seem, here as in Esthonia and
among the Livs, to have preserved in many instances their characteristic
cranial and facial morphology, while at the same time undergoing a great
increase in size, and some increase in blondism, through the absorption of
the other racial factors. The various component elements have not, in
Finland, been completely absorbed and fused; correlations between stat-
ure, head form, face form, and pigmentation show that a tall, mesocepha-
lie, brown-haired, and blue-eyed strain, which probably represents a Nor-
dic element in a sense, but to a greater extent the old Corded race, may be
contrasted with a shorter, rounder-headed type, with ash-blond hair and
gray eyes, which is the original Finnic.
360 THE RAGES OF EUROPE
(12) THE BALTIC-SPEAKING PEOPLES
Our study of the northern racial zone of Europe has proceeded nearly
to its conclusion; except for the northern Slavic regions there remain only
the countries at the southeastern corner of the Baltic Sea, Latvia and Lith-
uania. These countries are occupied by the Letts and Lithuanians, the
only surviving speakers of the Baltic branch of Indo-European languages.
Baltic is a member of the Satem division, closest to Slavic, and is at the
same time the most archaic surviving form of Indo-European speech. It
was formerly once spoken by a number of other peoples, including the
Prussians, who gave it up in favor of German at the time of the Teutonic
Knights, and perhaps also the White Russians, who may have adopted
Slavic.
Like the rest of the Indo-European-speaking world, the original Baits
were presumably Nordics, representing a blend of some sort between
Neolithic Danubians and Corded peoples; unlike the other Indo-European
groups, however, they have left no sure skeletal remains from their early
history with which we may check this assumption. Their original home is
believed to have lain between the territories of Finns, Slavs, and early
Germanic tribes; it probably lay north of the old Slavic territory in south-
western Russia, on the upper reaches of the Dnieper. 107
It is not known when the ancestors of the Baltic peoples left this primeval
home and moved northwestward to their present habitat, but the bulk of
the migration probably did not antedate the beginning of the Iron Age.
During the late Neolithic of the northern countries, the River Diina,
which now bisects Latvia, formed the southern boundary of the Kamm-
keramik culture, with which the Salis Roje and Lake Ladoga cranial
types are associated; south of this river, descendants of the Corded people
were apparently in possession of the land until the arrival of Germans and
of the Baltic ancestors.
The ancestors of the Letts were the first to move northward; they were
not followed by the Lithuanians until the dawn of historic times, and his-
tory began in that region about 1200 A.D. About that time the top of the
Kurland peninsula was occupied, more extensively than at present, by
the Livs, who also held the coastal portion of Livonia, along the eastern
shore of the Gulf of Riga. South of the Livs, in Kurland, were the Kurs
themselves, a tribe of undetermined linguistic affiliation, but which, what-
ever its former idiom, was soon converted to Lettish speech. South of Riga
lived the Baltic-speaking Zemgaji tribesmen; east of them, along the
Diina, were the Seji; while the Letgaji, or Letts Proper, occupied the
whole eastern half of modern Latvia. In historic times, the last named
107 Hesch, M., Letteny Litauer, Weissmssen.
THE NORTH 361
moved westward and absorbed the remnants of the other tribes, giving
their speech and nationality to the present Lettish people.
The Germans, from the beginning, have played an important part in
the history of the Baltic states, both as immigrants and as purveyors of
Christianity and of mediaeval European civilization. In 1201 A.D. the
city of Riga was founded by Germans from Bremen and Hamburg, and
this was the commencement of a long period of concentrated German in-
fluence which made itself felt racially as well as culturally. The central
points of German culture in the Baltic lands were the cities of Riga, Dor-
pat, and Reval, which belonged to the Hanseatic league.
In the thirteenth century the German religious orders began their work
of conversion and conquest in this neighborhood ; first the Sword-brothers,
and then the Teutonic Knights. The latter were especially concerned
with battling the Lithuanians, who had, in the thirteenth century, forced
themselves into the territory between outposts of the order in Livonia
and Prussia. One of the results of the activities of the Teutonic Knights
was the defeat of the Zemgaji; these tribesmen left their homes in numbers
and joined forces with the Lithuanians, while the Letts themselves moved
westward to replace them.
Despite the activity of the orders, the Lithuanians became, during the
thirteenth century, a very powerful people, and founded an empire which
reached from the Baltic to the Black Sea, and which included much terri-
tory occupied by Russians. In 1401 a Lithuanian prince married the
Polish crown princess, uniting these two kingdoms, who together warred
effectively against the Teutonic orders. A century later the Russians in-
vaded Livonia, with 90,000 Tatar and Russian troops, and from this time
on the Lithuanian political power was weakened. The independence of
the Baltic peoples was destroyed in 1561, when Esthonia went to Sweden,
and Latvia and Lithuania were handed back and forth between Russia,
Poland, and Sweden; at the time of the final partitionment of Poland they
went to Russia. In the sixteenth century the reformation spread over Lat-
via and Esthonia, and as a result of this the Letts are now Protestants,
while the Lithuanians, who were the last Baits to be converted to Chris-
tianity, and who fell under Polish influence, are Catholics.
The ethnic significance of the history of this region is that much Ger-
man blood must have been assimilated as a result of the building of the
German cities, especially in Livonia, and Swedish and Russian influence
during the historical period must have had some effect as well. Seven per
cent of the modern population of Latvia and Esthonia is still German, and
the nobility is almost entirely German in origin.
Opportunities for the absorption of mongoloid blood came at several
times, especially in 1410, when the Lithuanian prince Witold sought help
362 THE RACES OF EUROPE
from the Tatar Khan Tochtamysch, and was given 40,000 men who subse-
quently settled on the banks of the Niemen River near Vilna. In 1432
more Tatar allies came from the Volga, and 3000 of them remained in the
service of the great Lithuanian princes.
The great Russian census of 1887 found 6540 persons of admitted Tatar
ancestry in Lithuania, Poland, Volhynia, and Podolia. Many more must
have been absorbed, while others, soon after their arrival, may have wan-
dered eastward to their former homes. At any rate, in studying the racial
composition of the Baltic peoples, the Finnic tribes who have been ab-
sorbed by the Letts (and in particular the Livs), the Germans, and the
Tatars must not be forgotten.
There is an abundance of adequate modern anthropometric data on
the Letts,108 which indicates, on the whole, that despite regional and in-
dividual variations this people may, as accurately as the Finnish speakers
upon whose territory they border, be considered representatives of the
East Baltic race. The mean stature of Latvian males is nearly 172 cm., as
tall as modern Nordics; this stature reaches the height of 174.7 cm. in the
district of Liepaja, in southwestern Kurland, along the Baltic shore. In
general it decreases slightly from west to east, but never goes below 170 cm.
in the country districts. The city population, which contains a large for-
eign element, especially German, is two centimeters shorter than that for
the nation. Bodily proportions show the Letts to be long legged, wide
shouldered, and long armed; a mean relative span of 107 places them in
the same class with the Finnish peoples.
The cranial dimensions and proportions are nearly the same as those of
the Baltic Finns; the mean head length of 190 mm. and breadth of 1 53 mm.
yields a sub-brachycephalic cephalic index of 81, while the vault height is
of normal East Baltic dimensions. A selected sample of supposedly pure
Letts, from the district of Cesvaine in eastern Latvia, has the same head
form as the others, but larger length and breadth dimensions (193 mm.
by 157 mm.). Unlike the Finns, however, the Letts seem once to have
been longer-headed; early skeletal material which may definitely be as-
cribed to their ancestors, and which dates from 800 to 1200 A.D., is dolicho-
cephalic, with a mean cranial index of 74.1 for a series of eleven male
crania,109 and of 74.4 for the same, with twelve female skulls added. These
skulls are of moderate vault height, quite short and moderately broad
faced, with mesorrhine to chamaerrhine noses, and low orbits. On the
108 Backman, G., FUL, N. F., vol. 29, 1923-24, pp. 99-126, 127-163; LUR, vol. 12,
1925, pp. 367-379.
Hesch, M., Lettcn, Litauer, Weissrussen.
Jerums, N., and Vitols, T. M., LUR, vol. 18, 1928, pp. 279-375.
Waeber, O., Beitrage zur Anthropologie der Letten.
i<» Knorre, G. von, ZFMA, vol. 28, 1930, pp. 256-312.
THE NORTH 363
whole they represent a variety of Nordic in which a short-faced, low-
orbitted element is especially prominent. The change in head form of the
Letts, uo less radical than that found in many parts of central and eastern
Europe, may almost certainly be ascribed here to a general absorption of
round-headed racial elements, of which several have been historically
traced.
In facial dimensions, the living Letts are again East Baltic, with broad
foreheads (110 mm.), moderately broad bizygomatic diameters (137-
140 mm.), and broad jaws (ca. 110 mm.). The face heights, at the same
time, are only moderately great (122 mm.), and the facial index is meso-
prosopic. An upper facial index of 50 falls into the broad category, and
emphasizes the depth of the Lettish mandible. The nose, moderately
leptorrhine, with mean indices varying from 63 to 67, is similar in size and
proportions to the Baltic Finnish standard. In a combined sample of Letts,
Lithuanians, and White Russians, Hesch has shown that taller stature is
associated with relatively long heads, narrow faces, and narrow noses, and
vice versa. This evidence indicates that a Nordic or Corded element, or
both, can probably still be isolated.
Pigmentation data on the Letts is abundant, and shows clearly that the
Letts, as a group, are as blond as Swedes and Norwegians. The skin color,
observed on the von Luschan chart, is uniformly fair, but rarely very vas-
cular. The hair color is ash-blond in half the entire series, while the other
half is more brown than golden blond. There seems to be very little black
hair, and red totals less, than one per cent. The distribution of hair color
shows regional variations, of reversed concentric order, for the ash-blond
hues are concentrated in the eastern half of the country, in the purest
Lettish territory, while the western and coastal regions, occupied in earlier
times by the Finnic tribes and by the enigmatic Kurs, is characterized by
brown shades, especially on the golden side of the scale. The eye color of
the Letts as a whole is predominantly light, with pure blues and grays
totalling one-third, and predominantly light shades reaching between
57 per cent and 59 per cent; pure brown eyes are very rare, but dark-
mixed eyes are not uncommon. On the whole, the hair color tends to be
proportionately lighter than eye color.
The hair form of the Letts is straight in over 90 per cent of cases. Hair
form was observed with hair color in the large recruit survey, and regional
differences noted. Such differences, however, are slight when compared
110 An inbred group of free farmers, holding special rights granted their ancestors in
the thirteenth century and confirmed by Gustavus Adolphus, has been studied by Jer-
ums and Priman. These people, who call themselves the "Kurish Kings," had been
reduced, by 1925, to a total of 11 men and 12 women. They are very blond, and the
men have a mean C. I. of 77.4, the women of 75.2.. Backman believes that they represent
the Lettish racial type of 700 years ago, preserved by inbreeding.
364 THE RACES OF EUROPE
with those of hair color. The western regions, especially the country of the
Livs and Kurs, have more straight hair than the east, but in no district
does wavy hair attain more than 10 per cent. The Letts are surely
straighter haired than are the peoples of Scandinavia, with the necessary
exception of the Lapps.
The foreheads of the Letts slope very slightly or none at all in the vast
majority of cases — retreating forehead profiles such as characterize the
classical Nordic type are seldom encountered. The foreheads are in most
cases likewise rather high and broad, and only moderately curved. The
cranial vault is of a rounded form, and lacks the sharp transitions between
the bones of the skull which have been seen in the Nordic. The occiput is
in most instances well curved, and both flat and excessively protruberant
forms are rare. The very few flatttened occiputs found by Hesch are at-
tributed by him to a minority Armenoid element brought in by the Ta-
tars, but it might equally well be ascribed to other sources.
The root of the nose is moderately high to quite high, and is of medium
breadth. The bridge is of moderate breadth, and is usually straight in pro-
file, although concave forms outnumber the convex. The tip of the nose
is well rounded, and usually horizontal in inclination. Both elevated and
depressed forms are infrequent. The wings are thin, highly placed, and of
medium lateral extension, although compressed forms are quite frequent.
The general impression of the nose is one of moderate height and breadth,
and of medium, normally inclined tip and wings. It is not notable for its
height or narrowness, and at the same time is only jrarely broad or everted.
It is a normal, intermediate European type of nose, not very different
from the Nordic. The lips are medium to thin, and usually have little or
no eversion, possibly because the bite is frequently edge-to-edge. The
teeth are said to be remarkably large and of excellent quality, with a mini-
mum of caries and malformations.
In the soft parts of the eye region, the upper eyefold hangs down to or
over the outer corner of the eye, in a characteristic external fold, in the
majority of fully adult instances. The opening of the eye slit is medium to
wide, and usually straight of axis, although in one-third of instances an
upward obliquity of the outer eye corners was observed. The malars are
rather prominent among the Letts, although not as frequently as among
most Finns. The lower angles of the jaw, too, are frequently salient, and
the face, although oval or elliptical in over two-thirds of instances, is in
other cases rectangular in form.
Body hair is absent in more than half of adult male Letts, and arm and
leg hair quite scanty. The mustache is described as being sub-medium in
thickness in over half of the cases, and the hair on the cheeks and chin is
even less abundant. Although the head hair is usually straight, the mus-
THE NORTH 365
tache and beard are characteristically wavy, the body hair wavier, and
the pubic hair, as with practically all Europeans, curly.
Although Nordic types may frequently be picked out of the Lettish
population, the general impression is that alongside the Nordic is found a
much more numerous element, equally blond, which is essentially East
Baltic, and which is much the same as that found among the Finnic-
speaking peoples farther north. The one region of Latvia in which unusual
or atypical racial conditions are found is the southwestern coastal section
of Kurland, the home of the linguistically unidentified Kurs, who seem to
have been especially characterized by extremely tall stature and brown
hair. This racial element is probably that which entered into the compo-
sition of the Livs to differentiate them from other Finns; and its general
description would suggest that here we are concerned with a maximum
survival of the descendants of the Corded people who found in this north-
ern retreat a relatively inviolable asylum.
Whereas the Letts have long been in close contact with Finnish peoples,
and have absorbed whole Finnish tribes, the Lithuanians have been in
contact rather with Slavic peoples, especially Poles and Russians. Ger-
man influence has been important in each, while in Lithuania there is a
not inconsiderable Jewish population. In Lithuania, however, we begin to
arrive in that complex part of Europe in which a village of one ethnic and
linguistic type is alternated with that of another; in which many kinds of
people live side by side, but between whom wholesale mixture is infre-
quent. Among the Lithuanians themselves there are two linguistic divi-
sions; the Jmouds or Samogitians, who number nearly half a million and
live in the western part of the Kaunas district, near the East Prussian
border, and the Lithuanians proper, who number more than three
millions.
Except for Hesch's study of war prisoners, the anthropometric sources
on the Lithuanians are old, and less complete than those on the Letts.111
They show, however, that the Lithuanians averaged two centimeters less
in stature than the Letts, both in the Russian census of 1874-83, and dur-
ing the World War. If they have increased in pace with the Letts, their
present stature mean should be 168 or 169 cm. If not, it should fall be-
tween 166 and 167 cm. Despite a shorter stature, the Lithuanians have
111 Baronas, I. O., RAJ, vol. 3, 1902, pp. 63-87; AFA, vol. 30, 1904, pp. 220-222.
Brennsohn, I., £ur Anthropologie der Litauer.
Hesch, M., Letten, Litauer, und Weissrussen.
Jantschuk, N. A., IILE, vol. 12, #6, 1890, pp. 200-211. R£sum6s in AFA, vol. 26,
1900, pp. 839-840; Anth, vol. 3, 1892, pp. 475-476.
Olechnowicz, W., ZWAK, vol. 18, 1895, pp. 47-76.
Talko-Hryncewicz, J., ZWAK, vol. 17, 1894, pp. 51-172; MAAE, vol. 9, 1907,
pp. 11-86; vol. 12, 1912, pp. 3-112.
366 THE RACES OF EUROPE
slightly broader shoulders and hips than the Letts, and these differences
are magnified in the indices of bodily proportions. The span is both abso-
lutely and relatively shorter, with an index of 105.6. The trunk length of
the Lithuanians is greater, and the lower arm segment shorter. Thus in
body build the Lithuanians frequently approach a thick-set constitutional
type, while the Letts are more characteristically linear.
In head and face measurements, the Lithuanians differ from the Letts
only in sagittal and vertical dimensions; the Lithuanian head is shorter,
with a mean length of 188 mm., while the cephalic index has a mean of
over 82; the facial breadths are similar to those of the Letts, while both
total and upper face heights are a millimeter less; both facial and upper
facial indices show a greater tendency to euryprosopy. The nose, at the
same time, is a little shorter; the interorbital diameter slightly wider. In
the interorbital, Hesch finds modes in his total series at 31 mm. and
34 mm.; the former seems to be Nordic, the latter East Baltic or Neo-
Danubian.
In pigmentation the Lithuanians are less frequently blond than the
Letts. This is true in skin color as in hair and eye shades, for over 70 per
cent of Lithuanians have skin darker than von Luschan #10, while only
46 per cent of Letts were listed in this category. Dark brown hair (Fischer
#4-5) is found in 40 per cent of Hesch's Lithuanian series, as against 21 per
cent for his Letts. Of the remaining shades, ash-blond is the most frequent,
and the darkest grade of ash-blond (Fischer #26), is the most frequent of
all single numbers. Larger series observed without scales agree essentially
with Hesch's material, but give the Lithuanians about 7 per cent of black
or nearly black hair. The vast majority of Lithuanians have mixed eyes;
only 10 per cent have pure light irises (Martin #15-16), as compared to
25 per cent for Letts; at the same time pure brown eyes number but 3 per
cent. On the whole, therefore, one cannot say of the Lithuanians, as of
the Finns, Esths, Livs, and Letts, that they are as blond as Scandinavians,
but they are still predominantly light. There are probably regional varia-
tions of which our present data give us little positive indication.
A comparative study of hereditary landed aristocrats and of small
land owners 112 shows, however, that class differences in physical type must
be even greater. The privileged class had, in 1912, a mean stature of
172.8 cm., the small land owners of 164.8 cm.; there was a slight difference
in pigmentation, with the gentry running to brown hair and blue eyes, and
their economic inferiors to lighter hair and mixed or brown eyes. The
head size of the upper class was much larger, but the head form, face form
and nose form were the same in each.
In hair form the Lithuanians, like the Letts, are almost all in the straight
112 Talko-Hryncewicz, J., 1912.
THE NORTH 367
category. Three per cent of Lithuanians have curly hair, as against 7
for the Jmouds, indicating that the farther east one goes, the straighter
the hair becomes. Among Lithuanians proper and Jmouds, and among
Letts as well, curly hair is almost always blond or light brown.
In observations of general head and forehead form the Lithuanians re-
semble the Letts, except that rounder heads with broader foreheads are
more frequent. The nasal root is less frequently high, but little different
in breadth; the bridge is somewhat broader, and runs to more convex
and concave extremes in profile. The tip points upward in 35 per cent of
cases, and is definitely snubbed in 22 per cent. In the high frequency of
this broad, up-tilted form the Lithuanians exceed the Letts by two to one.
On the whole the frequencies are greater at the extremes in the Lithuanian
sample than in that of the Letts, and indicate a greater diversity of nose
form.
The lips of the Lithuanians are somewhat thicker membranously, and
more frequently everted than those of the Letts, although still they must
be considered as medium. Great differences are found in the soft parts of
the eye, for while an external fold occurs in 55 per cent of Letts, only
1 7 per cent of Lithuanians have it. Some degree of upward obliquity of
the eye slit is found in 40 per cent of cases, slightly higher than with Letts.
The chin form is usually rather wide and rounded. Although we have no
comparative data on malars, the indication is that they are no less promi-
nent, in any event, than those of the Letts. Although the Lithuanians are
clearly less Nordic morphologically than are the Letts, they are at the same
time less typically East Baltic in the Finnish sense in the total contour of
the face, for more elliptical and fewer rectangular shapes are found among
them.
The Lithuanians differ again from the Letts in having much less body
hair, on chest and on arms and legs. Only 25 per cent have a medium
mustache thickness, as judged by ordinary European standards, while the
proportions on chin and cheek fall to 17 per cent and 10 per cent respec-
tively. The unusual glabrousness of the Baltic-speaking peoples, as best
exemplified by the Lithuanians, totally differentiates it from central Euro-
pean brachycephals of Alpine inspiration.
Talko-Hryncewicz, in his time one of the most assiduous students of race
in eastern Europe, measured a series of so-called Lithuanian Tatars, the
descendants of those Tatars who were brought into Lithuania for military
purposes during the Middle Ages.113 They differ physically from the
Lithuanians in many respects, and thus show that their absorption has not
yet been completed. In skin color more than one-fourth are brownish,
and an equal number yellowish, while less than half may be classed as
113 Talko-Hryncewicz, J., 1907.
368 THE RACES OF EUROPE
light or white; less than 30 per cent are light or light brown haired,
and over 70 per cent dark brown or black in hair color. In eye color
almost half are classified as brown, and very few appear to be pure
light. Although these Tatars are not purely brunet, they are much more
brunet than the Lithuanians, and the light elements among them may not
wholly be accounted for as the result of recent or local mixture.
In stature they are appreciably shorter than the Lithuanians, with a
mean of 162.8 centimeters. Their head form, with a cephalic index of
81.9, is no different from that of the Lithuanians, although the absolute
dimensions of the head, 183.6 and 151.4 millimeters, are smaller. Al-
though the facial measurements are not comparable, the forehead is even
broader than that of the Lithuanians, and the nose, while identical in
breadth, is even shorter, with a nasal index of 69.4. As nearly as one may
judge, these Tatars seem to have preserved in large measure the characters
of their ancestors.
The deviation of the Lithuanians from their Lettish kinsmen cannot,
however, be attributed in major degree to the absorption of Tatar blood.
The Lithuanians are more southerly in habitat than the Letts, and are in
contact with different neighbors; they form as a national group a branch
of the greater East Baltic race, but a somewhat different variety from that
of the other peoples living on the eastern side of the Baltic Sea. Their
divergence in a racial sense points to the populations which we will study
later in eastern Germany, Poland, and western Russia.
(13) CONCLUSIONS
The systematic study of the living peoples of the northern regions of
Europe, by geographic, ethnic, and linguistic groups, has led to the fol-
lowing conclusions:
(1) This zone still shelters various groups of Upper Palaeolithic sur-
vivors. These include both reduced and unreduced varieties. The former
includes the Lapps, whose home was formerly in the region of the Ural
Mountains, and the Ladogan type of the eastern forest, which has blended
with Danubian descendants to form a type known as Neo-Danubian. The
latter includes full-sized descendants of the Briinn-type men of the Aurig-
nacian, blended into the coastal population of Norway and into the
Icelandic racial body; it also includes brachycephalic Borreby descendants
in Norway, Denmark, and elsewhere.
(2) The eastern valley region of Norway, along with the Swedish plain,
forms an area of maximum survival of the Iron Age 'Nordic race of central
Europe.
(3) The East Baltic race in the strict sense is to be distinguished from
the Neo-Danubian; it is concentrated in the eastern Baltic countries only
THE NORTH 369
and consists of a blend of unreduced Upper Palaeolithic survivors with
Corded people and with Neo-Danubians.
(4) Completely evolved mongoloids live on European soil, on the rim
of the Arctic Ocean. These mongoloids are the Samoyeds, whose spread
westward and northward from central Asia has been recent. Neither the
Lapps nor the Ladogan derivatives are or ever have been fully mongoloid,
but they have evolved a certain distance in a mongoloid direction. There
is nothing specifically mongoloid about the Briinn or Borreby types, the
unreduced Upper Palaeolithic survivors.
Except for the Lapps, none of the racial types mentioned is confined to
regions studied in this chapter. We shall encounter all of the others else-
where.
Chapter X
THE BRITISH ISLES
(1) RfiSTJMfi OF SKELETAL HISTORY
In the earlier historical chapters, various sections have been devoted
to the racial history of Great Britain and Ireland. Before commencing
the study of the living population of these islands, we shall bring this
material together in a brief but continuous resum6, and dilate at greater
length upon the skeletal remains which cover the period from the Middle
Ages through the seventeenth century, to the threshold of modern times.
Fortunately the documents concerning British racial history are abundant,
and the picture which can be drawn is relatively clear.
Beginning with the Pleistocene, we recall that the earliest known sapiens
men, Swanscombe and Galley Hill, were excavated from English soil,
as was the still problematical Piltdown. During the last interglacial
and the time of the final maximum ice, available portions of Great
Britain were inhabited by men similar to the Upper Palaeolithic popula-
tion in France, while in the post-glacial Mesolithic period, hunting and
fishing peoples of central European origin invaded Scotland, and fur-
nished to Ireland its earliest human inhabitants. This Mesolithic popula-
tion is represented by the MacArthur's Gave skeleton, which resembles
the Brunn-Pfedmost group of Late Pleistocene central Europe, and by
others of doubtful age in both Scotland and Ireland, which belong essen-
tially to the same racial type. These unreduced Upper Palaeolithic de-
scendants who sought refuge in the British Isles after the glacial retreat
clung on through a Late Mesolithic, and their descendants form, as we
shall see presently, an element of some importance in the present racial
composition of certain British regions.
The Neolithic economy was probably first brought to Britain by the
bearers of the Windmill Hill culture from the Continent, and they in
turn were members of the group which had invaded western Europe from
North Africa by way of Gibraltar. The racial type to which these Windmill
Hill people presumably belonged was a small Mediterranean, but there
is little or no direct skeletal evidence from England to confirm this. By
far the most important Neolithic movement into Great Britain, and into
Ireland as well, came by sea from the eastern Mediterranean lands, using
Spain as a halting point on the way. It was this invasion which passed
up the Irish Channel to western and northern Scotland, and around to
370
THE BRITISH ISLES 371
Denmark and Sweden. The settlers who came by sea were the Megalithic
people, and belonged to a clearly differentiated variety of tall, extremely
long-headed Mediterranean, which was presumably for the most part
brunet. This racial group furnished both Great Britain and Ireland, which
consisted, before their arrival, of nearly empty land, with a numerous and
civilized population which has left many descendants today.
With or shortly before the introduction of metal, the British Isles were
invaded from both sides by fresh settlers. From the west came a triple
combination of Borreby brachycephals, Corded people, and eastern
Mediterranean Binaries, under the hybrid auspices of the Zoned Beaker
culture, which had grown into an important entity in southern and west-
ern Germany; these people entered England and Scotland, but not Ire-
land. From Spain or the southwestern French coast came the Food Vessel
people, who represented the Dinaric element only, and who went first to
Ireland and thence over into Scotland. Thus all parts of the British Isles,
with the virtual exception of Wales, received an infusion of Dinaric blood,
while the oversized Borreby and Corded elements also entered Great
Britain, but avoided Ireland. These Bronze Age invaders pushed their
Megalithic predecessors back into the hills and into economically unde-
sirable country, whence many of their descendants later reemerged. The
Bronze Age lasted long in the British Isles, especially in Scotland, and the
new Bronze Age racial amalgam attained a firm foothold, especially in
eastern Scotland, in Yorkshire, and in such open country regions as Wilt-
shire, Gloucestershire, and Derbyshire. In the Late Bronze Age cremation,
which had been an alternative funeral rite before, now became so fashion-
able that this period is a blank in our knowledge of British racial history.
What few bones escaped complete destruction, however, suggest that
with this new rite came an Alpine racial element from the Swiss high-
lands. This element could not, however, have been numerically very
important.
Whoever the Bronze Age peoples were,' and whatever languages they
spoke, we know that the Iron Age invaders were uniformly Keltic; they
came in various waves and at various times, through various ports of entry,
but the cranial type of the invaders was inevitably the same. Both the
Goidels of Ireland, and the Kymric A and B invaders of England, belonged
to the Keltic Iron Age branch of the Nordic race; a type characterized
by a medium-sized mesocephalic skull, with a low vault, a sloping fore-
head, a cylindrical lateral vault profile, a long, prominent nose, and a
relatively small lower facial segment. Those who entered Ireland were
tall; those who settled England and Wales were perhaps shorter. The
Belgae, the last of the Iron Age Kelts or near-Kelts, despite their alleged
Germanic mixture, cannot be shown to have differed from the others.
372 THE RACES OF EUROPE
These Keltic invasions furnished Ireland with her upper class, but appar-
ently not with the bulk of her population; in England regional Iron Age
cemeteries disclose the survival of Bronze Age types, although the Keltic
Iron Age people furnished a larger ultimate population element than
any other contributing group which came before or after. These Kymric-
speaking Iron Age people settled Britain as far north as the Clyde, but
failed to penetrate the center and north of Scotland, where the Bronze
Age people, who were apparently the Picts, continued undisturbed until
after the time of Christ. The Cruithni, the Irish counterparts of the
Picts, seem to have been absorbed by their neighbors earlier.
In Ireland the conquering Goidels were organized into clans, under
the leadership of the high kings of Tara; other clans, formed of subservient
people, and presumably of aborigines, were numerous, and gave the island
its name. The mythical history of Ireland constantly refers to the arrival
of immigrants, in different waves, from Spain. The Milesians, the actual
Goidels, are said to have come directly from Spain, where they had so-
journed for a short while, and before that from some distant homeland.1
The crania from the Iron Age tombs are presumably those of Goidels,
and not of the survivors of the previous inhabitants, some of whom,
according to Irish legend, vanished underground, to haunt the megalithic
monuments.
The Romans, in their conquest of Britain, probably introduced little
of ultimate racial importance. The Roman officers themselves were almost
exclusively of the standard Italic type, which differed little from that of
the Kelts, except in stature; but they introduced to London and other
towns urban populations from various parts of the empire in which the
Alpine race seems to have been most noticeable.2
The inruption of the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, which brought to
England her present language and national identity, introduced into the
eastern counties of both England and Scotland a numerous population of
Iron Age Nordics fresh from Denmark and Germany. The Anglo-Saxons
were tall, heavy-boned, long-faced mesocephals showing suggestions of
the Tronder racial type which we have already studied in Norway.
At the same time that the Saxons were pressing the Picts on the eastern
Scottish coasts, the Irish Goidels were, invading Scotland from the east,
and the two groups, the Germans and Kelts, squeezed the Picts between
the two jaws of a pair of pincers. The Picts lost their language, whatever
it may have been, and their ethnic identity, and at the same time Scotland
assumed her traditional segregation into east and west, highlands and
lowlands, Gaelic and Saxon speech.
1 Hubert, H., The Rise of the Celts, pp. 192-197.
2Morant, G. M, and Hoadley, M. F., Biometrika, vol. 23, 1931, pp. 191-248.
THE BRITISH ISLES 373
The westward penetration of the Anglo-Saxons farther to the south
isolated the shrinking area of Kymric speech into three disconnected
centers; Strathclyde in the north, Wales in the middle, and Cornwall in
the south. Of these three Strathclyde was the first to lose its Keltic speech,
while that of Cornwall survived into the last century, and Welsh still re-
mains. Soon after the Saxons had established themselves in England and
Scotland, they were hampered by fresh invasions from Scandinavia, of
Danes and Norwegians, who took over the most strongly Saxon sections
of eastern England and Scotland. The Northmen sailed around the north
of Scotland, settled the Orkneys, and also left colonies in the Hebrides
and other western Scottish Isles, and in many parts of Ireland. Dublin
itself and its neighborhood were long Danish territory. Along the western
coast of Ireland, in many places where Gaelic speech has persisted longest,
as on the Aran Isles, there may be seen a strong Scandinavian cast in
the racial appearance of the population. The Norman invasions brought
to the British Isles a further Scandinavian increment, somewhat mixed
by its continental sojourn, and along with it adventurers from many parts
of Europe. These Normans were not numerous enough, however, to
affect any but the uppermost social levels of the nation.
The post-Norman racial history of England may be reconstructed to
a certain extent by means of six large and abundantly documented series,
three from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and three from the
seventeenth. The first three will be dealt with, not in chronological order
because that is not precisely known, but rather in geographical sequence,
from northeast to southeast to west.
In Rothwell, near Kettering in Northamptonshire, in the heart of the
country most thickly settled by Saxons and later by Danes, a cryptful of
skulls and other bones were discovered, about two hundred years ago,
in an old church. Although the exact age and origin of these remains
is not known, the most logical explanation is that they represent the local
population of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.3 The crypt contains
between five and six thousand skulls, of which 100 male examples have
been measured. Owing to the dampness of their resting place, the facial
skeletons were mostly gone, and the few faces that had survived were not
measured. The vaults fall quite close to the Keltic Iron Age type, al-
though they are not identical with it, differing in possessing a greater
flatness of the cranial baseband a slightly greater forehead breadth. They
do not, however, resemble the skulls of Anglo-Saxons, and the significance
of this series is that in the heart of Saxon country a population should have
existed, as early or as late as the fourteenth century, which had almost
entirely reverted to a pre-Saxon racial type. The male stature mean,
* Parsons, F. G., JRAI, vol. 40, 1910, pp. 483-504.
374 THE RACES OF EUROPE
of 167 cm., is furthermore shorter than that of the Saxons and closer to
what we assume to have been the Keltic Iron Age level.
In the vaulted ambulatory of St. Leonard's Church at Hythe, Kent,
is another collection of skulls presumably from the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries, although they may range anywhere in date between 1100 and
1600 A.D.4 These crania, of which 112 male specimens have been thor-
oughly studied, represent a fairly homogeneous brachyccphalic group,
of small to moderate head size, and of Alpine racial type. They can by
no means be considered a Bronze Age survival, since they differ pro-
foundly from any known Bronze Age form; they resemble, however, the
Spitalsfields crania from Roman London, which represents a continental
population, probably largely Italian, which had been transplanted to
London by the Romans.
Stoessiger and Morant believe that by the time of this Kentish series,
the Roman population of London, which must have survived the de-
parture of the Roman authorities by several centuries, had been largely
eliminated and replaced by new blood. In Kent, however, which was
one of the most thoroughly Romanized parts of Britain,5 they postulate a
racial survival of the descendants of Roman-planted auxiliaries, marines,
and tradesmen into the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Variations in
the cranial index in different parts of the ambulatory suggest that the
original heaping, being chronological, revealed a gradual change of type.
In any case, the modern Kentish population is not of this Hythe type,
which seems in the meanwhile to have disappeared by absorption.
A third but small collection of skulls of the same period comes from
the mediaeval Carmelite Cemetery at Bristol.6 It is estimated that during
the fourteenth century 20 per cent of the inhabitants of Bristol were immi-
grants from southern France, but that in the following centuries this ele-
ment, since it was not renewed, was absorbed into the general population.
At the same time immigrants entered from Wales, Gloucestershire, and
Somersetshire, in connection with the growing maritime importance of
Bristol, and these latter replaced the French influence with a Kymric
tinge.
In the early Bristol series, in which French blood was without doubt
an important factor, mesocephaly is the rule, with a considerable range
of head form. Both ordinary Keltic Iron Age type crania are found, and
moderately large Alpine brachycephals with wide foreheads, which seem
4 Stoessiger, B. N., and Morant, G. M., Biometrika, vol. 24, 1932, pp. 135-202.
Parsons, F. G., JRAI, vol. 38, 1908, pp. 419-450.
5 West Hythe, Portus Limanus, was an important seaport in Roman times and later,
but declined when the harbor silted up about 1 600 A.D.
«Beddoe, J., JRAI, vol. 37, 1907, pp. 215-219.
See also Andree, R., Globus, vol. 27, 1900, p. 135.
THE BRITISH ISLES 375
to represent the French element. In our three series from the fourteenth
and fifteenth centuries, then, we are struck by the tendency in England
for local racial enclaves to persist and to be formed; the Rothwell series
represents an Iron Age survival, that from Hythe a colonial carry-over
from Roman times, and the Bristol collection a local Keltic and conti-
nental combination.
Let us turn to the seventeenth century, during which disasters of great
magnitude took place in London, the chief of which was the great plague
of 1666 A.D. Wholesale deaths which occurred during this century over-
crowded the cemeteries, and resulted in the dumping of bodies into plague
pits. Thus were formed the two large cranial series of Whitechapel 7
and Moorfields,8 while a third, the Farringdon Street series,9 was ob-
tained by the disposal of a cemetery to obtain building space.
These three series are very similar to one another, although they are
not identical; they, nevertheless, represent a single, clearly differentiated
and reasonably homogeneous population. In all measurements, indices,
and angles little difference can be found between the three hundred male
crania of which these series are composed and the general series of Iron
Age Keltic invaders of England. The resemblance is morphological as
well as metrical; for the same low, cylindrical vaults, the same exagger-
atedly sloping foreheads, and the same pinched faces and narrow noses,
typify this city population of seventeenth century Londoners. The con-
tinental Roman townsman, as exemplified by the Spitalfields series, seems
to have died out utterly in Defoe's London. There may, as Morant sug-
gests, have been social selection at play in the formation of these series;
the upper classes may have disposed of their dead elsewhere; still the
seventeenth century London type must have been predominantly Iron
Age Nordic of the Keltic variety, and this in turn must have been an-
cestral to the modern Cockney. The arrival in London and other English
towns of several thousands of French Huguenots and of Dutchmen fleeing
the cruelty of the Duke of Alva, took place for the most part too late in
the seventeenth century for inclusion in the plague pits.
That the Keltic Iron Age cranial type, in mediaeval and modern times,
is not confined to London, is made evident by a number of series from
graveyards in other regions. A collection of 524 male skulls from a modern
Glasgow cemetery, representing the western-central part of Scotland,
shows the predominance of this racial type with considerable fidelity.10
This series is drawn from the region in which the Scots of Deira settled
7 MacDonnell, W. R., Biometrika, vol. 3, 1904, pp. 191-244.
8MacDonnell, W. R., Biometrika, vol. 5, 1906-07, pp. 88-104.
"Hooke, B. G. E., Biometrika, vol. 18, 1928, pp. 1-55.
10 Young, M., TRSE, vol. 51, 1917, pp. 347-454; Biometrika, vol. 23, 1931, pp. 10-
22.
376 THE RACES OF EUROPE
when they moved across from Ireland and began their conquest and ab-
sorption of the Pictish kingdom. The inference is that the Goidelic in-
vasion of western Scotland was an important mass movement of people.
Another series, including 54 male Lowland Scottish crania,11 was drawn
from the counties which include the former Kymric kingdom of Strath-
clyde, as well as part of Berenicia. In this series both Keltic Iron Age
and Saxon type crania are represented, the former with the greater fre-
quency. It is to be noted that the cranial type of the northern Kymri
is not perceptibly different from that of the Irish-derived Gaels.
A third series, consisting of 22 modern male crania from the north-
eastern shires of Scotland, and mostly from Fifeshire, differs radically
from the two described above.12 Ten out of the twenty-two crania are
brachycephalic, with the highest index 87, and the mean for the groups
is 80.2. These skulls are large, with a mean cranial length of 185.4 mm.;
they are both wide and long faced, with a bizygomatic mean of 135 mm.,
and a menton-nasion height of 123 mm.; they fall morphologically as
well as metrically into a full-sized Bronze Age category, and represent
the usual Bronze Age blend in which Borreby and Dinaric elements are
most noticeable. The importance of this series is that in the part of Scot-
land which remained Pictish longest, an aggregation of crania from as
late as the nineteenth century, selected at random, should show the sur-
vival of Bronze Age racial types in comparative purity.
(2) IRELAND
In the following study of the racial character of the living population
of the British Isles, I shall reverse the usual order of "Great Britain
and Ireland," and deal first with Eire. There are two excellent reasons
for this decision; in the first place, Ireland, being the westernmost of the
two islands, is the more marginal in an ethnological as well as geograph-
ical sense, it is the less varied, and has had the simpler racial history;
in the second place, anthropometric data concerning the Irish are abun-
dant, accurate, and detailed, while those which serve to describe the
English, Welsh, and Scots are far less satisfactory.13
11 Hooke, B. G. E., and Morant, G. M., Biometrika, vol. 18, 1926, pp. 99-104.
Turner, Sir W., TRSE, vol. 40, part iii, 1902-03, pp. 547-614; JAPL, vol. 37,
1903, pp. 392-408.
12 Reworked from Turner, TRSE, vol. 51, 1917, pp. 171-253.
13 This section is almost entirely based upon the as yet unpublished series of some
10,000 adult Irish males, drawn from all counties, all religious communities, and all
social and occupational levels in both Eire and Northern Ireland. This huge and
amply documented series was measured by Mr. C. Wesley Dupertuis under the auspices
of the Division of Anthropology of Harvard University, and with the close cooperation
of both governments in Ireland. The data have been tabulated and seriated in the
Harvard Anthropometric Laboratory, under the direction of Professor Earnest A.
THE BRITISH ISLES 377
Historically, we have seen that Ireland was settled at successive periods
by Palaeolithic survivors from northern Europe by way of Scotland, by
Megalithic Atlanto-Mediterraneans, by Dinaric peoples from the eastern
Mediterranean who came by way of Spain, by Keltic Iron Age Nordics,
and by various groups of Scandinavians, of Normans, and of English.
Of these various peoples the one which gave the island its language and
the characteristic flavor of its historic culture was the Keltic. Christian
Iron Age skeletal remains, from various parts of Ireland, belong pre-
dominantly to the Keltic Iron Age type, and are very similar to the
skeletal series from sixteenth century London reviewed in the last section.14
The living Irish, who form the world's largest surviving bloc of Keltic
people in the cultural sense, are also to a certain extent and in many in-
stances representatives of this racial type; but this is not the chief one
represented, and the individual Irish frequently recapitulate each of the
different racial elements which have contributed to Irish ethnic history.
By and large, geographical differences in Ireland are not great; it is pos-
sible to define a mean or total Irish type, and then to see how this may be
broken up into local elements.
The composite Irishman, representing the mean of ten thousand of
his countrymen, is 35 years old, 172 cm. tall, and weighs 157 pounds.
He is well built, muscular, and large boned, with shoulders 39 cm. broad,
and a trunk length which is 53.3 per cent of his total height. His arms
are long, and his span is 105.3 per cent of his stature. So far, his bodily
dimensions and proportions might be matched among western Nor-
wegians, Icelanders, many Swedes, Livs, and Finns of Finland. His head
is large, for Ireland has consistently the largest head size of any equal
land area in Europe. The three principal vault dimensions of his head,
196 mm. by 154 mm. by 125 mm., give him the mesocephalic cephalic
Hooton. This material will be summarized in the following pages with the express per-
mission of the appropriate authorities; its present use is intended in no way to antici-
pate the later publication of a detailed report by Professor Hooton and Mr. Dupertuis,
which report will contain a careful racial analysis impossible here. Opinions expressed
in these pages as to the racial significance of this material are rny own, and do not
necessarily anticipate the findings of the future authors of the detailed monograph.
Earlier works upon the physical anthropology of the living Irish, useful for compara-
tive purposes and for detailed regional study, include:
Beddoe, J., RBAA, vol. 64, 1894, p. 775.
Browne, C. R., PRIA, ser. 3, vol. 3, 1893-96, pp. 317-370, 587-649; vol. 4, 1896-
98, pp. 74-111 ; vol. 5, 1898-1900, pp. 223-268, 269-293; vol. 6, 1900-02, pp. 503-534.
Haddon, A. C., and Browne, C. R., The Ethnography of the Aran Islands.
Series of Irish measured in America are to be found in:
Gould, B. A., Investigations in the Military and Anthropological Statistics of American Soldiers.
Davenport, G. B., and Love, A. G., Army Anthropometry.
Hrdlifcka, A., The Old Americans.
" Howeils, W. W., AJPA, vol. 23, 1937, pp. 19-29.
Martin, C. P., Prehistoric Man in Ireland.
378 THE RAGES OF EUROPE
index of nearly 79, and the moderately hypsicephalic length-height index
of 64. His cranial vault, like his body, could again be matched among
the larger-headed peoples of Scandinavia and the Baltic lands.
Both his forehead and his lower jaw are unusually broad, with minimum
frontal and bigonial diameters of over 109 mm.; this great facial breadth
is furthermore expressed by a bizygomatic diameter of 141 mm. The
face is long as well as broad, with a menton-nasion height of 127 mm.,
and an upper face height of 73 mm. The facial index of over 90 is lepto-
prosopic, while the upper facial index of less than 52 is mesene. The nasal
dimensions of 56 mm. and 36 mm. indicate a large nose, with an only
moderately leptorrhine nasal index of between 64 and 65.
Without further details, it is possible to state what, in a general sense,
the metrical dimensions and proportions summarized above must mean.
In stature and in sagittal dimensions of the head and face, the composite
Irishman might well be considered a Nordic in the Iron Age sense, of
the Hallstatt variety as represented by living inhabitants of eastern Nor-
way, or even of the Keltic Iron Age variety as represented by abundant
skeletal series from England. But in total bulk and in lateral diameters,
he exceeds any known Nordic form, and in fact cannot be considered an
unmixed descendant of the greater Mediterranean family of races. He
is comparable in these respects to the western Norwegians, to the Livs,
and to some of the Finns. In order to explain his metrical character, it
is necessary to invoke the mass absorption by either Megalithic Atlanto-
Mediterraneans, or Iron Age Nordics, or both, of an earlier Upper Palaeo-
lithic strain, which entered Ireland in a Mesolithic cultural condition.
The living composite Irishman is not a pure Cr6-Magnon or Briinn-
Pfedmost man, but it would be no exaggeration to say that, from a met-
rical standpoint, at least half of his genetic ancestry is to be derived from
such a source. Since the number of Mesolithic cultural survivors must
have been quite small in proportion to that of the later invaders of Ireland,
we are faced with a not uncommon situation, in which an older racial
element has, by differential breeding rates, reemerged.
Having established our composite Irishman, let us see what the dif-
ferences are from this standard in reference to religious groups and to
regions. The Catholics, who form the great majority of the population,
fall close to the means reviewed above. The Presbyterians, who are con-
centrated in the North and who are in part the descendants of immigrants
from Scotland, are a centimeter taller and three pounds heavier than
the Catholics; their heads are a millimeter longer, a millimeter narrower,
and a millimeter higher; their foreheads are a little narrower, their upper
face heights longer, while other dimensions remain practically the same.
The members of the Anglican Church of Ireland, on the other hand, are
THE BRITISH ISlES 379
virtually the same as the Catholics in height and weight, and in head
length and head height, but are smaller in head breadth, the three
breadths of the face, and in nose size. While the Orangemen slightly
exceed the Catholics in some of the features which make the Irish type
distinctive, the Church of Ireland Protestants tend rather toward a more
usual Nordic metrical norm.
The regional differences are not great, with a single exception, that of
the Aran Isles. The hypermarginal, culturally conservative Gaelic speakers
of these islands seem to have formed, in isolation and by inbreeding, a
distinct local racial entity. They are the tallest Irish group, with a mean
stature of 174.5 cm.; they are longer legged, leaner, and lighter in weight
than most of the others; their head length mean reaches the excessive
dimension of 198.3 mm., while their head height, 120.3 mm., is ex-
tremely low. Thus they have the relatively low cephalic index of 77.8,
and the orthocephalic length-height index of 60.7. Their total face
height reaches the extreme mean of 130 mm., their nose height of 57 mm.
It is impossible, at present at least, to discover a continental prototype
for the Aran Island racial dimensions. For the moment we must consider
it a local development of race-forming proportions.
Aside from the Aran Islands, we find that the tallest population lives
along the western coast, from Gal way to Kerry; the shortest in the east,
in the counties of Wicklow, Carlow, and Dublin. The heaviest men live
in the western counties, with one center in Mayo, Galway, and Ros-
common, another in Kerry. In these counties the means attain 160-161
pounds; in the east, from Louth to Carlow, they fall to 153-154 pounds.
There is very little regional variation in head length, but the breadth
varies from means of over 155 mm. in Cork, Kerry, Limerick, Clare, and
Mayo, to those between 152 and 153 mm. in all of southeastern and eastern
counties included within a line drawn from Armagh to Longford, and
south to Waterford. Head height varies little, and the same is true of the
sagittal dimensions of the face. The same regional divisions which are
seen in head breadth are maintained in the three breadths of the face;
minimum frontals and bigonials of 110 and 111 mm. typify the western
counties, of 107 and 108 mm. the eastern; western bizygomatic means
run to 141 and 142 mm., those in the east to 139 mm. On the whole,
greater size and greater laterality are concentrated in the western counties
from Mayo and Galway to Cork, with Kerry as the greatest center; in
Kerry the cephalic index rises to 80; in the eastern counties it falls to 78.
The inference is that the maximum survival of the Mesolithic food-
gathering population is to be found in the west and southwest of Ireland,
in the more mountainous, more rugged part of the country, and in the
very section which is poor in archaeological remains; on the other han4
380 THE RACES OF EUROPE
the descendants of the later invaders, from Neolithic through Iron Age
times, are most concentrated on the more fertile land along the Irish
Sea, and on the Great Plain.
Let us now examine the pigment characters and morphological traits
of the Irish, both as a total group and regionally. In the first place, the
Irish are almost uniquely pale skinned when unexposed, untanned parts
of the body, are observed. Out of 10,000 men, over 90 per cent had
skins of the pale pink shade represented by von Luschan #3, while not a
single individual was darker than von Luschan #11. Although regional
differences are not great, they are suggestive. In the southwestern coastal
regions which we have designated as a metrical unit, the darker shades
run from 4 per cent to 7 per cent; in the east, in the central plain and
the counties near and south of Dublin, they run from 10 per cent to 18
per cent.
The pale Irish skin, where exposed to the sun, shows a marked inclina-
tion to freckling. Forty per cent of the entire group are freckled to some
extent; in Kerry the ratio rises as high as 60 per cent, in Waterford and
Wexford, Carlow and Wicklow — the southeastern counties — it falls to
30 per cent. Thus a difference of two to one in this character serves to
differentiate the southwest from the southeast even more clearly than do
metrical criteria.
The hair form shows a difference between Protestants and Catholics;
44 per cent of Protestants have straight hair, and only 28 per cent of
Catholics; the most numerous category in both groups, however, is low
waves. The hair is almost uniformly medium in texture; coarse and fine
alike are rare. The beard is moderately developed in the general European
sense, extremely heavy and sparse beards are alike rare. At the same
time the body hair, which is almost always present, is of a moderate
development, and few very hairy men are found. The Aran Islanders
are much less hairy, much thinner bearded, and on the whole straighter
haired, than the other Irish. Elsewhere the waviest hair, along with a
minimum of pilous development, is found in the Great Plain.
The hair color of the Irish is predominantly brown; black hair accounts
for less than 3 per cent of the total, while the ashen series (Fischer #20-26)
amounts to but one-half of one per cent. Forty per cent have dark brown
hair (Fischer #4-5); 35 per cent have medium brown (Fischer #7-9);
reddish brown hues total over 5 per cent (closest to Fischer #6, #10),
while clear reds (Fischer #1-3) run higher than 4 per cent. The rest,
some 15 per cent, fall into a light brown to golden blond category (Fischer
#11-1 9). Thus the hair color of the Irish is darker than that of most regions
of Scandinavia, but not much darker than Iceland; it is notably different
from Nordic hair, as exemplified by eastern Norwegians and Swedes,
THE BRITISH ISLES 381
in its almost total lack of ash-blondism. The rufous hair color pigment
reaches a world maximum here; not so much in reds as in the prevalence
of golden hues in blond and brown shades. The lightest hair is found in
the Aran Islands, where the commonest shade is, nevertheless, medium
brown; in the southwestern counties there are more goldens and at the
same time more dark-browns than in Ireland as a whole, while the Great
Plain runs fairest of all. Red hair, with a regional maximum of 8 per cent,
is commonest in Ulster, rarest in Waterford and Wexford.
In the proportion of pure light eyes, Ireland competes successfully with
the blondest regions of Scandinavia. Over 46 per cent of the total group
has pure light eyes, and of these all but 4 per cent are blue. Very light-
mixed eyes (equivalent to Martin #13-14) account for another 30 per cent,
while less than one-half of one per cent have pure brown. There is prob-
ably no population of equal size in the world which is lighter eyed, and
bluer eyed, than the Irish. The almost total absence of gray eyes corre-
sponds to the equal paucity of ash-blond hair. Compared to eastern
Norway, Sweden, and Finnic and Baltic groups, the eye color is dispro-
portionately light in comparison to hair color. Regional differences,
while not great, are of some importance. The ratio of pure blue eyes falls
to 33 per cent in Kerry and Glare, and rises to 50 per cent in other re-
gions— Carlow and Wicklow in the southeast, and Armagh, Monaghan,
and eastern Cavan in the North. On the whole, the east is lighter eyed
than the west, as it is lighter haired. At the same time the Presbyterians
are blonder than the Catholics, who are in turn fairer than the members
of the Church of Ireland.
External eyefolds occur in 1 3 per cent of the total ; median and internal
eyefolds are apparently rare or lacking; eyebrows show some degree of
concurrency in all but 2 per cent of the group, and the greatest concur-
rency is found in the north and east, the least in the south and west;
regional differences are consistent but small. Since concurrent eyebrows
are not a Nordic trait, and there cannot be enough Bronze Age Dinaric
blood in Ireland to have spread this feature to the entire population, one
assumes that it goes with the older Mesolithic strain. Bushy eyebrows,
not included in this survey, are known by common observation to be
prevalent among the Irish, especially in advanced age.
Moderately developed browridges are observed in over half the Irish
group; pronounced ones in 20 per cent. A Mediterranean smoothness of
the supraorbital region is rare. The strongest browridges are found in
the Aran Islands and in the southwestern counties, especially in Kerry,
Cork, Kilkenny, and Tipperary. Another center is found in Ulster, and
on the whole the Protestants have heavier browridges than the Catholics.
In the profile of the nose, convex forms total 45 per cent, straight 48
382 THE RACES OF EUROPE
per cent; while the rest are mostly concave. There is a special center of
nasal convexity in the northwest, especially in Donegal, Mayo, and Gal-
way. Concave profiles, on the other hand, are commonest in the south-
west, and reach the ratio of 10 per cent in Kerry. Protestants are much
more frequently convex in nasal profile than Catholics, and concavity
is at a minimum among them.
The tip of the nose is of moderate thickness in three-fourths of the
Irish, thick in almost all the rest; few have really thin tips. Such regional
variation as there is shows that the fewest thick tips occur in the Aran
Isles and in northwestern Ireland; the greatest number of them in the
east, and on the Great Plain. The nasal tip of the Irish is, on the whole,
too thick for a strictly Nordic classification. At the same time less than
2 per cent of these nasal tips point downward, and almost all the rest
are inclined upward; pronouncedly upturned noses occur as frequently
as in 20 per cent of cases in some counties. Aside from East Baltic and
eastern Slavic countries, it is unlikely that any region in Europe possesses
so high a ratio of elevated nasal tips, which, in the complex of races
which have entered into the Irish people, can only be associated with the
Palaeolithic element. The Alpines, Lapps, the East Baltics, and the
central Asiatic mongoloids, all being to some extent Palaeolithic survivors,
are all characteristically snub-nosed.
The nasal wings are almost uniformly medium in lateral extension;
compressed and flaring forms are about equal in number and together
form but 10 per cent of the whole. The distribution of these is of no im-
portance, except that the most compressed are found in the Aran Isles.
The lips are as a rule of moderate thickness and eversion; very thin,
straight or convex lips are not uncommon, particularly in the south; while
very thick or very everted lips are not found anywhere. The lips and the
whole mouth region are sometimes, however, thrown into prominence
by the presence of facial prognathism; this occurs in 8 per cent of the
whole, while purely alveolar prognathism is found in but 2 per cent.
There is a strong regional differentiation in both kinds of prognathism,
however; the center of concentration is in the eastern counties, from
Armagh to Waterford; facial prognathism reaches its maximum of 24 per
cent in Wicklow and Carlow. It is interesting to note that the counties
which show the maximum of Upper Palaeolithic features are the least
prognathous of all, and that the Protestants show it more frequently,
to a slight degree, than do the Catholics.
One feature for which the Irish face is famous in caricature, along with
the freckles, the great malar breadth, the upturned nose, and the long,
convex upper lip, is the great prominence of the chin. Sub-medium chin
development, characteristic of many European racial groups, is found in
THE BRITISH ISLES 383
but 10 per cent of the whole in Ireland, but rises to 15 per cent and 17 per
cent in the counties of Ulster, where it is commonest; the extremely pro-
jecting, square chin, often cleft, also attains nearly 10 per cent of the
whole, and is concentrated in the southwestern counties of Cork, Kerry,
Limerick, Kilkenny, and Tipperary, reaching a maximum of 15 per cent
in Cork. One more feature, less noticeable on the living but even more
important as a diagnostic of the Upper Palaeolithic survivors, is lamb-
doidal flattening. Among Irish Catholics this is found in 81 per cent of
the whole, while among Presbyterian Protestants, only 27 per cent, and
among Church of Ireland members, 40 per cent possess it. Its regional
variability is greater than that of any other character studied; it ranges
from over 90 per cent in all the western counties to but 54 per cent in
Waterford and Wexford. On the other hand some degree of occipital
flattening, which is associated with the Bronze Age Dinaric element in
the Irish population, is perceptible in 18 per cent of the population, and
is especially concentrated in Ulster and to a lesser extent in the east.
It is especially prevalent among Protestants, particularly Presbyterians.
We have now reviewed in some detail the racial characters of the living
Irish, and are prepared to make some tentative conclusions. These are:
the Irish people represent a blend between two principal racial groups,
(a) the survivors of the unreduced Upper Palaeolithic people of north-
western Europe, in a mesocephalic or sub-brachycephalic form, and
(b) a Keltic Iron Age Nordic. The other two factors, (c) the tall, long-
headed Mediterranean form brought by • the Megalithic invaders, and
(d) the Dinaric introduced during the Bronze Age, have both been sub-
merged by the earliest and latest population waves.
The Upper Palaeolithic people are concentrated in southwestern Ire-
land, especially in Kerry and Cork; just in the part of Ireland from which
the Irish in America are mostly derived. The Iron Age Nordic element is
concentrated in the eastern counties and in the fertile Great Plain region
of central Ireland; what other Nordic elements brought by Danes and
English are also centered here. The Megalithic and Bronze Age minority
elements are found also in the east, and the latter is particularly common
among members of the Protestant landlord class.
By means of this study it is possible to reconstruct with some probabil-
ity the living appearance of the Upper Palaeolithic men. They were typi-
cally tall, broad-shouldered, large-chested; their heads were large, their
browridges heavy to medium; their foreheads broad and high; their faces
were broad and slightly flattish, the mouth large, with lips of moderate
thickness and little eversion, the lines around the mouth deeply drawn,
the whole lower jaw wide and deep, with a prominent chin. The
nose was of moderate to large size, straight to concave-profiled, with a
384 THE RACES OF EUROPE
moderately thick, upturned tip. The hair was brown and wavy, fre-
quently rufous, of medium abundance on beard and body; the eyes
light-mixed blue. The skin was typically inclined to freckling, and very
fair.
In contrast to this type, the Iron Age Keltic people were slightly shorter,
and usually slender in bodily build, with finer bones; they were narrower
in head and face diameters, with a more retreating forehead, a higher-
bridged, more convex-profiled nose with a thin, less frequently everted
tip; the mouth was smaller, and the mandible much shallower and nar-
rower, the chin of more moderate dimensions. The hair was straight or
wavy, brown or light brown in color, and the eyes typically blue.
It is impossible at present to define with equal clarity the two minor
types; the Atlanto-Mediterranean element, if it were brown eyed and
black haired, has completely lost its original pigment qualities through
mixture. Yet "Mediterranean" types can be isolated in Ireland, and one
may perhaps ascribe to them the occurrence of prognathism and some of
the curly hair. If we grant that the eye color of the Megalithic people
may have borne the germ of blondism, and may have changed, through
mixture and other causes, to mixed and blue, then there are Megalithic
descendants in Ireland who can easily be recognized. The planoccipital,
brachycephalic, aquiline-nosed Dinaric element, if it were ever brunet,
must also have lost its original pigment association; today it is frequently
red haired.
(3) GREAT BRITAIN, GENERAL SURVEY
In comparison with Ireland, the larger and more populous island of
Great Britain is more varied in topography and climate, and possesses a
much greater regional variability in population. The materials which
serve to describe the living British, while only partly adequate, neverthe-
less suffice to show that there are several important racial differences
between them and the Irish. In the first place, none of the regionally
differentiated British groups shows as great a reemergence of the northern
Briinn race as that in Ireland. In the second, brunet Mediterraneans,
difficult to isolate in Ireland, have survived or reemerged in large numbers
in Wales and in the manufacturing districts of the Midlands and of Scot-
land. In the third place, the numerically predominant racial element in
the British population is Nordic, with the Keltic Iron Age variety more
important than the Anglo-Saxon or Germanic form. Brachycephals of
Bronze Age inspiration are not uncommon as individuals, but have no
large modern area of concentration.
In studying the modern British, let us first run over the whole island
in a general way in a few characters, and then concentrate upon some
THE BRITISH ISLES 385
of the more distinctive local groups which seem to possess racial individ-
ualities of their own.
The pigmentation of the British has, in no large or significant series,
been studied by means of standard charts. In regard to skin color, little
is known from the statistical standpoint, except that it is characteristically
fair,15 and apparently as light as that of the Irish in most cases,16 although
in certain relatively brunet regions, such as Devonshire, Cornwall, Wales,
and parts of western Scotland, there are without doubt darker-skinned
minorities. The Irish tendency to freckling is also common in Great
Britain, especially among the Scotch, who without doubt equal the Irish
in this respect.17 More characteristic of British skin than freckling, even,
is its tendency to become red when constantly exposed to the air. This
extreme vascularity, although without doubt partly climatic, must be
racial to a certain extent, since it is accompanied by a physiological in-
ability to tan.
Taking Great Britain as a whole, the hair color of its inhabitants is
very similar to that of the Irish, except that the British have more light
brown, and the Irish more dark brown, shades. In this comparison,
England, including Wales, is nearly identical with Scotland. Both the
English and the Scotch have as much red hair as the Irish, while the Welsh
have more; both the Scotch and the Irish have somewhat higher incre-
ments of black hair than England with Wales; and if Wales is studied
separately, England emerges as the lightest haired of the four major divi-
sions of the British Isles, and Wales as the darkest.18
The regional distribution of hair color in Great Britain 19 closely follows
15 Luschan, F. von, and Emma von, ZFE, vol. 46, 1914, pp. 58-80. This study con-
tains observations on 84 British scientists, taken with the von Luschan table.
16 Hooton, E. A., in data on many thousands of American prison inmates, finds
prisoners of British birth to be as fair skinned as Irish and Scandinavian prisoners.
Hooton, E. A., The American Criminal.
17 From Hooton's criminal material.
18 This comparison is based largely upon the study of 30,000 soldiers born in the
British Isles, who served in the Union Army during the American Civil War, and upon
a further study of 1 2,000 who served in the American Expeditionary Forces during the
World War.
Gould, B. A., Investigations in the Military and Anthropological Statistics of American
Soldiers.
Davenport, C. B., and Love, A. G., Army Anthropometry.
19 Based upon numerous studies, including especially the Report of the Anthropo-
metric Committee, and the works of Beddoe, Fleure, and Parsons. A limited bibliog-
raphy of general works on Great Britain which include hair color studies, and of specific
works on England and Wales, follows:
Anonymous, Report of the Anthropometric Committee, RBAA, Sess. 49, 1880, pp. 175-
209.
Anonymous, Final Report of the Anthropometric Committee, London, 1883.
Beddoe, J., The Races of Britain; The Physical Anthropology of the Isle of Man; On the
North Settlements of West Saxons; JRAI, vol. 27, T898, pp. 164-170; vol. 34, 1904, pp. 92-
386 THE RACES OF EUROPE
that of total pigmentation as shown on Map 8. In England, black hair
ranges from nearly 0 to 10 per cent, except in Devonshire and Corn-
wall, where it reaches a maximum of 20 per cent in the region of Pen-
zance. Along the eastern coast it is extremely rare, and the average
for the country is probably between 4 per cent and 5 per cent. Dark
brown hair accounts for 14 per cent to 43 per cent of the population in
the different parts of England. In general, it runs below 30 per cent in
the regions of intensive Saxon and Danish occupation — that is, Lincoln-
shire, Norfolk, Suffolk, and Yorkshire— while it averages above 30 per
cent in the west, and has a mean of approximately 40 per cent in Corn-
wall. Brown hair, a light- to-intermediate hue, ranges from 57 per cent to
24 per cent, and has a distribution precisely opposite to that of dark
brown hair, which may be considered intermediate-to-dark. On the
whole brown is more prevalent than dark brown, and the blond element
is considerably more important than the brunet one among the English.
Fair hair, representing golden, ashen, and also light brown hues, varies
from 5 per cent to 47 per cent. Well over 25 per cent is typical of the
North Sea coast, while in Cornwall it runs from 10 per cent to 15 per
cent. Among English blonds, golden hair is far commoner than the
ashen variety, but ash-blondism is by no means absent, nor as rare as in
Ireland.
99; MASL, vol. 2, 1866, pp. 37-45, 348-357; AR, vol. 1, 1863, pp. 310-312; RBAA,
vol. 41, 1872, p. 147.
Bradbrooke, W., and Parsons, F. G., JRAI, vol. 52, 1922, pp. 113-126.
Davies, E., and Fleure, H. J., JRAI, vol. 46, 1936, pp. 129-188.
Dunlop, A., JRAI, vol. 22, 1893, pp. 335-345.
Eickstedt, E. von, ZFRK, vol. 1, 1935, pp. 19-64.
Fleming, R. M., Man, vol. 22, 1922, pp. 69-75.
Fleure, H, J., The Races of England and Wales.
Fleure, H. J., and James, T. C., JRAI, vol. 46, 1916, pp. 35-154; RBAA, vol. 80,
1910-11, pp. 726-727.
Flower, W. H., Garson, J. G., Bloxam, G. W., Haddon, A. C., and Smith, W.,
RBAA, vol. 63, 1893-94, pp. 654,661.
Flower, W. H., Garson, J. G., Bloxam, G. W., Haddon, A. G., and Windle, B.,
RBAA, vol. 64, 1895, pp. 444-453.
Fox, A. L., JRAI, vol. 6, 1887, pp. 443-457.
Freire-Marecco, B., Man, vol. 9, 1909, pp. 99-108.
Goring, G., The English Convict.
Griinbauni, O. F. F., RBAA, vol. 67, 1898, pp. 505-506.
Haddon, A. G., RBAA, pp. 503-504.
Muffang, M. H., Anth, vol. 10, 1899, pp. 21-41.
Moore, A. W., and Beddoe, J., JRAI, vol. 27, 1897, pp. 104-130.
Parsons, F. G., JRAI, vol. 50, 1920, pp. 159-182.
Pearson, K., and Tippett, L. H. C., Biometrika, vol. 16, 1924, pp. 118-138.
Pitt-Rivers, A. H. L., JRAI, vol. 11, 1882, pp. 455-471.
Shrubsall, F. C., RSBH, vol. 39.
Taylor, J. J., RBAA, vol. 67, 1898, pp. 507-510.
Walk, C. S., TYNU, 1886.
THE BRITISH ISLES 387
In Wales, 10 per cent of the total have black hair, and only 8 per cent
are fair in the English sense. Dark brown predominates over medium
brown, while red, which averages 5 per cent, runs as high as 9 per cent
in small localities. Beddoe finds as much as 86 to 89 per cent of black and
dark brown hair in such places as Newquay and Denbighshire Upland.
On the whole, Wales, in accordance with its mountainous character and
its general preservation of ancient cultural traits, is a region of strong local
variability, which manifests itself particularly in pigmentation.
In Scotland, the systematic study of 7000 adult males and of half a
million schoolchildren 20 makes our knowledge of the regional distribution
of hair color relatively complete. Black hair ranges among adults from
0 to 8 per cent -by counties, but nowhere attains the figures observed
in Cornwall, Devonshire, and Wales. Dark brown hair account^ for 38
per cent of the population; the medium to light brown shade, with 42
per cent, is the most numerous; fair hair runs to 11 per cent, and red to
5 per cent.
Tocher finds that jet black hair is commoner in the western highlands
than elsewhere, and is statistically correlated with the greatest survival of
Gaelic speech. But since Gaelic was brought from Ireland in the Christian
era, and the Goidelic Kelts of Ireland were not notably black haired, this
brunet condition must be due to an earlier racial element. That black
hair and Keltic speech both survive in Wales, furthermore, does not mean
that the two were originally associated, for Kymric had been spoken in
Wales only a few hundred years before the Saxons came. The western
lowland counties of Scotland, which include the ancient Kymric kingdom
of Strathclyde, are no darker in hair color than the rest of Scotland.
The eastern Scottish coast, from Caithness to Berwick, shows little of
this black hair, and in general the areas of both Pictish and Saxon con-
centration are quite deficient in it. This finding should dispel the idea
20 See especially the works of Tocher and of Gray in the following limited bibliogra-
phy of works on Scotland which include hair color data.
Beddoe, J., JRAI, vol. 38, 1908, pp. 212-220.
Cooper, J., RBAA, vol. 67, 1898, p. 507.
Duncan, J. W.r RBAA, p. 506.
Forbes, A,, RBAA, p. 506.
Gray, J., RBAA, vol. 69, 1899-1900, pp. 874-875 ; JRAI, vol. 30, 1900, pp. 104-124;
vol. 37, 1907, pp. 375-401.
Gray, J., and Tocher, J. F., The Ethnology of Buchan; JRAI, vol. 30, 1900, pp. 86-88.
Gregor, W., RBAA, vol. 67, 1898, pp. 500-502.
Macleay, K. S., RBAA, p. 507.
Reid, R. W., and Mulligan, J. H., JRAI, vol. 54, 1924, pp. 300-313.
Smith, J., and Gardiner, J. B., RBAA, vol. 67, 1898, p. 507.
Teit, J. A., and Parsons, F. G., JRAI, vol. 53, 1923, pp. 473-483.
Tocher, J. F., TBFC, 1897, pp. 1-16; Biometrika, vol. 5, 1906-07, pp. 298-350;
vol. 6} 1908-09, pp. 129-234; HTR, Edenburgh and London, vols. 2 and 3, 1924.
388 THE RACES OF EUROPE
that the Picts were a notably brunet people. Fair hair is commonest
in the east, in both highlands and lowlands, and is especially prevalent
in the very northeastern corner, and in the Orkneys and Shetlands, where
much of the blood is Scandinavian.
In the cities of Scotland some important facts in regard to hair color
have been uncovered. While Edinburgh and Aberdeen have relatively
fair populations, and reflect the pigment character of the populations
around them, Glasgow, which is not only the largest city in Scotland but
also the second largest in the British Isles, is notable for a heavy con-
centration of dark brown hair, which seems distinctive not only of the
city itself but also of the thickly settled manufacturing district which
surrounds it. Tocher, who has made an exhaustive study of the city by
sections, finds that while dark hair is commonest in the poorer districts
and in the portions of the city which contain the largest ratio of foreign
population, it cannot be entirely attributed to foreign blood, which is in
the minority everywhere.
In the Glasgow district, as in the Midlands, slum conditions and factory
existence have brought about a reemergence of the older Mediterranean
element in the population, submerged since the Neolithic; although pub-
lished evidence from the English Midlands which will confirm this is as
yet lacking, there can be no doubt of the general accuracy of this con-
clusion. The study of other criteria from Scotland will confirm it in regard
to the Glasgow district.
Whereas the British are on the whole lighter haired than the Irish,
they are at the same time darker eyed. The difference is not, however,
a great one, and in both England and Scotland blue and light-mixed
eyes are in the majority.21 Since the pigment division of Great Britain
runs north and south, the total eye color classes of both Scotland and
England-plus-Wales are nearly identical, and regional variations follow
those of hair color.
In only one published British series was a Martin eye color chart used —
that of von Luschan's British scientists, a highly selected group of 84 men
returning from a scientific congress in Australia.22 Of this group, which
included Charles Darwin the younger, 29.8 per cent had pure light eyes
(Martin #15-16); 27.4 per cent light-mixed eyes (Martin #12-14); 2.4 per
cent pure dark eyes (Martin #1-4); while the remaining 40.4 per cent had
medium- or dark-mixed irises. According to most European standards
the total of lights would be considered 57 per cent. This small series is as
21 Sources same as for skin color and hair color, and also :
Galton, E., JRAI, vol. 28, 1889, pp. 420-430.
Pitt-Rivers, Garson, and Bloxam, RBAA, vol. 59, 1889-90, pp. 423-435.
22 Luschan, Felix and Emma von, ZFE, vol. 46, 1914, pp. 58-80.
THE BRITISH ISLES 389
light eyed as some of the Norwegian coastal groups, but not as light as
most of Scandinavia, or as Ireland.
In the large, regional studies of British eye color, 62 per cent of English
are called light eyed, and 34 per cent dark. On this basis the fishermen
of the English North Sea coast have as much as 90 per cent of light eyes,
and, at the same time, the Cornish run as low as 55 per cent. Other ratios
of 55 per cent to 60 per cent occur in towns and cities scattered through-
out England, and seem typical of urban populations. The Cornish, who
are the darkest eyed of the English, are still predominantly a light-mixed-
eyed people, as are the English as a whole. No typically brunet population
may be found in England.
Wales, however, is notably darker eyed. Out of Beddoe's series of 3000,
34 per cent are called brown eyed, 15 per cent mixed, and 51 per cent
light. Although the light-eyed element is still the more numerous in the
principality as a whole, it is possible to distinguish typically dark-eyed
districts. Fleure found between 60 per cent and 70 per cent of "dark"
eyes in Llandyssul, Newquay, and Denbighshire Upland, and Beddoe
found the same among the Abergavenny country people, among the
townsmen of Brecon, and in Merthyr and Taffvale. These are all isolated
regions, and the antiquity of dark eye color in Wales is evident.
In Scotland, 32 per cent of adult males have pure light eyes, 48 per cent
are called mixed, and 20 per cent dark. The latter category probably
includes a number of dark-mixed iris patterns. Blue eyes are commonest
in the north and south of Scotland, and gray eyes appear in numbers in
the Shetlands and Orkneys, under Scandinavian inspiration. Mixed eyes
are typical of east central Scotland, while brown eyes reach their highest
ratio in the Glasgow region, among the industrial population. The area
of Gaelic speech, which Tocher found associated with an excess of dark
hair, is also notably blue eyed.
The general pigment character of Great Britain, as shown on Map 8, is
predominantly light mixed. Fair, vascular skin, medium brown hair, an
excess of rufosity and freckling, and blue or light-mixed eyes are typical
of the British as a whole. This pigment combination without doubt reflects
the coloring of the Iron Age Kelts, who have made the greatest single
contribution to the present British population. Blondism of Scandinavian
intensity, reflecting Saxon and Danish influence, is characteristic of the
whole eastern coast of England and Scotland, while a strong brunet sur-
vival in Cornwall and Wales indicates the presence of a pre-Keltic pop-
ulation of considerable intensity. The industrial revolution, which has
fostered dense under-privileged populations in the Midlands and on the
Clyde, has enormously increased, by some selective process, the darker-
haired and darker-eyed elements in Britain. In general, differences in
390 THE RACES OF EUROPE
social level and in occupation reflect racial differences, which show them-
selves to a certain extent in pigmentation. The upper social strata, being
on the whole blonder, follow the pigment pattern of the Saxons, Danes,
and Normans. This differentiation may well have been even stronger
in the Middle Ages, when social lines were more strictly and overtly
drawn than today. The Englishman who travels abroad and is seen by
foreigners, and the one whose photograph frequently appears in the
London Illustrated News, is more likely to be blond than the general run
of his more obscure compatriots who stay at home, and whose faces are
publicly depicted only when they have committed crimes.
The regional variations of stature in Great Britain may be observed
with sufficient accuracy on Map 5. The mean for the whole island is
approximately 172 cm.,23 which is comparable to Ireland, and to Nor-
way and Sweden. On the whole, Scotland is taller than England, and
England taller than Wales. The blond Saxon-Danish strip of country
along the North Sea shore, from Scotland through Suffolk, is the tallest
part of England, as tall as most of Scotland; while tlie counties bordering
on the Thames estuary and the Channel are taller than those immediately
inland. In western England and in Wales, shorter stature is not regionally
associated with the most brunet pigmentation. Cornishmen are the tallest
of the British west of Berkshire, while the shortest stature in Britain by
counties is found, not in the brunet districts of central Wales, but in the
mining country of south Wales, in the counties bordering the inner section
of the Bristol Channel, in Shropshire and Hereford, and in the counties
immediately adjoining London. In no county, however, does the mean
fall below 168 cm. although in individual villages in Wales it is as low as
23 References to stature may be found in most of the previously noted works referred
to in this section. In addition to these, the following list may be mentioned:
Anonymous, RBAA, vol. 48, 1879, pp. 152-155; vol. 51, 1882, pp. 225-272.
Beddoe, J., Anth, vol. 5, 1894, pp. 513-529, 658-673.
Cripps, L., Greenwood, R., and Newbold, E. M., Biometrika, vol. 14, 1922-23,
pp. 31 6-336.
Downes, R. M., JAPL, vol. 48, 1914, pp. 299-309.
Elderton, E. M., Biometrika, vol. 21, 1929, pp. 429-430.
Fleure, H. J., JRAI, vol. 50, 1920, pp. 12-40.
Fox, A. L., JRAI, vol. 5, 1875, pp. 101-106.
Greenwood, R., Thompson, G. M., and Woods, H. M., Biometrika, vol. 17, 1925,
pp. 142-158.
MacDonnell, W. R., Biometrika, vol. 1, 1901-02, pp. 177-227.
Marshall, J., JAPL, vol. 26, 1892, pp. 445-500.
Peate, I. C., JRAI, vol. 55, 1925, pp. 58-72.
Pitt-Rivers, Garson, and Bloxam, RBAA, vol. 60, 1890-91, pp. 549-552.
Reid, R. W., and Mulligan, J. H., JRAI, vol. 46, 1912, pp. 1-10; vol. 54, 1924,
pp. 287-300.
Schuster, E., Biometrika, vol. 8, 1911-12, pp. 40-51.
Venn, J,, JRAI, vol. 18, 1888, pp. 140-154.
THE BRITISH ISLES 391
165 cm.24 In Scotland a belt of relatively short stature running from
169 cm. to 171 cm. stretches across the country diagonally from the Clyde
to the Forth, and includes the Glasgow industrial area.
The mean stature of England and Wales appears to have increased
from about 170 cm. in 1865, to its present level of over 172 cm.25 At the
same time, that of the Scotch may have shrunk in certain areas, although
Scotland as a whole has probably increased.26 The general British in-
crease may be traced in different social classes as well as in regional pop-
ulations. Cambridge students in 1888 had a mean stature of 175 cm.,
Oxford, in 1911, of 177 cm. During the first quarter of the present cen-
tury, English convicts rose from 166 cm. to 168 cm.
In England as in Sweden, social and occupational differences in stature
are greater than regional differences.27 As early as 1880, the mean for
the nobility and for professional men and financial leaders was 174.4 cm.;
between them and the next tallest group, clerks and shopkeepers, was a
drop to 172.6 cm.; farmers and road workers followed with 171.5 cm.;
factory workers, miners, laborers in general, and seamen all had occupa-
tional means of under 170 cm., while convicts, at the bottom of the list,
averaged only 166 cm. Among Goring's English convicts, those coming
from destitute family surroundings had a mean stature of 161 cm., those
from well-to-do families 167.7 cm., with others graded between.28
The English are, on the whole, equal in weight to the Irish, or slightly
lighter, and show as great a class differentiation in this character as in
stature. Oxford and Cambridge students, who are for the most part
under 25 years of age, have means of 155 Ibs., while prison inmates vary
from 132 to 154 Ibs. in accordance with differences in home environment.
Heavy weights are common on the east coast, as at Flamborough, York-
shire, where a mean of 168 Ibs. has been recorded; in Leeds and in Cardiff
the mean is 156 Ibs. The bodily proportions of English and Scotch are
on the whole indicative of a linear to somatic, or "athletic," constitutional
form. The relative span is as a rule around 102 and 103, comparable to the
Nordic means for eastern Norway and Sweden. These low span ratios
are due not to narrow shoulders but to relatively short arms. The relative
sitting heights of 52 to 53 are slightly shorter than those of the Irish, and
again similar to those of Scandinavian Nordics. The hips are moderate
24 Eickstedt, E. von, ZFRK, vol. 1, #1, 1935, pp. 19-64.
25 Using the two American army figures as end points, and the British Association
report for 1883.
26 The 1883 British survey gives a mean of 174.6 cm. for 1304 Scotsmen; Tocher,
40 years later, found a mean of 171.5 cm. for a series of 3474. The United States Army
figures for the Civil War are: 4822 Scotch, Stature = 171.5 cm.; World War, 2074
Scotch, Stature = 172.5 cm.
27 Roberts, C., Manual of Anthropometry.
28 Goring, C., The English Convict.
392 THE RACES OF EUROPE
for Europeans, with bi-iliac means of 28-30 cm., and narrow in proportion
to the shoulder breadths.
Since the Mesolithic the British have possessed, even during the Bronze
Age, heads of unusual length. Hence it is not surprising to find that the
modern English, Welsh, and Scotch exceed most European groups in this
respect. Only in western Norway, Iceland, and Ireland can they be
equalled. The mean for each of the three British groups is approximately
195 mm.29 In England most of the differences known are social rather
than geographical; university students and men of science have means
ranging from 196 mm. to 199 mm., while criminal means run as low as
191 mm. In Wales the head length varies regionally from 192 mm. in
Montgomeryshire to 198 and 199 mm. in Cardiganshire and Cardiff.
Extreme lengths which approach the 200 mm. mark are mostly confined
to isolated, rural groups. In Scotland the greatest lengths appear in the
far north, and the least in the industrial trough from the Clyde to the
Forth.
For all its length the English head is not especially narrow, since a
general mean for the country would approximate 153 to 154 mm. In
Wales the narrower mean of 152 mm. is found for the entire principality.
Although in some parts of Wales the heads are as broad as in England, in
others, such as Montgomeryshire and Carmathen, the means fall to 148
and 149 mm. In Scotland a total mean of about 152 mm. applies to the
civil population,30 but there is a difference of 4.4 mm. between the means
for Aberdeen and Banffshire (153 mm.), at one extreme, and that for
Dumbarton (148 mm.) at the other. In general, the northern Scottish
counties are broader headed than the industrial districts and the low-
lands.
As Ripley stated some forty years ago, the cephalic index is one of the
least variable physical traits in the British Isles. England, Scotland, and
Wales are all fundamentally mesocephalic, and no regional mean falls
below 76 or rises above 80. On the whole, Great Britain is narrower
headed than Ireland, and the British resemble the eastern Irish and the
Irish Protestants in this respect. As Map 6 shows, the lowest cephalic
indices are to be found in Wales and in the Midlands, and also in the
lowlands and industrial districts of Scotland, while the highest occur in
89 Many of the preceding references contain data on head length, head breadth, and
the cephalic index. The following may be added :
Beddoe, J., Anth, vol. 5, 1894, pp. 658-673.
Parsons, F. G., Man, vol. 22, 1922, pp. 19-23.
Gladstone, R. J., JAPL, vol. 37, 1903, pp. 333-346; vol. 51, 1921, pp. 343-369.
Griffiths, G. B., Biometrika, vol. 4, 1904, pp. 60-62.
80 Tocher, J. F., 1924. Tocher's means for soldiers are over a millimeter less than for
the civil population, and the same is true in regard to head length. His total Scotch
means for soldiers are: Head Length = 193.0 mm., Head Breadth = 150.3 mm.
THE BRITISH ISLES 393
the north of Scotland, where a minor survival of Bronze Age brachy-
cephaly is suggested. High indices in the Orkneys and Shetlands may
rather imply the settlement of Vikings from southwestern Norway.
Measurements on the head height and on the facial dimensions of
British are not numerous enough or sufficiently standardized to be satis-
factory. Minimum frontal means range from 105 to 110 mm.; the bizy-
gomatic diameter is narrow (136-137 mm.) among criminals, broad
(144 mm.) among scientists; in Wales local means of 139 and 140 mm.
are found, in the north of Scotland, of 140-142 mm. Bigonials follow the
minimum frontal, and range from 105 to 109 mm. These breadth dimen-
sions fall within Norwegian and Irish ranges, and seem for the most part
essentially Nordic. Both foreheads and jaws are too broad for most Med-
iterraneans. Face heights of 122 to 126 mm. confirm this Nordic associa-
tion. The noses are longer and narrower than those of the Irish, as a rule,
and nasal indices of 62 to 65 are comparable to those in Scandinavia.
There seem to be no perceptible regional variations in this respect, as
far as one can tell from available data.
The results of this extremely unsatisfactory survey of the facial charac-
ters of the English, Welsh, and Scotch are that all three seem to be very
much the same; the face is typically moderate in width, and of more
than average European length. The forehead and jaw diameters are
relatively great, and give to the face a parallel-sided appearance. The
nose is leptorrhine and of normal European dimensions. The facial di-
mensions are on the whole Nordic, and fall between Irish and eastern
Norwegian means.
If metrical constants aside from stature, length, and head breadth are
scarce, observational statistics on the British are even less satisfactory.31
Like the Irish, the British appear normally equipped for Europeans in
body hair and in degree of beard development. In hair form, the ma-
jority are usually recorded as straight, the rest mostly as wavy; on the
whole the English, at least, are probably straighter haired than the Irish.
Although the Silures of Wales were said by the Romans to have had curly
hair, there is no evidence from Wales to show that this hair form is es-
pecially common. On the whole the British hair is finer in texture than
that of many Europeans.
Among the English, Welsh, and Scotch internal and median eyefolds
are very uncommon, while external folds are not infrequent. Thick eye-
brows, characteristic of the Irish, are also found among the Scotch, es-
pecially in old age. Concurrency of the eyebrows is found in only 30 to
81 Almost entirely limited to Hooton's British-born convicts in American jails, Gor-
ing's convicts, and a series of 32 Shetland Islanders emigrating to Canada. (Teit, J. A.,
and Parsons, F. G., JRAI, vol. 53, 1923, pp/473-483.)
394 THE RACES OF EUROPE
40 per cent of British; in Goring's criminal series it is linked with dark
hair color. Among the British browridges of all normal European degrees
are found, and on the whole the development is medium, with a large
minority of prominent forms.
The slope of the forehead is frequently pronounced, as is typical of the
Keltic Iron Age crania, and as may be seen from the composite silhouettes
of English men and women shown in Fig. 32. The nasion depression is
FIG. 32. COMPOSITE SILHOUETTES OF ENGLISH MEN AND WOMEN.
After McLearn, Morant, and Pearson, Biometrika, vol. 20b, 1928-1929, Plates 2 and 3.
characteristically slight, and the root of the nose high and narrow. The
bridge is as a rule also high, and of narrow to moderate breadth. Straight
nasal profiles are found in from 50 per cent to 80 per cent of cases, and
the second most numerous category is wavy or concavo-convex, which
runs as high as 40 per cent and averages 25 per cent of the whole. This
type of profile is produced by a prominence of the nasal bones, the forma-
tion of a slight angle between their extremities and the cartilage, and an
elevation of the tip lobes slightly above the cartilage level. From the
Nordic standpoint, this type of nose is closer to the Tr^ndelagen type in
Norway than to the classic Nordic of the eastern valleys; it is also asso-
ciated in antique sculpture with representations of the Kelts. The Dying
Gaul, for example, has a nose of this type. Concave noses are much rarer
than in Ireland, and of the large convex minority, the angular or humped
variety is the usual type, and the smoothly convex form is infrequent.
Lips seem to be thin to medium and little everted, chins strongly de-
veloped, but not to the degree found in western Ireland. Temples, malars,
and gonial angles are as a rule compressed. All in all the scanty picture
which our material gives us substantiates the impressions drawn from
THE BRITISH ISLES 395
life. Although the British are quite variable in facial form, the features
by which a foreigner would remember them would be a longness and
narrowness of head and face, floridity, and a pinched prominence of the
nose.
It is possible to make a number of correlations within some of the numer-
ous series upon which our knowledge of British physical anthropology is
based.32 Brunet hair and eye color uniformly go with a lower cephalic
index than does light pigmentation. This reflects the fact that the Neo-
lithic peoples had a cranial index of 72 and lower, while both varieties of
Nordic have cranial means of 75. There is no evidence of a brunet round-
headed type except in one series from the Ghiltern Hills, in Oxfordshire,
where dark complexion is positively associated with great head breadth.
In Caithness and Sutherland, in the Scottish Highlands, pure light com-
plexion is linked with great head breadth, indicating that the broad-
headed factor is in this case probably Borreby in origin. In western Ireland
four correlations indicate the same linkage, confirming the supposition
that a broad head is borne by the Palaeolithic element.
In Cardiganshire in west central Wales, a selected group of 520 men
with black or dark brown hair had a mean cephalic index of 74.6, and a
stature of 167 cm. The index would be about 72 on the skull, which is the
mean for the Long Barrow type of the Neolithic, and furthermore, the stat-
ure is comparable. Similarly in a Scottish Highland series 33 dark haired
men have a mean cephalic index of 77.7, fair-haired ones of 78.1. The
brunets have a mean head length of 196.7 mm., the blonds of 193.9 mm.
In Elgin and Nairn, similarly, absolutely greater head lengths go with
mixed and dark complexion.
These correlations on the whole show that a brunet racial type char-
acterized by an extremely long cranial vault and moderately tall stature
has retained its identity in the peripheries of Great Britain, notably in
Wales and the Scotch Highlands, while the more numerous Nordic ele-
ments are characterized by a more moderate head length and mesoceph-
aly. They also show that brachycephalic strains which have entered into
the British racial composition must have been largely blond, although
there is evidence of a minor element of brunet brachycephaly in one local
instance.
If specific data for racial description is scanty in Great Britain, both the
author and the reader can largely supply that deficiency from common
observation. The most frequent type is a Nordic variety, as described
32 Scheldt, in a lengthy and thorough survey of the published series, made 2 racially
significant correlations in England, 2 in Wales, 6 in Scotland, and 4 in Ireland.
Scheldt, W., ZFMA, vol. 28, 1930, pp. 1-1 ?8.
83 Gray, J., and Tocher, J. F., The Ethnology of Buchan.
396 THE RACES OF EUROPE
above; but it is well known that other types are by no means rare. The
thick-set, wide-faced, and large-nosed type, so common in caricature
under the guise of John Bull, must be derived from the larger brachy-
cephalic element brought in by the Bronze Age invasions; it is a British
form of the continental Borreby race. In the fishing villages of the York-
shire coast, where local dialects are spoken in which much Scandinavian
still remains, and where the older fishermen still wear T-shaped amulets
around their necks reminiscent of Thor's hammer, pure Norwegian and
Danish physical types are common, and the same is true in the Orkneys
and Shetlands.
Cornwall, which is the darkest county in England and an ancient Keltic
linguistic stronghold, contains, like Wales, strong vestiges of a pre-Keltic
population. That this is not a short Mediterranean variety, on the whole,
is shown by the fact that the stature of Cornwall is relatively tall, and the
mean cephalic index of the duchy not particularly low. A large-bodied,
muscular type, with a head which is frequently brachycephalic, is common
here, and must be attributed to the Bronze Age invasions. It has been
claimed, without statistical evidence,34 that there is a special racial type
among the fishermen and sailors who live in the seaports of Cornwall,
Devonshire, Somerset, and South Wales, but especially in Cornwall. Be-
sides having medium or tall stature, and a tendency to brachycephaly,
they are said to be heavy-bodied, lateral in build, thick-necked, with
features of a somewhat Armenoid cast, dark, curly hair, thick eyebrows,
and eyes which are frequently brown.
This type is recognized in local Keltic tradition, and according to one
legend, is said to have been brought from Troy. It may also be associated
with the strong local belief that the Cornish are descended from Phoeni-
cians. That there is such a type cannot be proved without metrical evi-
dence, but it will be recognized by most persons familiar with this part of
England. It can also be found in Massachusetts among old Cape Cod fam-
ilies whose ancestors came from Cornwall and Devon.
The most difficult local British type to study, with present materials, is
the long-headed brunet population of the remoter districts of Wales.36 It
is evident, however, that under the category of brunet dolichocephals
there are actually several racial types of different origins which have been
preserved by the marginal geographical nature of this country, as have the
more easily identified Beaker types of more recent arrival.
In the first place, the work of Fleure and James on the Plynlimon moor-
** Andrews, T. H., Man, vol. 21, 1921, pp. 137-139. -
86 Eickstedt, E. von, ZFRK, vol. 1, 1935, pp. 19-64.
Fleure, H. J., The Races of Britain and Wales.
Fleure, H. J., and James, T. G., JRAI, vol. 46, NS. 19, 1916, pp. 35-153.
Peate, I. C., JRAI, vol. 40, 1925, pp. 58-72.
THE BRITISH ISLES 397
lands people of Cardiganshire, an isolated group who live for the most part
as shepherds, shows that this region is the center for all Wales of the greatest
concentration of brunet dolichocephaly; their work also indicates that a
primitive human type, with large browridges, a low vault, a projecting
occiput, sloping forehead, a broad face, and prognathism survives here,
and is to be found in solution throughout most of Wales. That this type is
a survival from pre-Neolithic times seems reasonable. The head lengths
associated with it run well over 200 mm., in many cases over 210 mm.,
and the stature is usually under 1 70 cm. The moderate stature, the narrow
vault breadth, and the brunet pigmentation, as well as the general mor-
phological character, prevent this type from being closely associated with
the large-headed northern Palaeolithic sub-stratum in Ireland; one is re-
minded rather of the early Combe Capelle skull, and to a lesser extent, of
the Mesolithic men of Teviec in Brittany.
The majority of the brunet dolichocephals, however, belong rather to
the Long Barrow race of Megalithic introduction from the eastern Mediter-
ranean shorelands. A selected group of 46 men from all parts of Wales,
but in many cases from the neighborhood of the Plynlimon district, with
cephalic indices under 73.0, have a mean head length of 201 mm., a
breadth of 144.2 mm., and a stature of 168.0 cm. If this dolichocephalic
element were predominantly a small Mediterranean, one would expect
both the head length and stature to be much less than they are. Many
other series from other parts of Wales confirm the general head form char-
acter of this predominant dolichocephalic brunet element. That it has
absorbed the earlier Mesolithic or Palaeolithic type is likely, for there is
nothing in the English Long Barrow crania to indicate the importation of
such a primitive variety as an end type.
If we consider that the Long Barrow type was in original form almost
purely brown eyed, then it must be less important in the racial structure
of Wales than the Keltic Iron Age Nordic, for in but few districts are brown
eyes in the majority. It is possible, however, here as in Ireland, that there
was an incipient blue-eyed condition among the Long Barrow people, as
among living North Africans who belong to a closely similar type, and
that in northwestern Europe this condition was increased through stimuli
similar to those which produced blondism among other races.38
Among individual Welshmen it is possible to pick out individuals of a
smaller Mediterranean type, similar to that of Spain and Portugal, and
suggesting a survival from the Neolithic peoples of Windmill Hill cultural
affiliation who entered southern Britain from the continent. This type is
also easily isolated in the Midland factory districts, and among the Glasgow
population. In Wales, however, it is difficult to separate it from the Long
88 Eickstcdt, E. von, ZFRK, vol. 1, 1935, pp. 19-64.
398 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Barrow type, with which it is frequently associated. Von Eickstedt's series
of 30 men from Llangynog in North Montgomeryshire, and from Kerry
in the southern part of the same county, furnish the best anthropometric
evidence of its presence. In both regions brunet pigmentation is character-
istic; both series are mesocephalic. The mean stature of the Kerry men is
166.5 cm., of the Llangynog group 168.2 cm. The first mean is low enough
to indicate a strong Mediterranean element. The head and face measure-
ments, however, of both groups are much alike, and too great for a small
Mediterranean series; the head length mean is 196 mm. in each, the
breadth 154; the mention-nasion face height is 124 mm. in Kerry, 125 mm.
in Llangynog; the bizygomatic of Kerry 140 mm., that of Llangynog
139 mm. The noses of each are roughly 55 mm. by 34 mm., the nasal in-
dices— 61.8 for Kerry, 62.8 for Llangynog.
The head breadth, face height, and face breadth are all a little too
great for a small Mediterranean type, but an examination of the distribu-
tion curves of the two series eliminates this difficulty. The stature is
strongly bimodal, with a smaller mode at 163 cm., and a larger peak at
169 cm.; head length has modes at 193 and 199 mm.; head breadth
at 151 mm. and 157 mm.; the facial index at 86 and 92; the nasal index at
59 and 67. If we grant the small Mediterranean type a mean stature of
163 cm., a head length of 193 mm., and the lower facial and higher nasal
indices, it assumes a metrical character which can easily be duplicated in
the countries in which this type is more numerous and more easily iden-
tified, for example, Arabia and North Africa.
The pursuit of these early brunet survivals in remote districts of Wales
must not, however, make us forget that the bulk of the evidence from that
country as a whole indicates that the variety of Nordic to which the bearers
of Kymric speech belonged is today nearly if not fully as important there
as the totality of earlier human varieties.
(4) THE BRITISH ISLES, SUMMARY
The racial history of the British Isles, reviewed in the first section of the
present chapter, is a more complicated matter than one would expect in
view of the marginal position of these islands. Its complexity serves to
illustrate the little appreciated fact that men of European racial type be-
gan navigation in a serious way while still limited to the tools and resources
of a Neolithic economy; and that even at that remote time navigation was
a primary means by which large populations were transferred between
distant points. The population of the British Isles has been drawn from a
number of widely separated regional sources, and the sea has served not
so much as a barrier as a highroad over which these diverse elements have
converged.
THE BRITISH ISLES 399
These elements include most of the known branches of the white race;
one or more varieties of unreduced or unaltered Palaeolithic man; two
varieties of brunet Mediterranean, of which the sea-borne Atlanto-
Mediterranean is the more important; the two principal surviving vari-
ants of the Iron Age Nordic group; brachycephals of Dinaric or Armenoid
type, as well as the composite Beaker type which is a blend of Dinaric,
Borreby, and early Corded elements.
The snub-nosed Neo-Danubians and East Baltics, the brunet hook-
nosed Irano-Afghans, may for practical purposes be considered absent,
while the Alpine race, that important bearer of brachycephaly in central
Europe from France to the Bosporus, and over into the highlands of
western Asia, is notably uncommon. Individuals of apparent Alpine type
are, in most cases, Borreby descendants. It is the virtual absence of Alpines
in the British Isles which has prevented the British from undergoing a
brachycephalization comparable to that found in most of central Europe.
There seem to be no dominant trends in head form, for the component
elements in the British racial amalgam have retained their original
cephalic index levels.
In both Great Britain and Ireland, the invasion of the Keltic Iron Age
Nordics was the event which brought in the largest single body of people,
and the British of today, by and large, owe more in a physical sense to
these Kelts than to any other group of invaders. In both Great Britain
and Ireland, the Neolithic and Bronze Age invasions were of secondary
importance in respect to the present population, as were the invasions of
Germanic-speaking peoples.
In the different countries which make up the British Isles, these various
minorities have differential values in the local populations. It is these
minority differences which separate the English, the Scotch, the Irish, and
the Welsh, while the community of the Iron Age Nordic element serves
as an opposing force to hold them together.
In England, the Germanic element is the most distinctive; in Wales it
is the Atlan to-Mediterranean; in Scotland it is a combination of Bronze
Age and Scandinavian elements in the northeast, of Irish with Atlanto-
Mediterranean in the west; in Ireland the one fact of greatest importance
is the reemergence of the old northern Palaeolithic stock. The Keltic
Iron Age racial type is least important in northeastern Scotland, where
Keltic speech never penetrated, and in Wales, where it has attained its
maximum survival.
PHOTOGRAPHIC SUPPLEMENT
Photographic Supplement l
INTRODUCTION
The photographic supplement which follows has been arranged in such a manner
that it may serve both to illustrate the text of Chapters VIII through XII, and to sum-
marize the material of the book as a whole. The basic theses of the book, which these
pictures illustrate, are:
(1 ) The living members of the white race who occupy Europe and the adjacent por-
tions of Asia and Africa owe their initial differentiation to a dual origin.
(2) Some are descended primarily from the hunters and food-gatherers who occupied
frigid, sub-glacial lands at the time of the last Wurm advance. These hunters and food-
gatherers were in turn descendants of Neanderthaloid-sapiens hybrid ancestors.
(3) Others are descended primarily from the purely sapiens Mediterranean peoples,
who had never, during the Glacial Period, seriously encountered the cold, and who, in
post-glacial times, developed agriculture and animal husbandry as a primary means of
subsistence. The Mediterranean peoples began colonizing Europe from the east and
south about 3000 B.C.
(4) Still others, and in Europe these form the most numerous group of all, repre-
sent clearly differentiated hybrid forms, indicating descent from both of the two stocks
mentioned above. These hybrid forms follow well-marked metrical and morphological
racial patterns, in accordance with definite biological principles. (See Plate 35 seq.)
(5) All mixture does not produce these forms, however, since most if not all of
Group A or Palaeolithic phenotypes must from a genetic standpoint represent reemer-
gences.
(6) The racial map of Europe is never constant; there is always change, due to (a) en-
vironmental conditioning, (b) migration, (c) socially and economically conditioned ra-
cial selection both in migratory and in geographically static populations.
In the following pages the scheme will be to deal first with the descendants of the Late
Pleistocene inhabitants of the white racial area, then with those of the Mediterranean
race in its various forms, and finally with mixed types combining the characters of A
andB.
Anthropometric specifications of the subjects will be found in the tables which follow
the plates.
1 The pictures which appear on the following plates have been collected from many sources. All which are
not otherwise accredited were taken by the author either in the United States or abroad. The author wishes
to express his gratitude to the subjects who permitted him to photograph and measure them, and who stated
their willingness to have their pictures appear in this book; he assures them that whatever remarks may appear
in reference to their physical characters are concerned with racial and historical matters only; there is no im-
plication of superiority or inferiority, intellectual, moral, biological, or otherwise, in any case. No pictures of
convicts or of other persons socially stigmatized have been knowingly used. The sole object of the author in
compiling this supplement has been to cover as well as possible the range of racial variation within the white
group.
The following individuals, other than the two New Englanders specified as such, the American-born English
Gypsy, and the Jews whose American birthplaces arc specified, were born in the New World of parents from
the places mentioned. Plate 5, Fig. 5; 9-4; 9-7; 22-3; 22-4; 23-1; 23-3; 26-4; 27-1; 27-3; 30-4; 32-3; 33-4;
37-2.
Plate 1
LAPPS AND SAMOYEDS
During the Late Pleistocene and the post-glacial Mesolithic cultural period, descend-
ants of Upper Palaeolithic hunters lived in North Africa, in most of Europe, and in west-
ern Siberia, where some of them merged into the ancestors of the mongoloid group of
humanity. Even during the Upper Palaeolithic cultural period in western Europe,
some of the hunting peoples showed incipiently mongoloid racial tendencies. Among the
living descendants of these hunters, these tendencies are more common in the eastern
groups than among those living in the west.
Aside from the Ainu, the Lapps represent the easternmost in locus of development
of the basically white hunting groups which survived, and the only one which retained
a non-agricultural economy until modern times. Their present location in northern
Scandinavia and the Kola Peninsula is probably recent, and their area of differentia-
tion is believed to have been situated in the neighborhood of the Urals.
FIG. 1 (3 views, Lundborg and Linders, The Racial Characteristics of the Swedish Nation,
Plate 28). This Swedish Reindeer Lapp from Jam tland shows no evidence of Nordic or
other non-Lappish admixture; he may be taken as the closest approximation to a Lap-
pish prototype which may be found. Like the Lapps as a whole, he is short-statured,
small-bodied, small-headed, and brachycephalic. His morphological resemblance to the
Alpine race is striking; he is less mongoloid in appearance than some others of equal
purity.
Fig. 2 (1 view, photo Martin Luther). An unmixed coastal Lapp from Norway, who
looks just as Alpine as does Fig. 1.
FIG. 3 (1 view, photo Martin Luther), Another unmixed coastal Lapp from Norway,
who shows more of an incipiently mongoloid character than do the two preceding.
Like the others, this individual is brunet white in skin color, dark-haired and dark-eyed.
FIG. 4 (1 view, photo Martin Luther). The incipiently mongoloid features found in
some Lapps are usually more pronounced in the women than in the men. This Norwe-
gian Lapp woman, who possesses these features, is seen to resemble facially the type
commonly known as "Slavic" or "East Baltic/' in central and eastern Europe. There
is nothing really mongoloid about these features; the resemblance is remote and col-
lateral.
FIG. 5. (1 view, photo Martin Luther). This 18 year old Norwegian Lapp boy pos-
sesses all of the most characteristically Lappish features of the face: a shallow mandible;
a pointed, retreating chin; a lateral malar prominence; facial prognathism; a pointed
and elevated nasal tip; and a low nasal bridge.
FIG. 6 (2 views, photo Martin Luther). A Norwegian Lapp, with light skin, light eyes,
and brown hair. Although considered a pure Lapp, this man has many Nordic traits.
He is much more typical of the Lapps as a whole than are Figs. 1,2, or 3, who were
chosen to represent the Lappish prototype rather than the Lapps as a group.
FIG. 7 (3 views, Anthropological Laboratory, Institute of Peoples of the North,
Leningrad). A 20 year old Samoyed, from northern Russia. This young Samoyed,
while by no means exaggeratedly mongoloid, is much more so than any unmixed Lapp;
his coarse, black, and straight hair, his dark skin, and black iris color, as well as his
facial features, show that he is at least partially descended from fully evolved mongoloid
ancestors. Samoyeds vary greatly in mongoloid content; this individual seems to ap-
proach the mean in this respect. The arrival of the Samoyeds in northern Europe was
later than that of the Lapps; their point of departure in Asia farther east.
FKX 1
Plate 2
UGRIAN-SPEAKERS OF LADOGAN-RACIAL TYPE
The Uralic linguistic stock, spoken by Lapps, Finns, Magyars, Asiatic Ugrians, and
Samoyeds, is divided into Finno-Ugrian and Samoyedic. The Ugrian branch is today
spoken by two widely separated groups, the Magyars of Hungary and Transylvania,
and the Ostiaks and Voguls of the Obi drainage. The early Ugrians were presumably,
like the Finns, Danubian-like or Nordic peoples of the middle Volga country, who ab-
sorbed the older hunting population of the eastern European forest. Later the Ugrians
were subjected to mongoloid influences at the times of Hunnish, Turkish, and Mongol
invasions. The individuals shown on Plate 2 were chosen to illustrate in varying forms
and degrees the old Ladogan racial type.
FIG. 1 (3 views). A Magyar from Budapest; a man of moderately tall stature, hyper-
brachycephaly, and moderately great head size; with a large face, low orbits, a wide
interorbital distance, and a median eyefold. These characters, in combination with
laterally prominent malars and a wide, heavy mandible, mark this individual as a La-
dogan prototype. He represents a reemergence of a racial element living in the eastern
European woodlands in early post-glacial times; this type is one of the general group of
Palaeolithic survivors, in this case largely unreduced. As with the related Palaeolithic
survivors of northwestern Europe, its tendency to blondism must be considered inte-
gral, and not the result of Nordic admixture. Like the Lapp this type is incipiently
mongoloid, but it differs profoundly from the Lapp in pigmentation, general size, and
in the size and structure of the mandible. This individual appears to recapitulate in
many respects the original Ladogan strain found among the Ugrian-speaking ancestors
of the Magyars who invaded Hungary from their home in the Volga country. While
typical of a true Magyar element in his country, he is not typical of the population of
Hungary as a whole.
FIG. 2 (3 views, Institute of Peoples of the North). An Ostiak woman from Siberia.
The Ladogan facial features are usually better exemplified in women than in men. The
Ostiak woman shown above is as good a Ladogan prototype as the Magyar shown
above. Note the blond hair, light eyes, the great interorbital distance, the broad, low-
bridged nose with elevated snub tip, and the wide malars.
FIG. 3 (3 views, Institute of Peoples of the North). An Ostiak man with some Sam-
oyed admixture; the hair is brown, the eyes mixed, the face freckled. In addition to
the Ladogan element seen in the first two, this individual probably contains some
evolved mongoloid admixture.
FIG. 4 (3 views, Institute of Peoples of the North). A Vogul man; showing more evi-
dence of mongoloid admixture than the above. It must be emphasized that nearly all
of the mongoloid racial factors possessed by the Ugrian speakers resident in Siberia
were acquired after their shift of territory from European Russia to Asia.
FIG, 1
FIG. 2
Plate 3
MONGOLOID INFLUENCES IN EASTERN
EUROPE AND IN TURKESTAN
The invasions of mongoloid peoples from central Asia during the millennium from
about 400 to 1400 A.D. caused the settlement of some Mongols proper (Kalmucks) near
the mouth of the Volga, and the partial Mongolizing of some Finnic tribes, especially
those which adopted Turkish speech. In Russian Turkestan erstwhile white populations
became Mongolized in varying degrees.
FIG. 1 (2 views, photo B. N. Vishnevsky). This deeply brunet Chuvash, a member of
a tribe of Turkicized Finns in what is now the Chuvash Republic of eastern Russia, rep-
resents, in his facial features, either a pronounced early Ladogan prototype, or Mongol
admixture, or both.
FIG. 2 (1 view, photo B. N. Vishnevsky). A lighter-skinned, less mongoloid Chuvash.
The median eyefold and snubbed nasal tip, with laterally oriented nostril axes, are
Ladogan rather than mongoloid.
FIG. 3 (3 views, photo J. Wastl, Archivfur Rassenbilder, Bildaufsatz 2, Archivkarte 11,
1926. Herausgeber E. von Eickstedt, J. F. Lehmans Verlag, Miinchcn). A Bashkir,
member of another tribe of Turkicized Finns living in the Kazan district and the south-
ern Urals. This individual is almost completely mongoloid in the central Asiatic sense.
FIG. 4 (2 views, photo Gordon T. Bowles). An Uzbeg from Russian Turkestan. The
Uzbegs are Turkish -speaking inhabitants of the central Asiatic khanates, of mixed ori-
gin. This individual shows a partially mongoloid condition usual among these people.
FIG. 5 (1 view, photo B. N. Vishnevsky). A Tajik from Russian Turkestan; the Ta-
jiks are Iranian-speaking farmers inhabiting the oases of some of the khanates, and the
Pamir mountains to the south. While characteristically European in race, a few of the
Tajiks show evidences of mongoloid admixture.
FIG. 6 (3 views, photo B. N. Vishnevsky). An Arabic-speaking native of Russian
Turkestan. The remnants of the Arab invasions of the Middle Ages have been mostly
absorbed by the Uzbegs, and those who retain their Semitic idiom have been in most
cases racially altered. The old man shown here represents a common type in Turkestan
regardless of speech or ethnic affiliation; a mixture between a mongoloid and a long-
faced local Mediterranean strain, giving a pseudo-Armenoid appearance. Note the
long, straight, coarse beard, a common feature among individuals of this type, which
von Eickstedt calls Turanid.
FIG.
Plate 4
BRUNN SURVIVORS IN SCANDINAVIA
All Upper Palaeolithic survivors may be divided into two general groups (a) those
who have been subjected to reduction in head size and bodily bulk, and who have been
partially foetalized in the course of the same process; and (b) those who retain the head
size, bodily bulk, and masculinity of features characteristic of the Pleistocene hunters.
Most of the latter group are to be found in northwestern Europe. Dolichocephalic indi-
viduals who recapitulate the metrical and morphological qualities of the Cr6-Magnon
and Brunn-Pfedmost Aurignacian people are commonest in Scandinavia and in Ire-
land. In Scandinavia they are found concentrated along the southern Swedish coast in
the neighborhood of Goteborg, and in the mountains of southwestern Norway.
FIG. 1 (3 views). A Swede from Trollhatton, southern Sweden. This man is both
tall and heavy; of lateral bodily build. His head is of prodigious length, his face nearly
as wide as his cranial vault; all dimensions of the face are great, especially the width of
the mandible; the distance between the eyes, and the heaviness of the browridges, are
likewise remarkable. This individual recapitulates, as closely probably as any other
living human being, the physical type of many of the hunters who lived in western and
central Europe during the Laufen Interglacial and the last advance of the ice. Note
that in his case, as with most of his type, only a partial degree of blondism is present.
FIG. 2 (3 views). Another Swede, in this case from Goteborg, a slightly less ex-
treme example of the same type. Swedes of this type are habitually found in association
with the sea. Both of these individuals, as well as Fig. 4, were measured and photo-
graphed in a Boston shipyard.
FIG. 3 (3 views, from Alette Schreiner, Anthropologische Lokaluntersuchungen in Norge;
Valle, Halandsdat, und Eidfjord, Oslo, 1930. #113). This Norwegian from the isolated
mountain settlement of Valle in southwestern Norway represents the same basic type as
the two men above; his face and mandible, however, are narrower, and his hair ash
blond; admixture with Nordics is indicated.
FIG. 4 (3 views). The same conclusion is suggested in reference to this extremely long-
"aced and golden-haired Swede from Helsingborg. He is, however, much larger in head
and face size, much heavier in body build, and heavier in the facial skeleton than any
Vordic. The predominant strain is Upper Palaeolithic.
FIG* 4
Plate 5
BORREBY SURVIVORS IN THE NORTH
In the same districts of southern Sweden where Briinn survivors are found, and across
the Skaggerrak in Jutland, are found brachycephalic Upper Palaeolithic survivors,
equally unreduced in head and body size, equally if not more lateral in bodily build.
The ancestors of these people arrived on the western Baltic shores during the Late
Mesolithic. Other colonies of them are to be found in the coastal districts of south-
western Norway, and they form an element of primary importance in the population
of Germany, In general, their present distribution is wider than that of their dolicho-
cephalic counterparts.
FIG. 1 (3 views). A Dane from Jutland, very tall, heavy, lateral in build, with an
enormous head and an extremely wide face. This individual is as exaggerated an ex-
ample of the Borreby race as is #1 of the preceding plate of the Briinn race.
FIG. 2 (3 views). A Swede from Goteborg, representing more nearly the mean of
the Borreby race as it is found today. Both this man and #1 are golden blond in hair
color; the Borreby group seems to run lighter-haired than the Briinn.
FIG. 3 (2 views, Bryn and Schreiner, Die Somatologie der Norweger, Table 44, Fig, 121).
This individual, while less brachycephalic than many of his compatriots, especially
those in the Jaeren district, shows an essential affiliation to the Borreby race. The ap-
parent facial flatness and the formation of the region of the nasal tip and the upper lip
look "Irish"; this is an Upper Palaeolithic facial condition common both to Scandina-
vians and to British of Upper Palaeolithic type.
FIG. 4 (1 view, Gudrnundur Kamban, author oil See a Wondrous Land, G. P. Putnam
& Sons, N. Y.). A prominent Icelandic author, who presents the same facial features
and belongs to the general Borreby racial type. Iceland was settled mainly from the
coastal regions of Norway in which the Borreby race is prevalent; an important Irish
increment may have added a similar racial element.
FIG. 5 (3 views). A Finnish example of the Borreby race. This Finn is more brachy-
cephalic than most Borreby men; however his lateral bodily build, and his extreme
breadth of face and mandible show that he is a trans-Baltic member.
Plate 6
BORREBY MEN IN GERMANY AND ELSEWHERE
The Borreby race was a relatively late Mesolithic arrival in Scandinavia; its earlier
seat was central Germany, with ramifications both to the east and the west. Today it is
probably the one most important racial element in much of northern and central Ger-
many, with wide ramifications elsewhere. Its German form is, however, seldom as
exaggerated as that in the north. In this sense it is partly transitional to the Alpine race
on the one hand, and to the Ladogan on the other.
FIG. 1 (2 views, Sailer, K., "Die Fehmaraner," Deutsche Rassenkunde, vol. 4, 1930,
Tafel XI, #H-11, #2193). A concentration of a specialized and exaggerated Borreby
type or types is found on the island of Fehmaran, between the Danish Archipelago and
Germany. The individual shown has especially heavy browridges and a great nasion
depression. Others are often rounder-faced and usually show less exaggerated facial
profiles. The browridges on this individual recall Upper Palaeolithic prototypes.
FIG. 2 (1 view, C. W. Dupertuis, Century of Progress). A German Borreby type with
the excessive head breadth of 175 mm., which must be one of the widest non-deformed
head breadths ever measured. This width is greater than the lengths of some heads
shown in this section.
FIG. 3 (3 views). A characteristic West-German Borreby type, from Stuttgart. The
south west- German Borreby nucleus has mixed with all invaders from the initial Neo-
lithic onwards. It was with Borreby people from this region that the Bell-Beaker Folk
mixed, before their invasion of Britain in the Early Bronze Age.
FIG. 4 (3 views). A metrically typical Borreby specimen, a White Russian from the
region of Vilna. The presence of this type to the southeast of the Baltic establishes its
continuity between Germany and Finland.
FIG. 5 (3 views). A North Italian from Lombardy, who, although brunet in hair
color, conforms metrically and morphologically to the Borreby standard. He comes
from typically Alpine and Dinaric territory.
FIG, S
Plate 7
EAST BALTICS
The term East Baltic is properly applicable to a racial type of composite nature, found
chiefly in northeastern Germany, Poland, the Baltic States, and Finland, although it
also occurs sporadically in Sweden and elsewhere. It is a partially reduced Borreby
derivative, with Ladogan and Nordic admixture.
FIG. 1 (2 views, Wide World photos). Field Marshal von Hindenburg, a native of
East Prussia, and a classic example of the East Baltic racial type, to which many Prus-
sians of the land-owning Junker class belong.
FIG. 2 (1 view, Pix Publications, Inc.). Field Marshal Werner von Blomberg, a suc-
cessor of von Hindenburg, derived from the same ethnic source and a member of the
same racial category.
FIG. 3 (3 views). A Pole from Grodno. This individual approaches Borreby dimen-
sions in the cranial vault.
FIG. 4 (3 views). A Lithuanian from the region of Vilna, who shows the Ladogan
affiliation of this type clearly.
FIG. 5 (3 views). A Finn from Tampere, Tavastehus. This man seems to show more
evidence of Nordic influence than the others. As these pictures show, the East Baltic is
not a stable or a basic racial type, but a variable blend.
F«3L 1
Fio. 2
FIG. 5
Plate 8
CARPATHIAN AND BALKAN BORREBY-LIKE
TYPES
Evidence of the survival of an extremely tall, brachycephalized, Upper Palaeolithic
stock is found to a lesser extent in the Carpathians; and to a greater, in the nucleus of
the Dinaric Alpine region, from Bosnia to northern Albania, and centered in Montene-
gro. Although the presence of these nuclei cannot now be fully explained, it seems
probable that they represent local survivals and reemergences of relatively unreduced
Upper Palaeolithic populations. The Montenegrins are the tallest people in Europe;
their tallness does not, however, imply a thin or linear build ; their bodies are frequently
thick-set, lateral in constitutional type.
FIG. 1 (3 views). A Carpatho-Russian, or Ruthenian, from the Polish Carpathians.
His tall stature, heavy bony structure, large face, etc., point to a basic relationship with
the unreduced Upper Palaeolithic survivors of the northwest.
FIG. 2 (3 views), A Montenegrin of aristocratic lineage; in the main an oversized,
Upper Palaeolithic survivor, but brunet in pigmentation, like many of the Serbs to
whom the Montenegrins are closely related, and who do not, as a rule, possess the over-
sized characters of their mountain kinsmen.
FIG. 3 (2 views, R. W. Ehrich photo). A blond Montenegrin with extreme width of
the cranial vault and mandible.
FIG. 4 (1 view). An Albanian from Malsia e Madhe, near the Montenegrin border.
FIG. 5 (2 views). An Albanian from the clan of Shoshi in the isolated mountain tribe
of Dukagin. This man is a blond giant with a broad, heavy-boned body; his face is
shorter than the width of his mandible. The unreduced Upper Palaeolithic character
of the local mountain type is clearly seen in this individual.
FIG. 6 (1 view). A tall, portly man from Malsia e Madhe; his facial features show an
approach to those of the smaller, less rugged form of the Alpine race, which is particu-
larly strong in southern Albania.
Era. 5
Fia, 6
Plate 9
UPPER PALAEOLITHIC SURVIVALS IN IRELAND
Ireland was first settled in the post-glacial Mesolithic by people of Upper Palaeolithic
type corning overland from Scotland. The Mesolithic cultural period was long and full
in Ireland, and the subsequent invaders of this westernmost fringe of Europe have been
unable to effect a genetic displacement of the strain introduced by the earliest human
occupants. This strain has undergone an evolution of its own in Ireland, as the presence
side by side of individuals showing various stages and types of change will make clear.
FIG. 1 (3 views). County Cork. A man of medium stature but great body size, mas-
sive bony structure and heavy musculature; a large head, heavy brows, deep, wide man-
dible and projecting chin. This individual is a close Irish approximation to the Briinn
race of Scandinavia. His golden hair is curly; curly hair is a local specialty of the Irish
Upper Palaeolithic group. It is also, however, occasionally found among Lapps and
Finns.
FIG. 2 (2 views, photo C. W. Dupertuis). County Clare. Cork, Kerry, and Clare are
the three Irish counties in which unreduced Palaeolithic survivors form the major ele-
ment in the population. This large individual has a head of full Briinn-Borreby size di-
mensions, but one that is intermediate between the two Scandinavian types in form.
This is typical of the Irish Palaeolithic group, which is characteristically mesocephalic
or sub-brachycephalic and forms a single unit in this respect. The individual depicted
possesses a mandible of extreme width, comparable to the widest in Scandinavia. Note
that the hair is red and the complexion florid; rufosity is closely linked to Upper Palaeo-
lithic survival in Ireland
FIG. 3 (1 view, photo C. W. Dupertuis). Another Clare man of similar type but less
extreme dimensions. This type of Irishman is very common in America.
FIG. 4 (2 views, photo C. W. Dupertuis). An Irishman from Lei trim, whose facial
features are typically Irish, and yet who approximates a Nordic form in most anthropo-
metric dimensions. There may well have been Nordic mixture involved in the produc-
tion of this type, taking the form of a simple reduction in lateral size dimensions. In
any case the facial features are of pure Upper Palaeolithic inspiration.
FIG. 5 (1 view). A Finn from Vasa (S. Ostrobothnia), who is anthropometrically and
morphologically very close to the Irishman from Leitrim. The same curly hair, and
the same conformation of the forehead, lips, and nose have produced a striking similar-
ity. This and other evidence indicate that features which in Finns are often popularly
supposed to be mongoloid are actually of European Upper Palaeolithic inspiration.
FIG. 6 (2 views, photo C. W. Dupertuis). A small-headed, absolutely short-headed,
and snub-nosed youth from County Longford. This individual serves as an excellent
example of the extreme in size reduction and in partial foetalization which has taken
place in some Irish Upper Palaeolithic survivors, comparable and parallel to the de-
velopment of the Alpine race on the Continent.
FIG. 7 (1 view). County Cork. An example of notable facial and alveolar progna-
thism in the case of a dark-haired, light-eyed Irishman. This feature is commoner with
Irish of a tall Mediterranean type than with the Upper Palaeolithic strain proper.
Fw* €
F», 7
Plate 10
UPPER PALAEOLITHIC SURVIVALS IN MOROCCO
During the Late Pleistocene North Africa was inhabited by the Afalou men, a race of
tall, large-headed, heavy-boned, people with exaggeratedly rugged cranial and facial
features comparable to those of the Cr6-Magnon — Briinn group in Europe. This Afa-
lou race bore with it a tendency to brachycephaly. In post-glacial time North Africa
has been a highroad of invasion, from the eastern Mediterranean to Europe, and the
survivors of those Afalou people who remained are to be found mostly in two refuge
areas, the Moroccan Rif and the Canary Islands. Here only the Riffian group will be
depicted. In the Rif, besides more numerous Mediterraneans, Nordics, and mixed
types, the Afalou strain has survived or reemerged in recognizable form, and may be
seen to have gone through an evolution parallel to that of European Upper Palaeolithic
survivors in Ireland and on the continent of Europe. As in Europe, these survivors are
often blond; as in Ireland, frequently rufous.
FIG. 1 (2 views). A sheikh of Targuist. Blond, metrically comparable to the Nordics,
as in the case of the Irishman in FIG. 4 of the preceding plate, but in the same sense un-
Nordic in facial features; probably Nordic mixture is partly responsible.
FIG. 2 (2 views). A larger-headed, mesocephalic example of the same type, compa-
rable in features to Northwest Europeans with Borreby blood ; like the first example and
wholly unlike the Nordic and Mediterranean strains in the Rif, this individual is lateral
in constitutional type; heavy boned, and heavily muscled. This man is a fkih (school-
master and leader of the mosque) in the Riffian tribe of Beni Ulishk.
FIG. 3 (2 views). The kaid or governor of the tribe of Targuist. For some unknown
reason Riffians who hold public office usually belong to this physical type. The kaid
is rufous, and like many Riffians, could pass for an Irishman if differently clothed and
coiffured.
FIG. 4 (2 views). A very blond youth from the Senhajan tribe of Ktama, the most
isolated spot in northern Morocco. Facially he resembles a southern Swede; closely
similar individuals have been observed in the Canary Islands. The dimensions of his
head are small, however; he must be regarded as a mesocephalic, cranially reduced
type similar to the Irishman on plate 9, Fig. 6.
FIG. 5 (2 views). A highland Beni Urriaghel Riffian; short-statured, laterally built,
rufous; with a snub nose and short face; a reduced mesocephalic Afalou type.
FIG. 6 (1 view). A kaid of Taghzuth, a small tribe of Senhajan craftsmen located in
the high mountain forest immediately west of the Rif. Rufous and exaggeratedly "Irish"
in facial features.
FIG. 7 (1 view). An old Riffian warrior, one of the Ulad Abd el Mumen clan in the
Vale of Iherrushen, Gzennaya. Although indistinguishable metrically from many tall
Mediterraneans, this individual possesses morphological features in the region of the eyes,
nose, mouth, and jaw, which are clearly of Afalou inspiration, and which give him an
"Irish" look.
Plate 11
THE ALPINE RACE IN GERMANY
The Alpine race is a reduced Upper Palaeolithic survivor; Alpines are as a rule of
but medium stature, and lateral in bodily build ; their heads of moderate size and globu-
lar; their faces characteristically round and their facial features slightly infantile. Their
pigmentation ranges from blond to brunet, but is usually intermediate. The Alpines
represent a reemergence of a brachycephalized and partially foetalized Palaeolithic sur-
vival in the central highland and forest zone of Europe and Asia, all the way from the
Pyrenees to the Pamirs. Alpines are at the root of all or nearly all the brachycephalic
racial types throughout this entire expanse of territory. The Alpine territorial distribu-
tion is not the result of an invasion or expansion, but of a parallel set of emergences. In
Europe, southern Germany is the seat of one of the greatest Alpine concentrations in
the continent. The best place in the world to find Alpines is in a Bavarian restaurant;
that is where all four individuals on this plate were photographed and measured.
FIG. 1 (3 views). A metrically and morphologically perfect Alpine, from Branden-
burg.
FIG. 2 (3 views). A tall, curly-haired, and portly Alpine from the Hirschenberg, near
Miesbach, Upper Bavaria; this individual might be considered the quintessence of a
Bavarian.
FIG. 3 (3 views). An Alpine from the Black Forest, Baden.
FIG. 4 (3 views). An Alpine from the Spreewald, of German, not Wendish, origin.
The low brachycephalic index, and the relative fineness of the facial features indicate
a tendency in a Nordic direction.
FIG. 4
Plate 12
THE ALPINE RACE IN WESTERN
AND CENTRAL EUROPE
FIG. 1 (3 views). A Basque from Vizcaya, Spain. This blond Basque was rufous and
freckled in childhood; his curly hair and facial features give him an Irish appearance.
Nevertheless his general racial classification is with the Alpine group. This is an un-
common type for a Basque, since most of them are Atlanto-Mediterraneans and Binaries.
FIG. 2 (3 views). A perfect example of a French Alpine. This individual is a Parisian,
but his mother came from the Pyrenees.
FIG. 3 (3 views). A Ladin-speaking Swiss from the Canton of Ticino (Tessin). A fully
brunet Alpine, typical of southeastern Switzerland and northern Italy.
FIG. 4 (3 views). A Czech from Bohemia, Alpine morphologically but not as brachy-
cephalic as the Alpine mean.
Fm, t
Fio. 2
Wm, 4
Plate 13
ABERRANT ALPINE FORMS IN WESTERN AND
CENTRAL EUROPE
FIG. 1 (3 views). A Scotsman from Aberdeen, with blue eyes and dark brown hair.
This brachycephalic Aberdonian is Alpine in head form and in most facial features; the
length of the face and of the nose, however, are aberrant and point to non-Alpine in-
fluences. The predominant Alpine element present in this individual is presumably
that which entered Scotland from the Continent during the Bronze Age with the Short
Gist People. Other brachycephalic Scotsmen sometimes show Borreby features.
FIG. 2 (3 views). A Frenchman from the Limousin region; father from the Dordogne,
mother from Limoges. The sloping forehead and prominent nasal profile of this indi-
vidual, as well as his long face and wide jaw, indicate non- Alpine influences; he pre-
sumably carries a strain of the large-headed early Mediterranean or Upper Palaeolithic
element prevalent in this part of France and first noticed by Ripley.
FIG. 3 (3 views). A Frenchman from Doubs, in Burgundy. This large-headed and rel-
atively tall northeastern Frenchman represents the local brachycephalic type differen-
tiated from the southcentral French Alpines largely by stature and pigmentation.
FIG. 4 (3 views). A Walloon, born in France, whose parents were from Ghent.
Large-headed, not excessively brachycephalic, this individual is typical of the Wal-
loon-speaking population of the hilly southeastern half of Belgium.
» 4
Plate 14
ALPINES FROM CENTRAL, EASTERN, AND
SOUTHEASTERN EUROPE
East of Bavaria, Bohemia, and Switzerland, typical Alpines are relatively rare until
one reaches southern Albania and Greece; their northeastern limit of frequency is the
Carpathians, and between the Carpathians and the Adriatic, they are usually found in
a hybridized (Dinaricized) form.
FIG. 1 (3 views), Magyar from Pecas, Hungary. This tall Alpine from Hungary is,
except for his stature, as perfect an example of the Alpine race as could be found; he
may be compared to the Alpines on Plate 1 1 , from Germany. Hungary is ethnically a
composite nation, and this individual's family has traditions of both French and Ger-
man admixture.
FIG. 2 (3 views). Ukrainian from Novograd Volynsk, in the Volhyn District. Like
many Volhynians, this individual is predominantly Alpine, although he shows evidence
of Atlanto-Mediterranean or Nordic admixture, or both. The Volhyn constitutes in
part an Alpine sub-nucleus to the northeast of the Carpathians.
FIG. 3 (2 views, photo Marion Lambert). A Tosc from Katundi, southern Albania.
This man is as perfect an Alpine as the Hungarian on the preceding plate, the French-
man on Plate 12, Fig. 2, or the Germans on Plate 11. Southern Albania forms an Al-
pine nucleus comparable to that in southcentral France or Bavaria.
FIG. 4 (1 view). Another Alpine Tosc; in this case from Gjinokaster, in the extreme
southwest of Albania, bordering on Epirus.
FIG. 5 (3 views). A Greek from Sparta. The Alpine strain of southern Albania ex-
tends down through western Greece into the Peloponnesus/ In Greece it is frequently
blended with a local tall Mediterranean strain.
FIG. 5
Plate 15
ASIATIC ALPINES
The Alpine race is as important in the mountain zone from Syria to the Pamirs as it
is in the corresponding portion of Europe. Both anthropometrically and morphologi-
cally, the European and Asiatic Alpines are essentially identical. Furthermore, when
not too strongly altered by mixture with other stocks, the Asiatic Alpines tend to an in-
termediate pigment condition comparable to that of their European counterparts,
FIG. 1 (3 views). A Syrian Alpine from Damascus. This man is typically Alpine, ex-
cept perhaps for his rather extreme face length.
FIG. 2 (3 views). A Druze from Shuf, southern Syria. This man is in all respects an
excellent Alpine. The Druze, followers of a secret religion based on the schismatic teach-
ings of the Khalifa Hakim of the Mediaeval Fatimid Dynasty, claim to be descended
from immigrants who moved from Yemen to Syria in the sixth century A.D. Although
this tradition may be accurate, nevertheless the majority of the Druzes today are
brachycephalic, and show a predominance of Alpine racial characters, which could
only have had a local origin.
FIG. 3 (3 views). An Armenian from Cilicia, Asia Minor. The Armenians, for the
most part Dinaricized, include in their ranks a minority of individuals who represent,
as does this man, the Alpine prototype of the Asia Minor brachycephals.
FIG. 4 (1 view, photo B. N. Vishnevsky). An Iranian speaker from Russian Turke-
stan; a good example of a central Asiatic Alpine.
FIG. 5 (1 view, photo B. N. Vishnevsky), A Mountain Tajik from the Pamirs. The
Tajiks are basically Alpine, and resemble the south-central French closely in an anthro-
pometric sense. They form the last major outpost of the Alpine race to the East, as far
as we know at present.
FIG. 6 (1 view, from a tempera painting by the artist lacovleff, from his album Pern-
lures d'Asie, Paris, 1935, permission Mme. lacovleff). An Alpine-looking Hunza from
the Hunza valley above Gilgit, in the Himalayas. The western Himalayas, from Kafiri-
stan over into Tibet, are proving to be a refuge area of the greatest importance, with
interesting racial as well as cultural implications. Nordics, various varieties of Mediter-
raneans, as well as Alpines and other strains are apparently preserved in the inaccessible
valleys of this territory.
Plate 16
THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE IN ARABIA
The Mediterranean race, in the widest sense, is one of the two basic divisions of the
white stock. Although varying greatly in stature, different varieties of Mediterraneans
do not, as types, attain the bulk, either in head or body size, of the unreduced Upper
Palaeolithic group; tall Mediterraneans, whether or not depigmented (partially depig-
mented Mediterraneans are Nordics) are usually slender, Small or moderate statured
Mediterraneans are as a rule less lateral in build than reduced Upper Palaeolithic sur-
vivors.
The homeland of the Mediterranean race appears to lie somewhere between East
Africa and the Mediterranean, between the Indian Ocean and the Caspian Sea, and
between the Egyptian Delta and India. Arabia is centrally located within this general
territory, and the parts of Arabia lying west and north of the Rubaf el Khali desert
seem to be basic Mediterranean territory.
FIG. 1 (2 views), A youthful Yemeni from the desert-border tribe of Hadha. Facially
he is a perfect example of a refined Mediterranean type ; his head length is a little short,
his stature a little tall, for the mean. He is a brunet-white in unexposed skin color,
brunet in hair and eye color; narrower-faced than any of the Upper Palaeolithic sur-
vivors, reduced or unreduced, whom we have seen in the preceding plates. His fore-
head and jaw are both consistently narrow. It is a characteristic of the Mediterranean
race, as of this individual, that the upper face height and nose height are great, no mat-
ter how small the other dimensions. Imagine this individual pink-skinned, blue-eyed,
and blond-haired, and you will have a close approximation to a Nordic. There is no
essential difference between the two races other than pigmentation. Both, however, are
separated by a wide racial gap from the Upper Palaeolithic group.
FIG. 2 (2 views). Another Yemeni highlander, in this case from the escarpment tribe
of Beni Madhar. This man is shorter in stature, and much longer-headed. He is mixed
in eye color; some 25 per cent of all pure brunet Mediterranean groups possess a trace
of incipient blondism. The cranial and facial dimensions of this individual resemble
those of the larger, Atlanta-Mediterranean strain as found in western Europe and
North Africa. In Arabia the two are not clearly differentiated.
FIG. 3 (2 views). A Yemeni soldier from the tribe of Khaulan, which goes back his-
torically to Sabaean times. Metrically a perfect Mediterranean central type, this indi-
vidual possesses a thin, aquiline nose of a type found frequently but by no means ex-
clusively among Arabs.
FIG. 4 (2 views, photo Henry Field. Courtesy of the Field Museum of Natural His-
tory, Chicago). A Ruwalla Bedawin, a member of an aristocratic tribe of camel breeders
who inhabit the Syrian desert. The Ruwalla, more brunet than the Yemenis, resemble
them closely in most respects.
FIG. 5 (2 views, photo Henry Field. Courtesy of the Field Museum of Natural His-
tory, Chicago). A Solubbi; member of a small group of desert wanderers and outcasts
who inhabit the North Arabian desert, travelling in small family groups and serving
as hunters and tinkers for the Bedawin. They are the purest Mediterraneans in north-
ern Arabia, and probably represent an extremely ancient element in the North Arabian
population, This Solubbi may be considered a classical Mediterranean.
FIG. 6 (2 views, photo Henry Field. From Field, Henry, Arabs of Central Iraq, Anth.
Mem. of the Field Museum of Natural History, vol. 4, 1935, Plate LXXX). A tall
Mediterranean from Iraq. The Iraqians, who are apparently direct and unaltered de-
scendants of the ancient Mesopotamians, are Mediterraneans. They are, however, on
the whole taller, darker-skinned, longer-faced, and straighter-haired than the Arabs.
LONG-FACED MEDITERRANEANS OF THE
WESTERN ASIATIC HIGHLANDS
In the highland zone of western Asia, aside from the Alpine reemergences already
studied, the most important racial type is a moderately tall to tall, slender, brunet
Mediterranean type characterized especially by a great length of the face and nose. In
Syria and Anatolia, as in Armenia and the Caucasus, this type occurs sporadically in
the midst of Alpines and, more commonly, of Alpine-Mediterranean hybrids; in Iran
and Afghanistan the dolichocephalic strain or strains are numerically predominant.
FIG. 1 (3 views). A Turk from Kharput, eastern Turkey. This moderately tall,
brunet Mediterranean Turk is remarkable for his considerable head length, and espe-
cially for the great height of his upper face and nose. The original Seljuks and Osmanlis
who invaded Asia Minor and founded the Turkish Empire probably were men of this
same general physical type. Like the Finns, the Turks never were, in all likelihood,
mongoloid.
FIG. 2 (3 views). A Syrian from Kfar fAkal, who, although slightly brachycephalized
by the prevailing head form of Syria, still retains the essential features of the long-faced,
long-nosed Mediterranean prototype of this region.
FIG. 3 (3 views). A dolichocephalic Armenian from Kharput. Dolichocephalic
Armenians are rare ; this individual appears to be a perfect example of the tall, long-
headed, and long-faced Mediterranean prototype which, brachycephalized by Alpine
admixture, is at the basis of the Armenian population.
FIG. 4 (2 views, Photo Wm. M. Shanklin). A Gherkess (Circassian) from the north-
western Caucasus. The Caucasic peoples include in their racial repertoire a strong bru-
net Mediterranean element of the type shown above; this is especially prevalent among
the Cherkesses, of whom this individual apparently forms a good example. One can-
not be sure, however, in view of his kalpak, that he has not been partly brachycepha-
lized.
FIG. 5 (1 view, tempera painting by lacovleff). This magnificent head by lacovleff
illustrates an extreme example of the long-faced Mediterranean type characteristic of
the Turkomans, who inhabit, besides the plains of Turkestan, some of the mountain
districts of northern Iran and Afghanistan.
Wm. 2
ff%^,'
ifcitf
* 5
Plate 18
LONG-FACED MEDITERRANEANS OF THE
WESTERN ASIATIC HIGHLANDS: THE
IRANO-AFGHAN RACE
The individuals shown in the preceding plate might be generally classified within
the Irano-Afghan branch of the Mediterranean race, the main diagnostic features of
which are an extreme vault length, face height, and nose height. In many instances ex-
treme nasal convexity and prominence, and in others an extremely high cranial vault,
are additional features.
FIG. 1 (2 views, photo Henry Field. Courtesy of the Field Museum of Natural His-
tory, Chicago). A Lur from Luristan, Iran. This Persian tribesman shows in exagger-
ated degree the great nasal prominence often associated with this branch of the Medi-
terranean race, and endemic among many Near Eastern peoples. Not only is the nose
convex and salient, but also the forehead is sloping, and the chin receding, although the
mandible is deep.
Fio. 2 (1 view, tempera painting by lacovleff). The same racial characters, typical
among Kurds, appear in this Baghdadi Kurd in less exaggerated form.
FIG. 3 (1 view, tempera painting by lacovleff). Although one cannot be sure of the
head form of this venerable Persian official from Teheran, his facial features are charac-
teristically Irano-Afghan.
FIG. 4 (2 views, photo Gordon T. Bowles). A Momnand tribesman from eastern
Afghanistan. The Afridis and Mohmands of the Khyber Pass country, the traditional
harriers of the Northwest Frontier Province, are of the same racial type, for the most
part, as the Persians and the Afghanis. This individual might be a brother of the Luri
(Fig. 1) from the opposite end of the Irano-Afghan plateau.
FIG. 5 (1 view, tempera painting by lacovleff). An Afghan, the "son of a nomadic
chief." This youth possesses the high, narrow cranial vault common to one variety of
the Irano-Afghan race.
FIG. 6 (2 views, photo Wm. M. Shanklin). A tribesman from the desert border of
northeastern Syria, this gray-bearded man possesses the high cranial vault mentioned
above.
FIG. 7 (2 views, photo Gordon T. Bowles). Closely similar to the Syrian desert border
tribesman is this Afridi from eastern Afghanistan. Its high, narrow cranial vault, in
combination with a great facial and nasal height, and its general cast of cranial features
makes this type nearly identical with that of the Corded people who invaded Europe
from the east toward the beginning of the third millennium B.C.
FIG. 8 (1 view, tempera painting by lacovleff). This Persian from Teheran seems to
belong to the same general branch of the Irano-Afghan race as the two preceding. The
great length of his nose is an attribute of senility as well as a racial character.
Plate 19
GYPSIES, DARK-SKINNED MEDITERRANEANS,
AND SOUTH ARABIAN VEDDOIDS
The Gypsies, who are believed to have left their home in the lower Indus Valley about
the turn of the present millennium, and who arrived in Europe some four centuries later,
belong, when comparatively unmixed, to a dark-skinned, small-bodied racial type of
general Mediterranean appearance which is common in India.
FIG, 1 (2 views, photo V. Lebzelter, from "Anthropologische Untersuchungen an
serbischen Ziguenern," MAGW, vol. 52, 1922). A nomadic Serbian Gypsy, appar-
ently relatively pure, who shows the characteristic Gypsy combination of straight jet
black hair, black eyes, and dark skin, in connection with Mediterranean facial features.
FIG, 2 (2 views), An English Gypsy of the Cooper family, whose ancestors moved to
New England a century ago Although some of the Coopers and Stanleys are blue-
eyed and show other signs of non-Gypsy mixture, this individual possesses a sallow
brownish skin, straight, coarse, shiny black hair, and dark brown eyes. He is appar-
ently a relatively pure representative of the Gypsy prototype.
FIG. 3 (2 views). Of much greater antiquity outside of India is a dark-skinned, black-
eyed, and straight-haired Mediterranean type which appears with some frequency in
southern Iraq and along the coasts of the Persian Gulf. This young sailor from Kuwait
will serve as an example. The origin and affiliations of this type have not as yet been
fully explained.
FIG. 4 (2 views). In southern Arabia, south of the Rubar el Khali desert, the popula-
tions consist of a Mediterranean upper stratum overlaid upon a non-white racial group
whose affinities are with the Vedda of Ceylon, and the curly-haired aboriginal tribes
of southern India; more remotely, it possesses strong connections with the aborigines of
Australia. The individual shown in Fig. 4 is an extreme example of this Veddoid pro-
totype. Note the great prognathism, the ringlet hair form, the extreme nasion depres-
sion, and the general form of the nose and lips. Except for his light unexposed skin
color, this individual, who is quite brown where exposed, could pass for an Australian
aborigine.
FIG. 5 (2 views). A coarse type of Hadhramauti, who represents a mixture between
the Veddoid element shown above and the Mediterranean race; or who might be called
a less extreme example of the former.
FIG. 6 (2 views, photo Wm. M. Shanklin). A coarse, dark-skinned type of Ruwalla
Bedawi. Among the North Arabian Bedawin, besides the more delicately formed Medi-
terranean types already observed, occur individuals who seem to show relationships
with the Veddoid element on the other side of the desert, and perhaps also with the
deeply pigmented element of southern Iraq, as exemplified by Fig. 3. Tribes and popu-
lations possessing these racial elements do not possess the normal 25 per cent of incipi-
ent blondism characteristic of most Mediterranean groups.
Plate 20
THE NEGROID PERIPHERY OF THE
MEDITERRANEAN RACE
In the deserts and highlands of Ethiopia, Eritrea, and the Somalilands is found a con*
centration of several related Mediterranean types, mixed in varying degrees with ne-
groes. To the west these partial whites border on Sudanese negroes; to the southwest,
the partially Hamitic tribes of Kenya and Uganda form an extension of the peripheral
Mediterranean racial area. To the north, the Beja-Bisharin group of Hami tic-speaking
nomads connect the East African Hamitic-speaking peoples with their wholly white
Egyptian and Berber relatives of North Africa.
FIG. 1 (2 views), A Somali from the tribe of Mahmud Grade, British Somali land.
This Somali represents the closest approximation to a white man found among his
people. The extreme narrowness of his head and face, the straight nasal profile, and the
prominence of his chin, mark him as less negroid than many of his fellows. At the same
time his skin is nearly black, his hair curly but not frizzly. The type to which this So-
mali belongs is ancient in East Africa, as shown by the excavations of Leakey in Kenya.
It is a specialized, locally differentiated Mediterranean racial form.
FIG. 2 (2 views). Closer to the standard Mediterranean type of Arabia and North
Africa is this senile Agau, a member of a fast diminishing group of Hamitic-speaking
aborigines in the kingdom of Gojjam in northern Ethiopia. Although his skin is dark,
his hair is nearly straight, and his measurements as well as his cranial and facial fea-
tures are purely or almost purely Mediterranean. He shows no visible signs of negroid
admixture, although from a purely genetic standpoint some must be present.
FIG. 3 (2 views). This individual is a tall, slender Semitic-speaking Ethiopian from
the kingdom of Shoa. Except for his hair form he is essentially white and Mediter-
ranean. His skin is a sallow yellowish, of a hue often seen among attenuated negro-
white hybrids in America.
FIG. 4 (2 views). A Hamitic-speaking Wollega Galla, frizzly haired but otherwise not
specifically negroid. There is a non-negroid brachycephalic strain in Ethiopia, with
heavy browridges and a strong facial bony structure. This individual shows some traits
characteristic of this element.
FIG. 5 (1 view, © Karakashian Bros. Tropical Photo Stores, Khartoum). The
Mediterranean quality found among the partly negroid Beja and Bisharin is most evi-
dent in the female sex. Their bodily build and breast form, as well as their facial fea-
tures and hair form, show this especially. This Baggara woman from the Anglo-Egyp-
tian Sudan is less negroid than the majority.
Plate 21
MEDITERRANEANS FROM NORTH AFRICA
FIG. 1 (2 views, photo Ale§ HrdliCka. From Hrdli£ka, A., Anthropometric Survey of the
Natives of Kharga Oasis, Egypt; MCSI, vol. 59, #1, Washington, D. C., 1912, pi. 14).
An oasis dweller from Kharga. This extremely dolichocephalic, low-vaulted, and
relatively low-nosed Mediterranean sub-type is typical of the inhabitants of the oases
of the Libyan desert, in Siwa and Awjla, where Berber is spoken, as well as in Arabic-
speaking Kharga.
FIG. 2 (2 views, photo N. Puccioni. Puccioni, N., Anthropometria delle Genii delta Cire-
naica, Firenze, 1936, Tab. XVI, #277). A tall, slender North African Arab from the
tribe of el Hasa in Cyrenaica. The narrow, prominent nose, the sloping forehead,
and the protruding occiput are features typical of the nomadic Arabs of North Africa
from Gyrenaica to the Atlantic.
FIG. 3 (2 views, from Zeltner, F. de, "A Propos des Touareg du Sud," RA, vol.
25, 1915, p. 172; Fig. 3 from original blocks). A young Bourzeinat Tuareg, from
the region of Timbuctu; this southern Tuareg shows clearly the Mediterranean character
of this Saharan Berber people. Pictures of unveiled Tuareg men are very rare.
FIG. 4 (2 views, photo H. H. Kidder). A moderately tall, long-faced Algerian Kabyle.
FIG. 5 (2 views). A small Mediterranean who may be taken as a type example of this
race in its North African form. This individual is a Shluh Berber from the Sous, south-
ern Morocco.
FIG. 6 (2 views). An equally standardized Mediterranean from the Riffian coastal
tribe of Beni Itteft, northern Morocco. These two individuals may be considered repre-
sentatives of the Mediterranean invaders who entered western Europe over Gibraltar
in the Neolithic.
Plate 22
SMALL MEDITERRANEANS OF SOUTHERN
EUROPE
The earliest Neolithic invaders of the southern fringe of Europe were brunet Mediter-
raneans of small to moderate stature and moderate head size. Unaltered representa-
tives of this type or group of types may be found today from Crete to Portugal.
FIG. 1 (3 views). A native of Crete, a perfect representative of the small Mediter-
ranean race, similar metrically to the Mediterranean Yemenite Arabs shown on
Plate 1 6, and identical, as nearly as can be determined, with the mean type of Cretans
in Minoan times.
FIG. 2 (3 views). An equally typical example of the same racial strain, from the region
of Naples in Italy. The only aberrant feature of this individual is his blue eyes.
FIG. 3 (3 views). A Mediterranean Spaniard; his father is a Galician, his mother a
Cuban of unmixed Spanish descent.
FIG. 4 (3 views). A very dark-skinned, large-headed mesocephalic Mediterranean
from Beira Alta in Portugal, with heavy beard and body hair. Many of the Portugese
belong to this more robust Mediterranean sub-variety, which is also common in south-
ern Italy, and may have been one of the earliest Mediterranean elements to arrive in
southwestern Europe.
Fio. 2
i; , w-v-
Fio. 3
^-,-;( .-,|,^^r-';^^^^^. ' vy;-1",^ ^*!3^^^
BBlii : ' •: ' ' •' • ^ .^^flMfeftfe*, : -= ^° ^: ! ' ; < i_.^^*^
. '^;v''- ;
* 4
Plate 23
ATLANTO-MEDITERRANEANS FROM SOUTH-
WESTERN EUROPE
Toward the end of the Neolithic period, the western Mediterranean countries were
invaded by seafarers of a tall, exceptionally long-headed Mediterranean variety; some
of these invaders passed through the Straits of Gibraltar, whence they also invaded the
British Isles and Scandinavia. The accompanying pictures show modern derivatives of
this sea-borne type.
FIG. 1 (3 views). A north Italian from Villa Romagno, Piedmont, near Genoa.
FIG. 2 (3 views). A Frenchman from the Midi, a native of Toulouse. The Atlanto-
Mediterranean race is an important element in the south of France, but is most fre-
quently partially or wholly brachycephalized by Alpine admixture, of which this indi-
vidual shows no evidence.
FIG. 3 (3 views). A metrically and morphologically perfect example of the late Neo-
lithic Megalithic or Long Barrow race, the modern Atlanto-Mediterranean, from Azer
in Portugal.
FIG. 4 (3 views). A dolichocephalic Spanish Basque from Sexto in the Basque Prov-
ince. Like many Basques, he is extremely leptorrhine, narrow-jawed, and blue-eyed.
Fio. 1
FIG. 2
FIG, 3
FIG, 4
Plate 24
BLUE-EYED ATLANTO-MEDITERRANEANS
As was seen in, the case of the Basque on Plate 23, there is a tendency in the tall, ex-
tremely long-headed Atlanto-Mediterranean race toward a combination of black or
dark brown hair and blue eyes. The four men shown on this plate all possess this same
pigment combination, all are 170 cm. or over in stature, have head lengths well over
200 mm., and form a unit in regard to general anthropometric and morphological
position. All come from regions near the sea, and touched by Megalithic navigators.
FIG. 1 (3 views), A Sicilian from Messina. Aberrant in respect to an excessive mandi-
ble width, but otherwise typical.
FIG. 2 (3 views). A Spaniard from Vigo, northwestern Spain.
FIG. 3 (3 views), A black-haired Irishman from County Donegal. The Neolithic in-
vaders of Ireland were apparently all or nearly all of this tall, sea-borne Mediterranean
variety, This individual is aberrant in head breadth, but otherwise typical.
FIG, 4 (3 views). A Scotsman from Ayrshire, An excellent example of the British
Long Barrow type and a direct Neolithic survival.
FIG, 1
FIG. 2
Plate 25
THE MEDITERRANEAN REEMERGENCE IN
GREAT BRITAIN
The Atlanta-Mediterraneans were not the only members of the Mediterranean stock
to invade Great Britain; smaller Mediterraneans are commonest in Wales and in the
former Cymric territory which stretches from the Midlands to Glasgow. With the rise
of the industrial revolution, the population increased greatly in these two last named
regions, which became the most heavily industrialized areas in Britain; hence the
Mediterranean increment in the British population has risen during the last century
and a half.
FIG. 1 (3 views). A Lancastrian from Blackburn, a slender, delicately built Mediter-
ranean with an extremely narrow nose and mandible. He represents a characteristic
Midlands type.
FIG. 2 (3 views). A metrically similar New Englander from a Massachusetts coastal
city, of Colonial Yankee lineage. He represents a reemergence or survival within the
New England stock of the same British Mediterranean element.
FIG. 3 (3 views). A Welshman from the neighborhood of Cardiff. An absolutely
great head length, a heavier facial structure, and a less leptorrhinc nose form indicate
a different Mediterranean sub-type from the two above.
FIG. 3 (3 views). A Mediterranean Scotsman from Paisley; typical of the industrial
population of the Glasgow district.
FIG. 1
Fro. 2
Fto. 3
'' "i i .':'||J' '' I^PTT 'f ! J,, iV .1 ;',,'/ f,ff>, << '',',*-'- i
' '(
4
Plate 26
THE PONTIC MEDITERRANEANS
Along the northern and western shores of the Black Sea are found, among other
populations, brunet Mediterraneans of a generalized type, called Pontic by the Russian
anthropologists, who are usually of medium to tall stature and who seem related on the
one hand to the Atlanto-Mediterraneans and on the other to the long-faced Mediter-
ranean prototype of Asia Minor and the Caucasus Inland from the Black Sea shores
they are found sporadically in Russia, Poland, and the countries along the upper course
of the Danube. They also seem to form an early population level in Serbia and Albania.
Their precise archaeological history has not yet been traced, and their relationship to
the Danubian invaders of central Europe at the beginning of the local Neolithic is un-
known. They do not, however, conform closely to the physical type of the early Danu-
bians as known to us by a small series of skeletal remains. Much more work needs to be
done in southeastern Europe before their historical position and relationships can be
established.
FIG. 1 (3 views) A Bulgarian from Chepelarc. An excellent example of the Pontic
Mediterranean type, except for an unusually small cranial vault. In Bulgaria this
Mediterranean type seems actually in the majority.
FIG. 2 (3 views). Photo F. I. Rainer, from Rainer, F. I. Recherches Anthropologiques
dans Trois Villages Carpathiennes^ Bucharest, 1937, Plate II, #3.) A Moldavian farmer.
This Mediterranean type is common in Rumania on the plains of Moldavia and Wal-
lachia, as well as in Bulgaria, but is largely replaced by brachycephalic forms in the
Carpathians.
FIG. 3 (3 views). This man, who is an excellent example of the type in question, comes
from the region of Vilna, and has a Lithuanian father and a Polish mother. He is said
to resemble his mother's family. This type is recognized by Polish anthropologists as
an element in the population of their country, and is designated by them as Mediter-
ranean.
FIG. 4 (3 views). A Czech of Pontic Mediterranean affiliation, unusual in a popula-
tion which is for the most part brachycephalic. Bohemia is nearly the last outpost of this
type to the west; a few, however, occur in Bavaria.
FIG, 1
FIG, 3
Plate 27
THE NORDIC RACE: EXAMPLES OF CORDED
PREDOMINANCE
The Nordic race is a partially depigmented branch of the greater Mediterranean
racial stock. It is probably a composite race made up of two or more basic Mediter-
ranean strains, depigmented separately or in conjunction by a progressive evolutionary
process. As has been demonstrated on plates 9 and 10, it is impossible, as some European
anthropologists believe, to derive a Nordic directly from a dolichocephalic Upper Palae-
olithic ancestor of Briinn or Cro-Magnon type. Reduction of these overgrown races
produces a result which is quite un-Nordic morphologically as well as in constitutional
type. It is the author's thesis that the Nordic race in Europe was caused by a blending
of the early Danubian Mediterranean strain with the later Corded element. At the
present time both Corded and Danubian elements may be isolated, while other Nordics
preserve the blended form. Nordics in eastern Europe, Asia, and North Africa may
have been formed by separate recombinations or simple depigmentations of comparable
Mediterranean strains, or by invasions of these regions from an European or West
Asiatic depigmentation center.
FIG. 1 (3 views). A Finn of predominantly Corded type; note the ash-blond hair and
grayish eyes, the great head length, and extremely low cephalic index. In head and
face proportions a resemblance is seen to the Corded-like Irano- Afghan sub-type, a re-
semblance which is enhanced if pigmentation differences are ignored Both metrically
and morphologically this individual is seen to be fully Mediterranean; there is no evi-
dence of Upper Palaeolithic admixture.
FIG. 2 (3 views). A Swede from Sonderhamn who represents the same type, and who
is very similar in most dimensions. The population of most of Sweden is predominantly
Nordic; typical Upper Palaeolithic survivors are numerous only along the southwestern
coast.
FIG. 3 (3 views). A Nordic Dane of Jutish parentage who also shows Corded pre-
dominance. His face is of extreme length, a trait common among ancient Corded
crania. This individual is the son of the classic Borreby man shown on Plate 5, Fig. 1 ;
this is graphic evidence of the fact that ancient racial types may be repeated in toto in
individuals of mixed racial ancestry. Only through the agency of such segregation is it
possible to present this collection of basic European racial photographs.
FIG. 4 (3 views). New Englander of Colonial British descent. This tall, slenderly
built, ash-blond -haired Nordic is an extreme example of the Corded type which en-
tered Britain first during the Bronze Age in conjunction with brachycephals, and later
during the Iron Age as an element in the Nordic invading groups. Its presence in New
England in 1 938 can only be regarded as a complete reernergence.
FIG. 1
Fio. 2
FIG. 3
. 4
Plate 28
THE NORDIC RACE: EXAMPLES OF DANUBIAN
PREDOMINANCE
In contrast to the last plate, the present one shows a series of Nordics in whom the
Corded element is notably weak or absent, so that an approximation to the earlier,
smaller-headed, mesocephalic Danubian strain is perhaps attained. The reason for
qualification on this score is that not enough Danubian crania have been found and
described to make this point certain.
FIG. 1 (3 views). A Norwegian from Drommen, near Oslo. The head is absolutely of
moderate size, comparable to that of small brunet Mediterranean sub-varieties; the
stature and bodily bulk are also small.
FIG. 2 (3 views). A mesocephalic Englishman from Southampton, whose small face,
concave-profiled, round-tipped nasal form, and whose lack of angularity or bony ex-
travagance in the cranial and facial skeleton, combined with a high vault, indicate a
close similarity to the known skeletal remains of Neolithic Danubians.
FIG. 3 (3 views). A Galician of mixed Ukrainian and Polish parentage; an excellent
example of the Danubian type, bound to the soil since the Neolithic, which has re-
emerged throughout the entire length of the rich agricultural plain which stretches
across southern Poland and Russia, while Nordics proper have for the most part
moved elsewhere.
FIG. 4 (3 views). A Lithuanian, who although brachycephalic, belongs essentially to
the same Danubian type.
JFio. 1
FIG, 2
Plate 29
THE NORDIC RACE: HALLSTATT AND KELTIC
IRON AGE TYPES
FIG. 1 (2 views, Bryn and Schreiner, Somatologie der Norweger, Table 27, Fig. 81). A
Norwegian from Drangedal of standard, Eastern Valley type as specified in Chapter 9,
section 4. This is the type associated with the Hallstatt Iron Age remains in central
Europe, and which probably did not enter Scandinavia much before the middle of the
first millennium B.C. It has since been largely replaced in central Europe, but has found
a refuge in Sweden and in the eastern valleys of southern Norway.
FIG. 2 (2 views). An Englishman from the neighborhood of London, who belongs to
exactly the same central Nordic type. In England this type is largely of Anglo-Saxon
and Danish inspiration.
FIG. 3 (2 views). An East Anglian from Ipswich, Suffolk. More of the English belong
to this locally older Keltic Iron Age type, which came from southwestern Germany
with the Kelts and is differentiated by a lower cranial vault, a more sloping forehead,
and greater nasal prominence. The hair color is more frequently brown than light
blond.
FIG. 4 (2 views, photo C. W. Dupertuis). The Iron Age Nordic type is particularly
important in Ireland, which was never strongly invaded by Germanic-speaking Hall-
statt Nordics. This individual, a man from County Clare, with his sloping forehead,
aquiline nose, and brown hair, is an excellent example.
FIG. 5 (2 views, photo C. W. Dupertuis). A special population, largely the product
of isolation, has developed in the Aran Isles. Here a local Nordic type of great vault
length and exceptionally low vault height, great facial and nasal length, and an excess
of blue eyes and golden and red hair, has developed. The young man shown in this
figure is an excellent example of this type.
FIG. 6 (2 views, photo C. W. Dupertuis). The Aran Islander shown in this figure is
relatively brunet for his group, and has the exceptionally low auricular head height of
110 mm. He illustrates the principle that the low-headed factor is borne by the least
blond element in the Aran population. Note the convergent temporal planes and the
cylindrical profile of the vault when seen in the front view. This feature, in less exag-
gerated form, is a cranial diagnostic of the Keltic Iron Age type in general.
Plate 30
EXOTIC NORDICS
On this plate art shown portraits of Nordics from places distant from the present
northwestern European center of Nordic concentration.
FIG. 1 (3 views). A Russian of the upper class from the Kharkov Government in
southeastern Russia. His home is a secondary Nordic center, and probably has been a
Nordic concentration point since the days of the Scythians. Nordics are common in
what used to be the upper social levels in Russia; this may be ascribed largely to the re-
tention of an original Slavic racial condition, and partly to the infusion of Scandinavian
blood at the time of the formation of the Russian nation. Other Nordic increments may
have been absorbed from both Iranians and Finns.
FIG. 2 (2 views, photo B. N. Vishnevsky). A Chuvash from the Chuvash Republic,
eastern Russia. The Chuvash, who are Tatarized Finns, include both partially mongo-
loid forms, as shown on Plate 3, and also Nordics and Nordic-Ladogan hybrids. The
Chuvash shown here is a Nordic of a long-faced, narrow-nosed type, and his Nordic
character may be either ancestrally Finnish or else derived from the Iranian and Turk-
ish-speaking Nordics of central Asia, brought in both by Scytho-Sarmatians and by
Turkish invaders.
FIG. 3 (1 view). An Albanian Nordic from the Gheg tribe of Luma. Nordics, rare in
Albania, are most frequently found in the tribe of Luma, on the northeastern Albanian
border, where there are traditions of the settlement of Volkcrwanderung Germans, and
where early Slavic influence is strong.
FIG. 4 (3 views). A Portuguese from Tras os Montes, who shows strong Nordic tend-
encies. Nordics occur occasionally in northern Portugal as well as in northern Spain;
from the days of the Keltic migrations onward, there have been Nordic invasions and
settlement in the northern part of the Iberian Peninsula.
FIG. 5 (2 views). A Riffian from the coastal village of Ajdir, in the tribe of Beni Ur-
riaghel. In pigment, in measurements, and morphologically this Riffian is as perfect a
Nordic as one could find in northern Europe. Nordics are as ancient in North Africa
as the Egyptian monuments of the Middle Kingdom, and perhaps older. They survive
today mostly in the mountains of the Rif, but others are found in the Canary Islands,
and the Djurdjura and Aures mountains of Algeria.
FIG. 6 (1 view). A Kabyle from northern Algeria, a smaller-headed North African
Nordic.
FIG. 1
FIG. 2
FIG. 3
FIG, 4
Plate 31
NEO-DANUBIANS
The term Neo-Danubian has been used in this work to designate a general class of
central and eastern European blond or partially blond brachycephals who seem to be
derived in a racial sense from a de-Corded Nordic (and hence Danubian) prototype
brachycephalized by Ladogan admixture. This type is very prevalent among modern
Slavs of Poland and Russia, and also among some eastern Germans and Austrians.
FIG. 1 (3 views). A White Russian from the Minsk Government.
FIG. 2 (3 views). An Ukrainian from the Volhyn, where this type is especially com-
mon. The form of the nasal tip and the upper lip are derived from the Ladogan proto-
type. These features come out as a rule more strongly among women than among
the men.
FIG. 3 (3 views). A German from Saxony, where the Neo-Danubian type is more
prevalent than elsewhere in Germany. Note the exceptional narrowness of the inter-
orbital distance, combined with the lowness of the nasal root and bridge, and the ex-
treme brachycephaly. The type represented by this individual is not an intermediate
Danubian-Ladogan form, but a recombination.
FIG. 4 (3 views). A brachycephalic Austrian from the neighborhood of Linz, Upper
Austria. Although definitely less Ladogan-looking than the other individuals on this
plate, this Austrian is seen, upon examination, to possess the Neo-Danubian combina-
tion of a nearly globular head form, a low nasal skeleton, a broad, elevated nasal tip, a
long, convex upper lip, strong cheek furrows, and blondism. As this and the other in-
dividuals on this plate demonstrate, the Neo-Danubian is a variable racial type derived
from a blending of the Danubian element in the Nordic combination with eastern
European Upper Palaeolithic survivors.
FIG, 1
FIG. 3
FIG. 4
Plate 32
NORDICS ALTERED BY NORTHWESTERN
EUROPEAN UPPER PALAEOLITHIC MIXTURE: I
Throughout the northwestern European area, from the British Isles to the Baltic
States, and as far south as southern Belgium, south-central Germany, and the Carpa-
thians, the Nordic race has combined and blended profusely with various types of unre-
duced Upper Palaeolithic survivors. Examples of such blendings will be seen on this
and the next two plates.
FIG. 1 (3 views). A Norwegian from Bergen; metrically for the most part Nordic, but
with a high mesocephalic head form, a high cranial vault, and Briinn or Borreby-like
suggestions in the formation of the nose and mouth. This is the type called Tronder
by the Norwegian anthropologists, owing to its concentration in North and South Tron-
delagen, on the central Norwegian coast. An "Irish" look is often a feature of this type,
showing its relationship to the Palaeolithic element in Ireland.
FIG. 2 (3 views). A Bergen sea captain, of the same general type, brachycephalic ow-
ing to an increase in head breadth unaccompanied by length reduction. The Tronder
type is usually higher-headed, longer-faced, less dolichocephalic, and heavier in body
build and in facial features than the Eastern Valley or Hallstatt Iron Age Nordic type.
FIG. 3 (3 views). Trondelag-like types are by no means confined to Norway. This
individual is a Lett from Kurland of predominantly Nordic affiliation, but broader-
headed and less delicate of facial features than the classic Iron Age type. Nordics of
this general class are common in the Baltic Republics.
FIG. 4 (3 views). A Highland Scot from Morayshire; tall, large-headed, brown-
haired, with an extremely long face and a high cranial vault, he represents a local
North British Trondelag approximation, either through the absorption of indigenous
Upper Palaeolithic elements, or through importation from Ireland with the Gaelic in-
vasions, or from Scandinavia.
Plate 33
NORDICS ALTERED BY NORTHWESTERN
EUROPEAN UPPER PALAEOLITHIC MIXTURE: II
FIG. 1 (3 views), A Netherlander from Gelderland in the northern Netherlands.
Gelderland and Friesland are the home of overgrown Nordics with long faces and high
heads; showing both Corded and Briinn or Borreby tendencies. This individual is abso-
lutely long-headed for a mesocephalic index, and beak-nosed, in accordance with the
local type under discussion. He is, however, a relatively little altered Nordic.
FIG. 2 (3 views), A Schleswig-Holsteiner from Elmshorn, on the Danish border. He
is a very blond, golden-haired Nordic of relatively great body size, with all lateral di-
mensions of head and face broadened by Borreby mixture; the morphological features
of the head and face, however, remain essentially Nordic.
FIG. 3 (3 views). An equally blond specimen of the same type from Hannover, made
much more brachycephalic through a reduction in head length. Nordics, brachyceph-
alized in head form and made larger and more lateral in bodily proportions through
Borreby admixture, form the major element in the population of northern and central
Germany.
FIG. 4 (3 views). A heavily built Galician Pole, light red haired, and brachycephalic;
a Slavic counterpart of the North German type depicted above. He is basically similar
to the Ruthenian mountaineer shown on Plate 8, Fig. 1, but shows a more strongly
Nordic racial character.
Fio. 1
Fro. 3
Plate 34
NORDICS ALTERED BY MIXTURE WITH SOUTH-
WESTERN BORREBY AND ALPINE ELEMENTS
In southern Netherlands and in Belgium, as well as in northern France, there is a
large-headed brachycephalic element transitional between the Borreby and Alpine
forms. (See Plate 13, Fig. 4.) In mixture with Nordics this produces a large-headed
brachycephalic or sub-brachycephalic type of only moderate blondism and medium
stature.
FIG. 1 (3 views). Southern Netherlander from North Brabant. An excellent exam-
ple of this altered Nordic type.
FIG. 2 (3 views). A Fleming from West Flanders, Belgium; a light haired and equally
representative example. The Flemish people incline more to the Nordic type in east-
ern Flanders, more to the brachycephalized variety in the west.
FIG. 3 (3 views). A German Swiss from Bern; like many of the Swiss of the Rhine
drainage, he is largely Nordic slightly brachycephalized by Borreby or Alpine admix-
ture, or both. These Swiss are more Nordic, as a whole, than the South Germans.
FIG. 4 (3 views). A northern Frenchman, whose father came from the Vosges moun-
tains, and mother from the Department of Indre. Blond, highly brachycephalic, and
Nordic in most facial features, this man represents a major element in the population of
northern France. This is the type which some French authors call "Galatian." Histori-
cally the Nordic element is mainly of Keltic introduction.
Fio, 1
fte, 4
Plate 35
THE PRINCIPLE OF DINARICIZATION
From France to Macedonia, and from Istanbul to Samarakand, are found popula-
tions in which the majority of persons present a characteristic morphology of the head
and face; with a brachycephalic skull, often flattish in the occipital region, the foramen
magnum and auricular passages set disproportionately far to the rear, the forehead often
sloping, the face frequently elongated, and the nose salient and frequently convex.
People who possess these characteristics have been lumped together into one or more
races; the Dinaric in Europe, the Arrncnoid in Asia, and the Noric to include the blond
varieties. It is biologically unsound, however, to postulate any historic unity for indi-
viduals of these so-called races, since they are products not of an historical association
but of a biological principle. That principle is as follows: A mixture of a Mediterranean
stock with a 33 per cent, more or less, solution of Alpine may bring about a differential
inheritance in the majority of the offspring; from the Alpine side is inherited brachy-
ccphaly, often greater than that of the Alpine ancestral factor; the dimensions of the
pre-auricular part of the head are derived from the long-headed strain, hence the
posterior position of the ear; the breadths of the median sagittal sector of the face are
inherited from the narrower-faced ancestor, often in exaggerated degree, and this ap-
plies especially to the width of the upper segment of the nose and to the interorbital dis-
tance; meanwhile the face often becomes longer than in either parent stock, and the
nose, in response to the shortening of the antero-posterior length of the entire head, be-
comes salient. This process occurs in varying degrees with individuals and with local
racial entities of different origin. If the solution is saturated either with Alpines or with
Mediterraneans, phenotypically pure members of whichever stock is predominant ap-
pear in considerable numbers. If the solution is correct, such apparently pure indi-
viduals still occur, but with relative infrequence. This principle, studied in this work
in reference to whites, applies to hybrids of other races as well.
It may readily be seen that the Binaries, Norics, and Armenoids have no ethnic or
historic unity, but are for the most part parallel results of the same process repeated
with similar materials in different places. They are related only insofar as the parent
stocks are related. There is one important exception to this rule, however; during the
Bronze Age Dinaricized Mediterraneans spread with the knowledge of metal from an
eastern Mediterranean source to the western Mediterranean Countries, to central
Europe, and to the British Isles. In this instance Dinarics of a Near Eastern variety did
actually invade Europe, and their descendants may be distinguished today in countries
like England where, owing to the absence of an Alpine substratum, the process of
Dinaricization has not been locally at play.
In this and the following plates, an attempt will be made to illustrate degrees and
types of Dinaricization throughout the white racial area of the Old World.
FIG. 1 (3 views). A Dinaricized German from Heidelberg; although his face shows in
exaggerated degree ail of the criteria of Dinaricization, the great size of his cranial vault
is unusual for Dinarics and implies the presence of unreduced Upper Palaeolithic fac-
tors. This individual might be called a Noric, since the Mediterranean element con-
cerned is unquestionably Nordic, and probably Nordic of the Corded variety.
FIG. 2 (3 views). A Noric from Berlin; the shallow nasion depression, and the great
height and salience of the nose are especially noticeable here. Norics are extremely
common in eastern Germany.
FIG. 3 (3 views). A Noric Pole from Galicia. This type is characteristic of many of
the southern and western Poles.
FIG. 4 (3 views). A Komi or Zyrian, member of the northernmost of the East Russian
Finnish tribes. This individual illustrates the essential Nordic character of the Finns,
brachycephalized by some unknown agency.
FIG, 2
FIG. 4
Plate 36
EUROPEAN DINARICS: I
FIG. 1 (3 views). An Englishman from Yorkshire; an excellent example of the Dinaric
seafarers who invaded Britain in the Early Bronze Age. This man may be considered a
type specimen of Bell Beaker brachycephal.
FIG. 2 (3 views). A less completely Dinaricized Netherlander from North Brabant.
FIG. 3 (3 views). A Frenchman from Lyon; typical of the local Mediterranean-
Alpine product in much of France, especially in the northeastern half of the Republic.
FIG. 4 (3 views). A Slovak from Tfsoka, Czechoslovakia. Although the Czechs
themselves are predominantly Alpine, the Moravians and Slovaks are frequently
Dinaric. This man could easily pass for a Frenchman.
1
FIG. 2
Plate 37
EUROPEAN DINARICS: II
FIG. 1 (3 views). Another Dinaric Slovak, in this case exceptionally long-faced, in a
more exaggeratedly Dinaric manner.
FIG. 2 (3 views). An Italian from the province of Ancona, northern Italy; a Dinari-
cized Alpine-Mediterranean combination is characteristic of most North and many
central Italians.
FIG. 3 (3 views). A similar example from the province of Prozioni, central Italy.
These Dinaricized Italians are frequently thick-set and stocky.
FIG. 4 (3 views). A Magyar from O§i, Hungary. This Dinaricized Alpine is more typ-
ical of the Magyar people than the Ladogan prototype shown on Plate 2, or the Alpine
on Plate 14.
Fia. 1
Fro* 3
Plate 38
EUROPEAN DINARICS: III
FIG. 1 (3 views). A Russian nobleman of Polish and Russian descent; although highly
Dinaricized, this individual possesses a mandible of exceptional width.
FIG. 2 (3 views, photo F. I. Rainer; from Rainer, F. I., Enquetes Anthropologiques dans
Trots Villages Roumams des Carpathes, Plate V-3, Fundul Moldavii #65). A Rumanian
from the Carpathian mountain village of Fundul Moldavii in the Bukovina. A classic
example of an European Dinaric.
FIG. 3 (3 views). A Croatian from Istria. Aside from the Carpathians, the greatest
concentration point of Binaries proper in Europe is the mountain zone from the Tyrol
to Albania. This predominantly blond Croat is an excellent example of the Dinaric
population in northwestern Yugoslavia.
FIG. 4 (3 views). A Montenegrin Dinaric. Many of the Montenegrins are very large-
headed and show evidences of unreduced Palaeolithic admixture. (See Plate 8.) The
present individual is typical of the more strictly Dinaric element in Montenegro; brunet,
like most Serbs; and shorter-faced than other Dinarics as, for example, in Albania.
FIG, 1
FIG, 2
FIG. 3
Fto, 4
Plate 39
EUROPEAN DINARICS: IV
FIG. 1 (2 views). A Moslem Serb from Dibra, in Old Serbia. This Serb, like most of his
countrymen, is tall, brunet, rather small-headed, and brachycephalic. It would appear
that a brachycephalization of the "Pontic" Mediterranean type, shown on Plate 26, is
involved.
FIG. 2 (2 views). An Albanian gendarme from Puka, in the center of the Gheg coun-
try. This individual, like many Albanians when dressed and coiffurcd in western Euro-
pean style, looks like a Frenchman.
FIG. 3 (2 views). An exaggeratedly tall, lean, and long-faced Dinaric from Klementi,
the northernmost bairak of the tribe of Malsia e Mad he. Northern Albania is probably
the most highly Dinaricized country in Europe.
FIG. 4 (2 views). A blond Gheg from Zadrima; a classic Noric.
FIG. 5 (2 views). An extremely Dinaricized Zadrima Gheg; this individual may be
considered an example of the ultimate in Dinaricization.
FIG. 6 (2 views). A Dinaric Greek of Epirote stock, from Gjinokaster in what is now
Albania. Many Greeks, especially Epirotes, are Dinarics.
Plate 40
DINARICS IN WESTERN ASIA: I
In Asia Minor, Syria, Armenia, the Caucasus, and Turkestan the reemergence of a
basic Alpine population has Dinaricized the local brunct Mediterranean types shown
on Plates 17 and 18. These Asiatic Binaries arc usually called Armenoids, although the
distinction is arbitrary, and in the strict sense only the Armenians themselves and others
who live in the east deserve that name.
FIG. 1 (3 views). A Turk from Istanbul. Small-headed, hyperbrachycephalic, this
individual is an extreme type of Dinaricized Anatolian Turk. The Turks are (a) Medi-
terraneans of local Cappadocian origin, and (b) intrusive Irano-Afghans, the invading
Turkish element proper, Dinaricized by a local Alpine reemergence. The westernmost
Turks are fair to brunet-white in skin color, the eastern Turks grow progressively darker
as one approaches Kurdish and Armenian territory.
FIG. 2 (3 views). An equally brachycephalic Turk from Khozat, Anatolia, with a
strong trace of eye blondism.
FIG. 3 (3 views). A dark-skinned Turk from Kharput, eastern Anatolia. Kharput is
also the home of many Armenians.
FIG. 4 (3 views). An Assyrian from the mountains south of Armenia; the Assyrians
are Christians who moved into the mountains from Iraq some 600 years ago, and who
are now as brachycephalic as Armenians. Their exact ethnic origin is difficult to de-
termine.
FIG. 1
FIG. 3
FIG. 4
Plate 41
DINARICS IN WESTERN ASIA: II
FIG. 1 (3 views). A Syrian from Damascus; a perfect example of a Syrian Dinaric.
The Syrians, who are, as a whole, highly Dinaricized, contain Mediterranean elements
of Arabian origin as well as the long-faced elements shown in Plates 17 and 18.
FIG. 2 (3 views). A Lebanese from Baalbek, Lebanese Republic. The Lebanese on
the whole are more brachycephalic than the Damascenes; this individual is longer-
headed than most, and inclines facially toward the Alpine prototype.
FIG. 3 (3 views). A Syrian from the district of Bekara, with a cephalic index of almost
100. His extraordinary shortness of the cranial vault must be partly due to cradling,
a practice which has affected the head form of many Syrians, Armenians, and also
probably some Albanians. Cradling, however, is not the cause of Dinaricization, but
merely a factor which may intensify it.
FIG. 4 (3 views). A Druze from the Shuf district; facially this individual actually re-
sembles the Yemenis from whom the Druzes as a whole claim descent. His extreme
brachycephaly may be partly the result of cradling.
FIG, 2
i;irtkM -„••
Fio. 3
* 4
Plate 42
ARMENOID ARMENIANS
FIG. 1 (3 views). An Armenian from Istanbul, facially a classic Armenoid type. Like
many Armenians, he is dark-skinned.
FIG. 2 (3 views). An Armenian from Kharput. Note the extreme face length, a
measurement which differentiates Armenians as a group from the shorter-faced Turks.
FIG. 3 (3 views). A tall, slender Armenian from Van; typical of the eastern
Armenians, who are lighter-skinned, taller, and longer in all sagittal dimensions of the
body, head and face than the western Armenians.
FIG. 4 (3 views). A Van Armenian with pinkish- white skin color, blue eyes, and me-
dium brown hair; although hyperbrachycephalic, this individual shows evidence of the
Nordic element which gave the Armenians their Indo-European language.
FIG, I
FIG. 3
. 4
Plate 43
DINARICIZED FORMS FROM ARABIA AND
CENTRAL ASIA
f
FIG. 1 (2 views). A highly Dinaricized Arab from Jidda, the pilgrim port of Mekka.
Typical of the sailor population found in maritime settlements on all Arabian coasts.
FIG. 2 (2 views). An example of the same type found along the Yemen coast.
FIG. 3 (2 views). A Dinaricized Hadhramauti; partially blond. The Mediterranean
element in the Hadhramaut is often Dinaricized by mixture with the coarse, Veddoid-
influenced type seen on Plate 19.
FIG. 4 (2 views). An extreme example of the maritime Arab brachycephal; from
Lenja, opposite Muscat, on the Persian side of the Persian Gulf. This type probably
originated in the general Persian Gulf neighborhood, but this is by no means certain.
FIG. 5 (2 views). An Iranian-speaking native of Russian Turkestan, showing a
Dinaricized form of the usual Irano-Afghan type found in Iranian territory.
FIG. 6 (2 views. It is possible but unlikely that these two views represent two sepa-
rate individuals). A lowland Tajik from Samarkand, racially a Dinaricized Irano-
Afghan. The early oasis population was probably of Mediterranean type, the brachy-
cephalizing agent being Alpine, from the Pamirs.
Plate 44
THE JEWS: I
The Jews have been left to the end because they do not as a whole fit into any single
racial classification heretofore outlined. Historically the Jews of the Biblical period in
Palestine were a Semitic-speaking people composed of various Mediterranean strains
which had blended together at the time of the formation of the Jewish nation. These
Mediterranean strains must have included a small Mediterranean type comparable to
the present Yemeni Arabs; a taller, longer-faced strain with a tendency to nasal con-
vexity, as is found among I rano- Afghan peoples today; and a straight-nosed, presum-
ably Atlanto-Mediterranean element contributed by the Philistines.
The Jews began their expansion from Palestine as early as the time of the Babylonian
Captivity; at this time they settled Mesopotamia in large numbers, and from there
began an expansion into central Asia of which colonies still remain. In the Hellenistic
period they migrated into Asia Minor and the Black Sea region, as well as into Egypt;
these emigrants became Hellenistic Jews. Under the Romans they settled in Italy,
France, and Spain, with especial concentrations in Spain and in the cities of the Rhine-
land. The Jews expelled from Spain in 1492 and during previous expulsions became
the Sephardim, whose descendants are to be found in various countries bordering on the
Mediterranean, especially Morocco, the Salonika region of what is now Greece, and
Turkey. The Rhineland Jews, persecuted at the time of the First Crusade, moved east-
ward into Poland, the Ukraine, and other central European countries, and met there
and absorbed a group of Hellenistic Jews moving westward, among whom were some
who had lived among the Turkish Khazars in the Crimea and elsewhere. The two
groups blended, and the Germanic speech of the more numerous western element pre-
vailed. The modern Yiddish-speaking Ashkenazim are the descendants of this amalga-
mated body. Racially they preserve to a large measure their Mediterranean character,
altered partly by Alpine admixture which has in many cases produced Dinaricization.
This Alpine, as well as some Nordic, admixture was probably obtained largely in France
and Germany before their departure eastward. The most persistent Palestinian Mediter-
ranean traits which the Jews preserve is a narrowness of the face. The Jewish facial
expression, by which many Jews may be distinguished, is a cultural and not a genetic
character.
FIG. 1 (1 view, photo W. E. Forbes). A group of Yemcnitic Jews photographed in
Sana'a, the Capital of Yemen. These Jews are derived from more than one early Jewish
source, but the bulk of their ancestors left Palestine for Arabia very early. Their purely
Mediterranean and essentially Jewish facial and cranial character may be easily ob-
served. They probably come as close to the original Jewish prototype as do any living
Jews.
FIG. 2 (1 view). The Sheikh of the Jewish village of Zerekten, Glawa tribe, Atlas
Mountains, Morocco. These Berber-speaking mountain Jews have lived in Morocco
since not only pre-Islamic but probably also pre-Christian times; nevertheless they are
easily distinguishable from the Berbers with whom they live. The sheikh here repre-
sented is aberrantly brachycephalic.
FIG. 3 (1 view). A much more typical mountain Jew from the same colony.
FIG. 4 (1 view). A group of Berber-speaking Jews. The man on the left has a concave
nasal profile; he belongs to a coarser Mediterranean type than does the man in Fig. 3,
or the tall Yemeni tic Jew in Fig. 1 .
FIG. 1
FIG, 2
FIG. 3
Plate 45
THE JEWS: II
FIG. 1 (3 views). A Sephardic Jew from Alexandretta, Asia Minor. Facially this
Spanish-speaking Jew is a good example of the Sephardic Mediterranean type; his
cephalic index, however, is extremely high, owing to an absolute shortness of the cranial
vault. The interorbital distance is very narrow, as are all facial widths.
FIG. 2 (3 views). An American Ashkenazic Jew (Massachusetts) whose parents were
born in the Ukraine. Brown-haired and blue-eyed, and slightly brachycephalic, he still
preserves the facial features of a Palestinian Mediterranean racial element dating back
at least to the time of the Amorites.
FIG. 3 (3 views). The American-born (Massachusetts) son of a rabbi from Memel,
and a mother born in Riga. This individual, despite his cephalic index of 81, is other-
wise a good example of the straight-nosed Mediterranean type which is as numerous
among the unmixed Jews as the convex-nosed variety.
FIG. 4 (3 views). An American Jew (New York) whose ancestors without exception
have lived in the Rhinelands for several centuries and who probably first settled there in
Roman times. Racially this individual is Nordic; he shows little or no physical evidence
of Jewish ancestry.
FIG. 2
f 10, 4
Plate 46
THE JEWS: III
FIG. 1 (2 views, photo C. W. Dupertuis). A tall, blond, dolichocephalic Jew from
Illinois, whose parents were born in Russia. Metrically Nordic, only the morphology of
the nasal tip suggests non-Nordic ancestry. Like many American Jews, this young man
has not acquired the "Jewish" facial expression more common among the generation
born in Europe.
FIG. 2 (2 views, photo C. W. Dupertuis). An extremely tall, large-headed Jew, also
from Illinois, whose father was born in Poland and whose mother was American born.
Brunet, brachycephalic, and morphologically within the Jewish range, this individual
does not look Jewish in the popular sense for the same reason as in the case of the Nordic
Jew shown above.
FIG. 3 (2 views). A Jew from New Jersey, parents from Lithuania and Russia; metri-
cally and morphologically close to the Ashkenazic mean; a central Jewish type.
FIG. 4 (2 views). A Jew from Illinois, both parents from Russia. Although metrically
mesocephalic, this individual is morphologically close to the prototype of the Alpine
element acquired by the Jews in western Europe before their march eastward.
FIG. 5 (1 view). A Massachusetts Jew of Lithuanian Jewish parentage. Racially he
is completely Alpine.
FIG. 6 (1 view). A central Asiatic Jew, from Bokhara; a member of an ancient and
isolated Jewish colony. This individual shows unmistakable Alpine characters, no doubt
acquired from early Tajik admixture. Few if any of the Bokharan Jews are mongoloid.
FIG. 7 (2 views). Another Bokharan Jew, clearly Dinaricized. The old Mediterranean
Jewish element in central Asia has been altered by Alpine accretion. Yet the Bok-
haran Jews, if appropriately dressed, could easily pass in most cases for central Euro-
pean Jews, which shows not only the extraordinary racial continuity of the Jews in
widely separated regions, but also their tendency to mix with similar elements in differ-
ent places. All or nearly all racial types found among whites anywhere may be isolated
among the Jews; the majority, however, preserve some inheritable physical evidence of
their Palestinian origin.
TABLES ACCOMPANYING PHOTOGRAPHIC
SUPPLEMENT
These tables give the principal anthropometric specifications of most of the subjects
shown in the preceding plates. In a few instances, especially when photographs taken
from outside sources have been used, such data are unavailable. Stature is in centi-
meters, weight in pounds, and head and face measurements in millimeters. In the eye
color, the use of plus signs ( + +, + + 40 over one of the component elements in a
mixed iris indicates the relative importance of the elements in the eye in question.
4-4-4- 4-4-
Thus Blue-Brown indicates an iris which is almost entirely blue; Green-Brown one
which is visibly more brown than green.
Plate 2
Plate 3 *
Fro. 1
FIG. 3
Age
61
Stature
175 cm.
159 cm.
Weight
165 Ibs.
Head L.
192 mm.
187 mm.
Head Br.
167
151
Min. Fr.
118
Bizyg.
148
154
Bigon.
122
T. F. Ht.
130
127
U. F. Ht.
83
N. Ht.
61
55
N. Br.
38
36
Biorb.
94
Interorb.
41
C. I.
87.0
80.8
F. I.
87,8
82.5
U. F. I.
56.1
N. I.
62.3
65.5
Skin
#11
Hair
Light-Brown
#4 Dark-Brown
Beard
Eyes
B1/yellow\
V spot /
#6 Light-Brown
1 The sign #, used in reference with skin color, refers to the
numbers on the standard von Luschan Hautfarbentafel (Skin
Color Chart) ; when used with hair color 5 to the standard Fischer
Haarfarbentafel (Hair Color Chart).
Plate 4
FIG. 1
FIG. 2
FIG. 3
FIG. 4
Age
Stature
51
181 cm.
47
175 cm.
44
180 cm.
49
180 cm.
Weight
Head L.
204 Ibs.
212 mm.
213 Ibs.
207 mm.
208 mm.
202 Ibs.
212 mm.
Head Br.
152
154
151
160
Min. Fr.
114
108
108
118
Bizyg.
Bigon.
T. F. Ht.
150
130
134
150
120
134
141
103
134
148
111
146
U. F. Ht.
80
78
87
N. Ht.
60
65
56
65
N. Br.
43
48
34
39
Biorb.
108
96
94
Interorb.
40
34
41
C.I.
71.2
74.4
72.5
75.5
F. I.
89
87
95
99
U. F. L
53
52
60
N. I.
72
74
60.5
60
Skin
Hair
Beard
#8 Brown
#5 Dk.-Br.
#25 Ash-Blond
#13 Golden
Eyes
Blue
Green-Br.
#14 Blue-Br.
Blue
Plate 5
FIG. 1
FIG. 2
FIG. 3
FIG. 5
Age
Stature
58
184 cm.
54
179 cm.
177 cm.
30
172 cm.
Weight
Head L.
210 Ibs.
210 mm.
200 Ibs.
197 mm.
199 mm.
190 Ibs.
191 mm.
Head Br.
169
166
158
165
Min. Fr.
128
114
110
Bizyg.
Bigon.
T. F. Ht.
155
121
128
148
123
132
147
109
118
157
127
123
U. F. Ht.
75
80
73
N. Ht.
62
65
54
N. Br.
45
36
38
Biorb.
106
94
102
Interorb.
44
32
36
C. I.
80.5
84.3
79.4
86.4
F. I.
82.6
89.2
80.2
78.3
U. F. I.
49
54.1
53.8
N.I.
72.6
55.4
<
70.4
Skin
Hair
Beard
Eyes
Golden
+++
Blue-Br.
#12 Golden
Blue
#25 Ash-Blond
#11 Blue-Br.
#13 Golden
4-4-4.
Blue-Br.
Plate 6
FIG. 2
FIG. 3
FIG. 4
FIG. 5
Age
Stature
33
172 cm.
31
177cm.
55
167 cm.
54
178 cm.
Weight
Head L.
154 Ibs.
203 mm.
166 Ibs.
203 mm.
210 Ibs.
204 mm.
190 Ibs.
201 mm.
Head Br.
175
166
166
165
Min. Fr.
119
117
115
112
Bizyg.
Bigon.
T. F. Ht.
158
108
120
151
123
123
153
121
141
154
120
128
U. F. Ht.
64
75
78
71
N. Ht.
54
55
62
55
N. Br.
37
38
46
45
Biorb.
103
97
103
Interorb.
37
35
43
C. I.
86
81.8
81.4
82.1
F. I.
76
81.5
92.2
83.1
U. F. I.
40
49.7
51.0
46.1
N. I.
68
69.1
74.2
81.8
Skin
Hair
Beard
Light-Br.
#9 Reddish-Br.
Golden
Black
Eyes
Blue-Br.
Green-Br.
Blue
Green-Br.
Plate 7
FIG. 3
Fio. 4
FIG. 5
Age
40
54
57
Stature
164cm.
162 cm.
167 cm.
Weight
140 Ibs.
175 Ibs.
158 Ibs.
Head L.
200 mm.
181 mm.
188 mm.
Head Br.
162
154
154
Min. Fr.
119
108
109
Bizyg.
148
144
143
Bigon.
104
124
111
T. F. Ht.
124
121
129
U. F. Ht.
69
74
80
N. Ht.
51
54
59
N. Br.
33
38
38
Biorb.
98
87
85
Interorb.
37
32
35
C. I.
81.0
85
81.9
F. L
83.8
84
90.2
U. F. I.
46.6
51.4
55.9
N. I.
64.7
70.4
64.4
Skin
Hair
#7 Brown
#5 Dk.-Brown
Golden
Beard
•H-+
Eyes
Blue
Blue-Br.
Blue
Plate 8
FIG. 1
Fio. 2
FIG 4
FIG. 5
Age
49
45
22
48
Stature
182 cm.
184 cm.
171 cm.
190 cm.
Weight
180 Ibs.
196 Ibs.
Head L.
184 mm.
195 mm.
191 mm.
186 mm.
Head Br.
162
164
156
165
Min. Fr.
107
118
111
112
Bizyg.
144
151
143
146
Bigon.
112
124
111
115
T. F. Ht.
134
134
114
114
U. F. Ht.
77
78
71
67
N. Ht.
55
66
53
52
N. Br.
39
35
35
35
Biorb.
87
96
Interorb,
32
33
C. I.
88.0
83.7
82
90
F. I.
93.0
88.7
80
78
U. F. I.
53.5
51.7
50
46
N. I.
70.9
53.0
66
67
Skin
Hair
Light-Br.
Black
Light-Br.
Golden
Beard
-H-
4 +
++
Eyes
Blue-Br.
Brown
Green-Br.
Green-Br.
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i O "<*• O CM I
lOOsOr~-f'-OT-H<<tCN]
• mcooNcoooCNinso
Q
o
£
g jj |
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m
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mocoocor^mco
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t^- ON in so
PQ
m
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s
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so CM so m
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ro oo ON o
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gJl
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r-4 Csl CN
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m co ON co r— oo t
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«
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00 Tf 00 r-J
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Plate 11
Fio. 1
FIG. 2
Fio. 3
Fio, 4
Age
Stature
48
162 cm.
36
182 cm.
34
170 cm.
37
172 cm.
Weight
Head L.
154 Ibs.
186 mm.
235 Ibs.
188 mm.
174 Ibs.
188 mm.
181 Ibs.
189 mm.
Head Br.
159
158
169
153
Min. Fr.
104
111
111
108
Bizyg.
Bigon.
T. F. Ht.
134
111
124
144
119
125
151
111
127
143
110
124
U. F. Ht.
71
68
75
75
N. Ht.
50
53
60
55
N. Br.
32
34
39
34
Biorb.
91
94
98
89
Interorb.
31
33
37
28
C. I.
85.5
84.0
89.9
81
F. I.
93
86.8
84
87
U. F. I.
53
47.2
50
52
N. I.
64
64.2
65
65
Skin
++
Hair
Dark-Br.
Dark-Br.
Dark-Br.
#5 Med.-Br.
Beard
++++
+++
++
+++
Eyes
Green-Br.
Blue-Br.
Green-Br.
Blue-Br.
Plate 12
FIG 1
FIG. 2
FIG. 3
Fio. 4
Age
Stature
44
173 cm.
41
163 cm.
46
167 cm.
54
159cm.
Weight
Head L.
190 Ibs.
192 mm.
138 Ibs.
190 mm.
160 Ibs.
188 mm.
140 Ibs.
193 mm.
Head Br.
154
161
161
158
Min. Fr.
106
106
112
110
Bizyg.
Bigon.
T. F. Ht.
138
118
120
140
114
115
146
100
127
137
101
124
U. F. Ht.
78
72
74
70
N, Ht.
59
60
63»
54
N. Br.
37
37
38
35
Biorb.
90
87
91
91
Interorb.
29
33
34
31
C. I.
80.2
89.9
85.6
81.9
F. I.
87
82.1
87
90.5
U. F. I.
56.5
51.4
50.7
51.4
N. I. '
62.7
61.7
60.3
64.8
Skin
Hair
Beard
#8 Med.-Br.
Dark-Br.
Black
Med.-Br.
Eyes
Blue
Green-Br.
Dark-Br.
Blue-Br.
Plate 13
FIG. 1
FIG. 2
FIG. 3
FIG. 4
Age
Stature
42
169 cm.
42
170 cm.
57
168 cm.
56
166 cm.
Weight
Head L.
155 Ibs.
187 mm.
175 Ibs.
190 mm.
175 Ibs.
195 mm.
170 Ibs.
194 mm.
Head Br.
156
165
167
158
Min. Fr.
114
110
116
108
Bizyg.
Bigon.
T. F. Ht.
147
107
133
150
117
130
152
112
121
148
114
126
U. F. Ht.
76
76
66
77
N. Ht.
58
63
53
60
N. Br.
34
36
38
35
Biorb.
87
96
94
91
Interorb.
30
34
33
38
C. I.
83.4
86.8
85.6
81.4
F. I.
90.5
86.7
79.6
85.1
U. F. I.
51.7
50.7
43.4
52
N. I.
58.6
57.1
71.7
58.3
Skin
Hair
Dark-Brown
Med.-Br.
Dk. -Brown
Black
Beard
++
+++
Eyes
Blue
Green-Br.
Blue-Brown
Dk. -Brown
Plate 14
Fio 1
Fio 2
FIG. 3
FIG 4
FIG. 5
Age
51
41
60
50
Stature
178 cm.
172 cm.
165 cm.
172 cm.
177 cm.
Weight
179 Ibs.
195 Ibs.
215 Ibs.
195 Ibs.
Head L.
188 mm.
193 mm.
177 mm.
190 mm.
197 mm.
Head Br.
163
158
162
164
163
Min. Fr.
109
103
109
114
113
Bizyg.
146
144
146
148
155
Bigon.
114
112
109
126
122
T. F. Ht.
123
128
121
131
130
U. F. Ht.
70
71
69
72
77
N.Ht.
58
* 56
54
54
58
N. Br.
34
37
37
39
38
Biorb.
90
87
98
100
Interorb.
33
29
36
30
C. I.
86.7
81 9
91.5
86.3
82.7
F. I.
84
88.9
829
88.5
83.9
U. F. L
48
49.3
47.3
48
49.7
N. I.
59
66.1
68.5
72.2
65.5
Skin
#3 Pink- White
Hair
Dark-Br.
#4 Dk.-Br.
#9 Med.-Br.
Black
Dark-Br.
Beard
Reddish
//10Red-Br
Eyes
Bl.-Gr.-Br.
Green-Br.
Gray-Br.
Light-Br.
Green-Br.
Plate 15
Fio. 1
FIG. 2
FIG. 3
Age
Stature
33
173 cm.
43
164 cm.
46
172 cm.
Weight
Head L.
207 Ibs.
183 mm.
175 Ibs.
189 mm.
152 Ibs.
191 mm.
Head Br.
160
166
163
Min. Fr.
111
115
116
Bizyg.
Bigon.
T. F. Ht.
143
113
133
153
120
121
150
H7
127
U. F. Ht.
76
65
74
N. Ht.
58
51
59
N. Br.
36
36
40
Biorb.
91
100
92
Interorb.
35
36
35
C. I.
87.4
87.8
85.3
F. I.
93
79
84.7
U. F. I.
53.1
42.5
49.7
N. I.
62.1
70.6
67.8
Skin
Hair
Dark-Brown
Med. -Brown
Med. -Brown
Beard
Eyes
Med. -Brown
Blue
4-4-
Gray-Brown
Plate 16
FIG. 1
FIG. 2
FIG. 3
FIG. 6
Age
Stature
18
169 cm.
30
163 cm.
36
166.7 cm.
21
180 cm.
Weight
Head L.
183 mm.
202 mm.
195 mm.
180 mm.
Head Br.
143
142
147
135
Min. Fr.
100
103
111
Bizyg.
Bigon.
T. F. Ht.
129
101
125
132
100
128
136
109
131
128
111
123
U. F. Ht.
77
79 ,
75
77
N. Ht.
59
58
58
60
N. Br.
31
36
33
37
Biorb.
83
83
91
Interorb.
30
31
31
G. I.
78
70
75
75
F. I.
97
97
96
96
U. F. I.
60
60
55
60
N. I.
52
62
57
62
Skin
#10
#10
#10
Hair
Black
44
Dark-Brown
Black
Beard
Eyes
Dark-Brown
4-4-+
Gray-Brown
Light-Br.
Dark-Br.
Plate 17
Plate 18
FIG. 1
FIG. 2
FIG. 3
Fio. 7
Age
Stature
43
169 cm.
48
167 cm.
42
176 cm.
48
174cm.
Weight
Head L.
192 Ibs.
201 mm.
144 Ibs.
188 mm.
130 Ibs.
197 mm.
Head Br.
148
151
153
Min. Fr.
106
109
113
Bizyg.
Bigon.
T. F. Ht.
142
112
125
143
113
141
144
110
132
U. F. Ht,
81
83
77
N. Ht.
67
69
61
N. Br.
37
35
38
Biorb.
91
90
96
Interorb.
31
31
33
C. I.
73.6
80.3
77.7
70
F. I.
88
98.6
91.7
92
U. F. I.
57
58.0
53.5
N. I.
55.2
51.5
62.3
52
Skin
Hair
Black
Dark-Br.
Black
Black
Beard
Black & Red
Eyes
Dark-Br.
Green-Br.
Dark-Br.
#8 Black-Br.
Plate 19
Fio. 1
Fio. 2
FIG. 3
FIG 4
FIG 5
Age
Stature
39
166 cm.
167 cm.
20
157.8 cm.
26
153. 3 cm.
26
158.2 cm.
Weight
Head L.
187 mm.
181 mm.
191 mm.
187 mm.
Head Br.
150
142
153
147
Min. Fr.
101
103
108
Bizyg.
Bigon.
T. F. Ht.
140
100
115
127
131
121
86
117
129
97
120
U. F. Ht.
62
77
68
71
N. Ht.
52
56
48
59
N. Br.
32
37
79
35
Biorb.
92
93
91
Interorb.
34
29
33
C. I.
80.2
78
80
83
F. I.
82
103
97
79
U. F. I.
50.4
61
55
55
N. I.
61.5
66
75
69
Skin
Hair
Br. Sallow
Coarse Bl.
#15
Black
Dark-Br.
#10
Black
Beard
+++
Eyes
Dark-Br.
Dark-Br.
Dark-Br.
Gr.-Br.
Plate 20
FIG. 1
Fio. 2
Fio. 3
FIG. 4
Age
Stature
42
171 cm.
50
152 cm.
39
181 cm.
28
168 cm.
Weight
Head L.
192 mm.
102 Ibs.
196 mm.
130 Ibs.
194 mm.
130 Ibs.
188 mm.
Head Br.
136
154
151
148
Min. Fr.
104
109
107
100
Bizyg.
Bigon.
T. F. Ht.
127
101
130
134
102
115
129
101
119
134
103
125
U. F. Ht.
73
70
71
73
N. Ht.
61
60
54
53
N. Br.
37
35
31
36
Biorb.
91
87
93
91
Interorb.
31
32
35
33
C. I.
71
78.6
78
79
F. I.
102
86
92
93
U. F. I.
57
52
55
54
N. I.
61
58
57
68
Skin
Hair
#29
Black
#23
#18
Black
#22
Beard
Eyes
Dark-Br.
Dark-Lt.-Br.
Light-Br.
Dark-Br.
Plate 21
FIG. 2
FIG. 4
FIG. 5
FIG. 6
Age
Stature
34
183 cm.
26
171 cm.
160 cm.
28
167.4 cm.
Weight
Head L.
197 mm.
137 Ibs.
188 mm.
133 Ibs.
182 mm.
189 mm.
Head Br.
146
144
137
142
Min. Fr.
105
103
Bizyg.
Bigon.
T. F. Ht.
134
119
132
103
129 .
127
95
122
137
112
126
U. F. Ht.
75
75
80
N. Ht.
59
56
55
59
N. Br.
30
37
32
36
Biorb.
Interorb.
G. I.
74.1
76.6
75.3
75.1
F. I.
89
98
96.1
92
U. F. I.
57
59.1
58
N. I.
51
66
58.2
61
Skin
Hair
#15-#17
Black
Dark-Br.
#7
Black
Black
Beard
Black
Eyes
#4
Light-Br.
Dark-Br.
Light-Br.
Plate 22
Fio. 1
FIG. 2
FIG. 3
Fio. 4
Age
38
17
32
24
Stature
162 cm.
159 cm.
167 cm.
168 cm.
Weight
140 Ibs.
120 Ibs.
138 Ibs.
140 Ibs.
Head L.
190 mm.
187 mm.
193 mm.
196 mm.
Head Br.
150
142
149
156
Min. Fr.
106
106
111
106
Bizyg.
132
128
134
141
Bigon.
99
102
99
103
T. F. Ht.
120
125
114
132
U. F. Ht.
74
73
69
76
N. Ht.
57
56
56
53
N. Br.
35
35
37
35
Biorb.
90
96
89
98
Interorb.
33
34
35
36
C. I.
79
75.9
77.2
79.6
F. I.
90.9
97.7
85.1
93.6
U. F. I.
52.6
57
51.5
53.9
N. I.
61.4
64.3
66.1
66
Skin
Hair
Black
Dark-Br.
Black
Black
Beard
Eyes
Light-Br.
Blue
Dark-Br.
Light-Br.
Plate 23
FIG. 1
FIG. 2
FIG. 3
FIG. 4
Age
Stature
21
175cm.
41
172cm.
24
178cm.
24
169 cm.
Weight
Head L.
142 Ibs.
199 mm.
158 Ibs.
192 mm.
150 Ibs.
203 mm.
141 Ibs.
200 mm.
Head Br.
151
149
150
154
Min. Fr.
106
109
106
104
Bizyg.
Bigon.
T. F. Ht.
142
108
127
133
101
130
136
101
125
134
102
119
U. F. Ht.
73
75
75
75
N. Ht.
58
60
56
61
N. Br.
35
29
36
34
Biorb.
94
92
94
86
Interorb.
36
30
36
27
C. I.
75.9
77.6
73.9
77
F. I.
89.4
97.7
91.9
88.8
U. F. I.
51.4
56.4
55.1
56
N.I.
60.3
48.3
64.3
55.7
Skin
Hair
Beard
#6
Dark-Br.
Black
#5
Eyes
Green-Br.
Green-Br.
Dark-Br.
Blue
Plate 24
FIG. 1
FIG. 2
Fio. 3
FIG. 4
Age
Stature
42
170 cm.
37
170 cm.
35
170 cm.
47
174 cm.
Weight
Head L.
190 Ibs.
204 mm.
140 Ibs.
203 mm.
156 Ibs.
206 mm.
168 Ibs.
207 mm.
Head Br.
156
152
163
150
Min. Fr.
118
108
107
113
Bizyg.
Bigon.
T. F. Ht.
148
120
132
130
108
121
138
103
123
142
115
124
U. F. Ht.
78
69
74
77
N. Ht.
63
56
60
63
N. Br.
35
33
32
33
Biorb.
94
90
94
94
Interorb.
33
30
33
36
C. I.
76.5
74.9
79.1
72.5
F. I.
89.2
93.1
89.1
87
U. F. I.
52.7
53.1
53.6
51
N. I.
55.6
58.9
53.3
52
Skin
Hair
//4 Dark-Br.
Dark-Br.
Black
Dark-Br.
Beard
Red
Eyes
Blue-Br.
Blue
Blue-Br.
Blue-Br.
Plate 25
FIG. 1
FIG. 2
Fro. 3
FIG. 4
Age
61
36
31
51
Stature
167 cm.
170 cm.
172 cm.
169 cm.
Weight
135 Ibs.
110 Ibs.
170 Ibs.
140 Ibs.
Head L.
195 mm.
193 mm.
201 mm.
194 rnm.
Head Br.
151
148
153
144
Min. Fr.
104
103
104
107
Bizyg.
134
125
144
128
Bigon.
98
94
107
94
T. F. Ht.
125
120 -
119
120
U. F. Ht.
79
72
66
70
N. Ht.
65
56
54
54
N. Br.
30
31
37
37
Biorb.
86
86
90
89
Interorb.
31
29
33
31
C. I.
77.4
76.7
76.1
74.2
F. I.
93.3
96
82.6
93.8
U. F. I.
59
57.6
45.8
54.7
N. I.
46.2
55.4
68.5
68.5
Skin
Hair
Dark-Br.
Dark-Br.
Dark-Br.
#5 Dark-Br.
Beard
++
++
Eyes
Blue-Br.
Light-Br.
Green-Br.
Light-Br.
Plate 26
FIG. 1
FIG. 2
FIG. 3
FIG. 4
Age
31
47
28
33
Stature
167 cm.
167.4 cm.
176 cm.
174 cm.
Weight
148 Ibs.
141 Ibs.
175 Ibs.
Head L.
181 mm.
199 mm.
199 mm.
197 mm.
Head Br.
142
153
158
154
Min. Fr.
107
106
112
Bizyg.
132
139
148
142
Bigon.
104
102
112
114
T. F. Ht.
127
125
126
116
U. F. Ht.
73
76
69
N. Ht.
55
60
56
N. Br.
31
34
37
Biorb.
90
90
99
Interorb.
32
36
36
C. I.
78.4
76 9
79.4
78.2
F. I.
96.2
89.9
85.1
81.7
U. F. I.
55.3
51.3
48.6
N. I.
56.4
51.7
56.7
66.1
Skin
Hair
Black
#4 Dark-Br.
Dark-Br.
Black
Beard
4.4.
Eyes
Dark-Br.
f6 Green-Br.
Dark-Br.
Green-Br.
Plate 27
FIG. 1
Fio. 2
FKJ 3
FKJ. 4
Age
24
37
28
34
Stature
170 cm.
175 cm.
181 cm.
1 82 cm.
Weight
165 Ibs.
165 Ibs.
160 Ibs.
170 Ibs.
Head L.
204 mm.
204 mm.
200 mm.
215 mm.
Head Br.
143
150
152
150
Min. Fr.
103
-103
106
110
Bizyg.
137
134
137
135
Bigon.
104
104
96
108
T. F. Ht.
130
128
140
121
U. F. Ht.
77
72
84
73
N. Ht.
63
53
61
60
N. Br.
35
36
36
33
Biorb.
95
89
95
89
Interorb.
32
31
30
32
C. I.
70.1
73.5
76
70
F. I.
95
95.5
102
90
U. F. I.
56
53.7
61
60
N. I.
56
67.9
59
55
Skin
Hair
Golden
Light-Br.
Golden
Ash-Blond
Beard
4.4.4.
Eyes
Gray-Blue
Blue
Blue
Blue-Br.
Plate 28
FIG. 1
FIG. 2
Fio. 3
FIG. 4
Age
Stature
47
164 cm.
38
174cm.
45
164 cm.
50
167 cm.
Weight
Head L.
120 Ibs.
188 mm.
153 Ibs.
191 mm.
145 Ibs.
188 mm.
169 Ibs.
188 mm.
Head Br.
148
149
152
159
Min. Fr.
98
107
109
118
Bizyg.
Bigon.
T. F. Ht.
134
109
110
132
103
118
143
106
118
145
111
117
U. F. Ht.
68
71
72
68
N. Ht.
55
54
55
54
N. Br.
37
34
34
30
Biorb.
91
89
100
87
Intcrorb.
28
29
37
36
C.I.
78.7
78
80.9
84.6
F. I.
82
89.4
82.5
80.7
U. F. I.
51
53.8
50.4
46.9
N. I.
67
63
61.8
55.6
Skin
Hair
Dark-Br.
#5 Med.-Br.
#6 Red-Br.
#6 Med.-Br.
Beard
+ f+
+++
Eyes
Bluc-Br.
Blue
Light-Br.
Blue-Br.
0
£
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Plate 30
FIG. 1
Fm. 4
FIG. 5
FIG. 6
Age
48
17
32
24
Stature
172 cm.
178 cm.
175 cm.
165 cm.
Weight
1901bs.
1541bs.
115 Ibs.
Head L.
195 mm.
210 mm.
195 mm.
188 mm.
Head Br.
151
148
147
146
Min. Fr.
108
103
107
Bizyg.
138
138
133
128
Bigon.
104
101
104
99
T. F. Ht.
123
134
129
126
U. F. Ht.
67
79
76
78
N. Ht.
57
60
57
59
N. Br.
36
34
35
35
Biorb.
89
95
Interorb.
30
31
C. I.
77.4
70.5
75,4
77.7
F.I.
89
97
97
98.4
U. F. I.
54.5
57
57
60.9
N. I.
63
57
61
59.3
Skin
#3
#13
Hair
Light-Br.
#12 & #6
Golden
#6 Red-Br.
Beard
Golden
++
4.4.4.
Eyes
Blue-Br.
Green-Br.
Blue-Br.
Gray-Br.
Plate 31
FIG 1
FIG. 2
FIG 3
FIG. 4
Age
41
46
33
46
Stature
171 cm.
164 cm.
167 cm.
167 cm.
Weight
1 52 Ibs.
150 Ibs.
148 Ibs.
152 Ibs.
Head L.
187 mm.
184 mm.
173 mm.
189 mm.
Head Br.
162
161
162
161
Min. Fr.
109
113
100
113
Bizyg.
144
147
142
148
Bigon.
108
111
113
107
T. F. Ht.
126
123 -
115
125
U. F. Ht.
74
72
65
73
N. Ht.
56
55
52
56
N. Br.
34
36
32
35
Biorb.
93
85
78
99
Interorb.
30
31
27
37
C. I.
86.8
87.5
93.4
85.2
F. I.
88
84
81
84
U. F. I.
51
49
46
49
N. I.
61
65
62
62
Skin
Hair
Lt.-Gold.-Br.
Lt.-Br.
Golden
Golden
Beard
444,
4.44
4.44.
Eyes
Blue-Br.
Blue-Br.
Blue-Br.
Blue
Plate 32
FIG. l
FIG 2
FIG. 3
FIG. 4
Age
Stature
30
167 cm.
50
172 cm.
26
177 cm.
31
178 cm.
Weight
Head L.
140 Ibs.
196 mm.
160 Ibs.
196 mm.
172 Ibs.
195 mm.
165 Ibs.
200 mm.
Head Br.
155
161
157
156
Min. Fr.
104
110
106
115
Bizyg.
Bigon.
T. F. Ht.
138
102
129
142
116
131
140
112
120
143
111
138
U. F. Ht.
74
77
68
77
N. Ht.
54
61
54
63
N. Br.
36
40
36
34
Biorb.
92
94
91
90
Interorb.
36
39
34
32
C. I.
79.1
82.1
80.5
78
F. I.
94
92
86
96
U. F. I.
54
54
56
54
N. I.
67
66
67
54
Skin
Hair
Golden
#15 Golden
#4 Dk.-Br.
#7 Med.-Br.
Beard
++
Eyes
Blue
Blue
Blue
Blue-Br.
Plate 33
FIG. 1
FIG. 2
FIG. 3
FIG 4
Age
68
34
26
22
Stature
172 cm.
182 cm.
180 cm.
172 cm.
Weight
207 Ibs.
185 Ibs.
188 Ibs.
165 Ibs.
Head L.
203 mm.
197 mm.
190 mm.
191 mm.
Head Br.
157
160
162
163
Min. Fr.
107
113
113
117
Bizyg.
148
152
140
144
Bigon.
109
120
110
114
T. F. Ht.
126
132
122
137
U. F. Ht.
75
72
73
74
N. Ht.
62
60
58
57
N. Br.
32
35
38
36
Biorb.
97
91
92
102
Interorb.
38
33
36
41
C.I.
77.3
81.2
85.3
85.3
F, I.
85
86.8
87.1
95.1
U. F. I.
51
47.4
52.1
51.4
N.I.
51.6
58.3
65.5
63.2
Skin
Hair
#8 Med.-Br.
Golden
Golden
Red
Beard
+++
Eyes
Blue
Blue-Br.
Blue
Blue
Plate 34
FIG. 1
FIG. 2
FIG. 3
Fio. 4
Age
60
64
38
38
Stature
164cm.
167 cm.
162cm.
167 cm.
Weight
1561bs.
160 Ibs.
130 Ibs.
130 Ibs.
Head L.
200 mm.
193 mm.
192 mm.
190 mm,
Head Br.
164
161
154
163
Min. Fr.
116
103
109
104
Bizyg.
145
146
136
138
Bigon.
117
112
113
104
T. F. Ht.
128
118
127
129
U. F. Ht.
75
72
76
76
N. Ht.
56
60
57
59
N. Br.
31
38
34
33
Biorb.
92
87
88
87
Interorb.
33
34
32
32
C. I.
82
83.4
80.2
85.8
F. I.
88.3
81
93.4
93.5
U. F. I.
51.7
50
57.4
55.1
N. I.
55.4
63
59.7
55.9
Skin
Hair
#4 Dk.-Br.
#7 Med.-Br.
#10 Lt.-Br.
#10 Lt.-Br.
Beard
+4 +
Eyes
Blue
Blue
Blue-Br.
Blue
Plate 35
FIG 1
FIG 2
FIG. 3
Age
Stature
36
180 cm.
33
172 cm.
44
180 cm.
Weight
Head L.
166 Ibs.
198 mm.
149 Ibs.
187 mm.
168 Ibs.
182 mm.
Head Br.
168
154
154
Min. Fr.
114
111
110
Bizyg.
Bigon.
T. F. Ht.
138
106
141
138
104
125
137
110
123
U. F. Ht.
82
74
74
N. Ht.
65
64
53
N. Br.
34
33
34
Biorb.
96
96
91
Interorb.
33
32
32
G. I.
84.9
82.4
84.6
F. I.
102.2
90.6
89.8
U. F. I.
59.4
53.6
54
N. I.
52.3
51.6
64.2
Skin
Hair
Beard
#7 Med.-Br.
#7 Med.-Br.
4.4.4.
#8 Brown
Eyes
Blue-Br.
Blue-Br.
Blue
Plate 36
Fio. 1
Fio. 2
Fio. 3
Fio. 4
Age
Stature
35
179 cm.
32
165 cm.
38
171 cm.
50
172 cm.
Weight
Head L.
140 Ibs.
193 mm.
180 Ibs.
189 mm.
150 Ibs.
183 mm.
152 Ibs.
190 mm.
Head Br.
161
154
160
154
Min. Fr.
103
109
110
111
Bizyg.
Bigon.
T. F. Ht.
137
111
123
142
113
120
151
114
123
148
108
122
U. F. Ht.
73
73
73
69
N. Ht.
60
61
59
53
N. Br.
32
35
36
32
Biorb.
94
94
96
90
Interorb.
32
36
33
36
C. I.
83.4
81.5
87.4
81
F. I.
89.8
84.5
81.5
82.4
U. F. I.
52.6
54.9
96.7
46.6
N. I.
53.3
57.4
61
60.4
Skin
Hair
Beard
Eyes
Red
Lt.-Br.
//4 Dk.-Br.
Blue
Med.-Br.
+4
Green-Br.
#5 Dk.-Br.
Green-Br.
Plate 37
Fio. 1
FIG. 2
FIG. 3
FIG. 4
Age
28
23
69
53
Stature
170 cm.
164 cm.
169 cm.
162 cm.
Weight
155 Ibs.
180 Ibs.
175 Ibs.
149 Ibs.
Head L,
181 mm.
195 mm.
189 mm.
189 mm.
Head Br.
159
166
162
162
Min. Fr.
111
106
108
104
Bizyg.
140
146
143
141
Bigon.
113
104
112
110
T. F. Ht.
134
124
129
118
U. F. Ht.
77
77
76
69
N. Ht.
63
60
58
61
N. Br.
37
36
37
34
Biorb.
89
92
89
92
Interorb.
29
36
37
33
C. I.
87.9
85.1
85.7
85.7
F.I.
96.4
84.9
90.2
83.7
U. F. I.
55
52.7
53.1
48.9
N.I.
58.7
60
63.8
55.7
Skin
Hair
#4 Dk.-Br.
#4 Dk.-Br.
Med.-Br.
Dk.-Br.
Beard
++
44
444
+++
Eyes
Green-Br.
Green-Br.
Blue-Br.
Blue-Br.
Plate 38
FIG. 1
Fio. 2
Fio. 3
Fro. 4
Age
38
27
42
48
Stature
171 cm.
165 cm.
180 cm.
172cm.
Weight
165 Ibs.
175 Ibs.
152 Ibs.
Head L.
185 mm.
164 mm.
179 mm.
188 mm.
Head Bn
165
155
158
162
Min. Fr.
114
114
103
Bizyg.
143
148
146
147
Bigon.
120
99
110
113
T. F. Ht.
123
124
133
120
U. F. Ht.
77
76
75
N. Ht.
60
63
61
N. Br.
34
37
40
Biorb.
94
91
92
Interorb.
33
34
36
C. I.
89.2
93.9
88.3
86.2
F. I.
86
83.9
91.1
81.6
U. F. I.
53.8
52
51
N. L
65
51.7
58.7
65.6
Skin
Hair
Med.-Br.
#4-#5 Dk.-Br.
#5 Med.-Br.
Black
Beard
+++
Eyes
Blue
#5~#6 Lt.-Br.
Blue-Br.
Lt.-Br.
OOOLOvO
oo^inu->
0>
c^
rt
S
CQ
-I
+s
P?!
O'
o
S
o. i-~
I I I
QQ
o
Plate 40
FIG 1
FIG. 2
Fio. 3
Fio. 4
Age
48
46
44
25
Stature
159cm.
164cm.
178 cm.
170 cm.
Weight
131 Ibs.
146 Ibs.
186 Ibs.
144 Ibs.
Head L.
174 mm.
173 mm.
186 mm.
187 mm.
Head Br.
158
158
152
161
Min. Fr.
99
104
113
111
Bizyg.
143
143
141
139
Bigon.
102
113
103
108
T. F. Ht.
126
128
122
128
U. F. Ht.
78
78
77
75
N. Ht.
61
61
62
61
N. Br.
30
35
39
35
Biorb.
86
92
91
97
Interorb.
30
33
36
28
C. I.
90.8
91.3
81.7
86 1
F. I.
88.1
89.5
86.5
92
U, F. I.
54.5
54.5
54.6
54
N. I.
49.2
57.4
62.9
57.4
Skin
Hair
Black
Black
Black
Dk,-Br.
Beard
Eyes
Lt.-Br.
Green-Br.
Dk.-Br.
Med.-Br.
Plate 41
FIG. 1
FIG 2
Fio. 3
FIG. 4
Age
Stature
47
167 cm.
55
167 cm.
39
172 cm.
43
167 cm.
Weight
Head L.
172 Ibs.
178 mm.
160 Ibs.
191 mm.
162 Ibs.
159 mm.
134 Ibs.
179 mm.
Head Br.
163
156
153
165
Min. Fr.
104
118
103
105
Bizyg.
Bigon.
T. F. Ht.
140
113
129
143
118
128 .
134
113
134
131
100
121
U. F. Ht.
76
72
81
74
N. Ht.
63
55
63
59
N. Br.
34
37
37
38
Biorb.
87
95
87
87
Interorb.
30
40
34
33
C. I.
91.6
81.7
96.2
92.2
F. I.
92.1
89.5
100
92.4
U. F. I.
54.3
49.7
60.5
56.6
N. L
54
67.3
58.7
64.4
Skin
Hair
Dk.-Br.
Black
Dk.-Br.
Black
Beard
++
+++
Eyes
Green-Br.
Dk.-Br.
Blue-Br.
Med.-Br.
Chapter XI
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD
(1) INTRODUCTION
In the first two chapters of our survey of the living white peoples, we
lave covered the whole northern third of the European continent, and
lave discussed at some length the physical characteristics of the present rep-
•esentatives of the Nordic race, and of the East Baltic and Neo-Danubian
•acial types, as exemplified by the Finno-Ugrian peoples and by the
peakers of the Baltic branch of Indo-European. We have, furthermore,
tudied the survival and reemergence in northwestern Europe of unre-
luced, unmodified Upper Palaeolithic types, as exemplified especially by
he Irish, and other British, and by the Scandinavians and East Baltic
>eoples. We have also discussed the incipiently mongoloid Lapps, and the
nongoloid intrusions on European soil along its northern borders.
The next strip to follow, in a geographical sense, would be the whole
tighland belt of central Europe stretching over to the Balkans, to Asia
^linor, and across to the Caucasus and Turkestan. This second zone,
lowever, is one of immense racial complexity. In it various branches of
he greater Mediterranean family, of Neolithic date and later, have been
Qodified by combining in various proportions with each other and with
he autochthonous Alpine race. The key to the complexity of this zone
ies in the genetic action of this last entity, which is apparently a reduced,
amewhat foetalized, or more highly evolved branch of the old Palaeo-
thic stock than those which we have been studying in the north. Since,
.owever, it is the action of this element upon the Mediterranean family
fhich is important here, it will be easier to study this zone after having
urveyed the population of a third belt, that occupied by the purest living
epresentatives of the Mediterranean race.
This third racial zone stretches from Spain across the Straits of Gibraltar
3 Morocco, and thence along the southern Mediterranean shores into
Arabia, East Africa, Mesopotamia, and the Persian highlands; and across
Afghanistan into India. This zone is one of comparative racial simplicity.
Q it the brunet Mediterranean race lives today in its various regional
>rms without, in most cases, the complication of the Palaeolithic survivals
nd reemergences which have so confused the racial picture on the ground
f Europe itself. Only in the mountains of Morocco and Algeria, and in
ic Canary Islands, is such a survival of any importance. The careful
400
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 401
study of living populations of the Mediterranean race in its early home-
lands will do much to simplify the task which lies ahead.
(2) THE MEDITERRANEAN RAGE IN ARABIA
The Mediterranean racial zone stretches unbroken from Spain across
the Straits of Gibraltar to Morocco, and thence eastward to India. A
branch of it extends far southward on both sides of the Red Sea into
southern Arabia, the Ethiopian highlands, and the Horn of Africa. Of the
three main Mediterranean sub-races which this zone contains, the most
widespread, the most central, the most highly evolved, and most charac-
teristically Mediterranean is the central Mediterranean form, as best ex-
emplified skeletally by the pre-dynastic Egyptians. Today the largest uni-
fied area in which this moderate-sized, intermediate Mediterranean racial
type is found in greatest purity is the Arabian Peninsula.
Arabia, some fifteen hundred miles long by a thousand wide, possesses
a huge land mass but a small population. Owing to the aridity of the
great Ruba* el Khali desert and much of the north, the entire country
can support no more than six million people, of whom at least a half live
in the small, fertile, southwestern corner, the kingdom of Yemen.
The study of the prehistory of Arabia has hardly begun. It is, however,
known that during the pluvial periods of the Pleistocene, the Empty Quar-
ter was a fertile plateau, through which large streams carved wide and
deep wadys; and that it has been inhabited by man from at least Acheu-
lean times onward. With the post-glacial desiccation of this part of the
world, Arabia may well have served as a vagina gentium, sending forth into
other regions great numbers of inhabitants whom it could no longer sup-
port. In legendary and historic times this role has been continued; the
early wanderings of the Jews, the settlement of the Ethiopian highlands
by colonists from the Hadhramaut, the great expansion of the Arabs in
early Moslem times, all serve as examples.
Modern Arabia is divided into several kingdoms each of which occupies
a distinct geographical area. The largest,' Saudi Arabia, includes the Nejd,
Hasa, the Hejaz, and Asir; in other words, all of the regions north and im-
mediately west of the Ruba* el Khali. The Nejd is occupied by a mixed
population of pastoral nomads and agriculturists, of which the former are
by far the more numerous. The Nejdis form a natural unit with the tribes-
men of Transjordania and of the Syrian desert. The northern frontier of
Arabia, in an ethnic sense, is not its present political boundary, but a line
skirting the southern edge of the so-called Fertile Crescent. In northern
Arabia should be included such tribes as the Ruwalla, the Shammar, and
the Howeitat. The Hejaz, which includes the holy cities of Mekka and
Medina, contains a sedentary population, which lives partly by agriculture
402 THE RACES OF EUROPE
and partly by trade, while the wealth brought in by the annual hordes
of pilgrims from the entire world of Islam helps, in large measure, to sup-
port the population of this sacred territory. Asir, the southernmost and
most recently acquired section of Saudi Arabia, is a mountainous country
occupied for the most part by farmers, and its ethnic relationships are
with the Yemen, rather than with the north.
The kingdom of Yemen is bounded on the north by, roughly, the seven-
teenth parallel of north latitude; on the west by the Red Sea; on the south
by the British Protectorate of Aden; and on the east by the southwestern-
most extension of the Empty Quarter. It consists of two main parts, the
narrow coastal plain and the plateau country which slopes gently east-
ward from a 10,000 foot escarpment. This plateau is extremely fertile and
supports a large agricultural population. On its northern and eastern
borders it tapers off gradually into pastoral country, and in the south
merges into the ethnic unit of the Hadhramaut. The eastern part of this
plateau was once an extremely populous region, since it was the seat of the
three great kingdoms of Ma'an, Kataban, and Saba. This country was
supported partly by agriculture, based on extensive irrigation projects,
and partly by tolls from the incense caravans which passed through them
on their way northward.
To the west of Yemen lies the Wady Hadhramaut, a narrow strip of
fertile valley, separated from the Gulf of Aden by a forbidding mass of
almost vegetation-free mountains. To the east of the Hadhramaut lies
Dhofar, hemmed in by the Qara Mountains; and this small semi-circle of
land preserves a lush vegetation made possible by the steady rainfall
brought by the southeast monsoon. It, alone of all of southern Arabia,
retains the Pleistocene climate which made this region, in former times, a
land of great fertility. To the northeast of the great desert, which acts as
a formidable barrier to separate these kingdoms, lies Oman, a mountain-
ous country in which agriculture is practiced, and which is noted for its
seafaring activities and for its export of dates.
The inhabitants of Arabia may be divided into two general groups:
Arabs proper, and the aboriginal inhabitants of Hadhramaut, the Dhofar
country, and the island of Socotra. Those who belong to the first category
are almost without exception of Mediterranean race, and it is with this
group that we are dealing in our search for a pure Mediterranean form.
The Hadhramaut, on the other hand, contains a varied population with
at least four social and ethnic elements.1 These include the Bedawin, who
live in the smaller side valleys and in the valleys between the Hadhramaut
proper and the Gulf of Aden. They are slender, small-headed men, with
ringlet hair, and facial features which relate them partly to the great Ved-
1 Van den Berg, L. W. C., Le Hadhramout et les Colonies Arabes dans FArchipel Indien.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 403
doid group of humanity. Their affiliation to the white racial stock is of a
borderline quality.
The second group is composed of tribesmen who inhabit the Hadhra-
maut valley proper, and who trace their ancestry to the Yemen and to
other parts of Arabia. The ancestors of these tribesmen seem to have en-
tered the Hadhramaut in pre-Islamic times. In addition to these early
immigrants, there is a class of artisans who claim varied ancestry from
different parts of the Arabic-speaking world, and, as an upper crust, a
group of Sayyids, descendants of the Prophet, who form a priestly aristoc-
racy. From the racial standpoint, the inhabitants of the Hadhramaut in-
clude both Veddoid and Mediterranean elements. In more recent times
great numbers of slaves have been brought from Africa to increase this
racial complexity.
In Mahra, Dhofar, and the island of Socotra, pre-Arabic Semitic lan-
guages survive. These are Mahri, spoken by the Mahra and the Socotrans,
and Shahari, spoken by the people who live in the hills behind Dhofar.2
Other early Semitic dialects seem to be affiliated with these two language
groups. The Mahra and the people immediately behind Dhofar belong
largely to the same general racial classification as the Hadhramaut Beda-
win, and form a more exaggerated nucleus of the same physical type.
The origin of these non-Mediterranean, partly Veddoid people in
southern Arabia is obscure. Culturally, they possess many primitive
traits which would relate them, on the one hand, to the food-gathering
economy of such people as the Australians and Veddas; and, on the other,
to the cattle culture of the Todas in India and of the Hamites and Bantu
in East Africa.
Let us first consider the racial characters of the plateau Yemenis, who
seem to form the purest nucleus of the Mediterranean race in Arabia which
has yet been studied.3 A group of 400 adult males from the central plateau
and from the adjacent escarpment region belongs, with few exceptions, to
a homogeneous Mediterranean type. The series is a mature one with a
mean age of 33 years. The mean stature of this group, 164 cm., is moder-
ate and is typical of the smaller Mediterranean race as defined in earlier
chapters.
The bodies of these Yemenis are slightly built; gross observations on
constitutional type show the Yemenis to be predominantly leptosome in
60 per cent of cases, and rarely if ever pyknic. The relative shoulder
breadth of 21.5 is smaller than that found in most European groups; the
2 Thomas, Bertram, Arabia Felix,
8 This material is based upon a series of 1 500 men measured in the Yemen and Ha-
dhramaut by the author in 1933-34, and presented here for the first time. It will be
published in proper statistical form at a later date.
404 THE RACES OF EUROPE
relative span of 102 resembles that of the pure Nordic groups of east
Norway, and a relative sitting height of 51.3 is less than that found among
most Europeans. The Yemenis, although short, are relatively long legged.
Their heads are of moderate dimensions, with a mean length of 188 mm.
and a mean breadth of 143 mm., giving a cephalic index of 76, which lies
on the upper border of dolichocephaly. It is to be noted that while the
head form is the same as that of the Nordic race, the length and breadth
dimensions are considerably smaller. The head height of 125 mm. is
moderately high, and comparable to Nordic dimensions. The facial
diameters are consistently narrow; the minimum frontal mean is 102 mm.,
the bizygornatic 132 mm., and the bigonial 101 mm. These dimensions
are narrower than any that we have heretofore seen in Europe. The face
height of 121 mm. is moderate, while the upper face height of 72 mm. must
be considered great. It is, in fact, greater than that of many European
groups of larger cranial and facial bulk. The nose height of 56 mm. is as
great as that of most Nordic groups, while the nose breadth of 33.5 mm. is
narrow. The facial index of 92 is only moderately leptoprosopic, while the
upper facial index of 55 is extremely leptene. Here one sees a disharmony
between the total face height and the great upper face height, which indi-
cates the excessive shallowness and fragility of the Mediterranean mandi-
ble. A nasal index of 61 is extremely leptorrhine. The dimensions given
above may serve as metrical specifications of the small Mediterranean
racial variety in its purest form. Observational specifications follow.
Yemeni highlanders, in exposed skin color on the face, hands, and legs,
often appear to be brown, and the characteristic range of exposed skin
color lies between von Luschan's #12 and #18. Over 50 per cent of the
series have exposed skins of #15 and darker. Really light exposed skin
was observed in but one individual, who was a man seldom out under the
sun. When the observer inspects the skin of the breast or inner arm in
places where the sun seldom penetrates, he sees at once that these people
are much lighter. The unexposed skin color, in 83 per cent of the entire
series, is a swarthy white, fitting into the von Luschan #10 and #11.
Lighter shades running from von Luschan #7 and #9 occur in roughly
5 per cent, while the rest of the series is darker. No individual meas-
ured, who came from the Yemen plateau, was darker than von Luschan
#18. Vascularity is present in all but one-fifth of the subjects, but, in the
majority of cases, is only slightly in evidence. Freckling was found in but
1 per cent of the entire group, and is not a characteristic of the unmixed
Mediterranean race.
The head hair of the Yemenis is straight in only 4 per cent of the series,
and low waves account for the majority, while 20 per cent have hair which
may be classified as curly. This hair form consists of wide, open ringlets
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 405
and is the same as the dominant form found among the Veddoid aborigines
of the Hadhramaut. Negroid hair does not occur in this group. The hair
is of medium texture in 80 per cent of the series and fine in the rest. It is
for the most part abundant on the head, and baldness is rare. Only 14 per
cent of the entire group showed any signs of baldness other than patholog-
ical favus. The beard is slight in over 50 per cent of the series and seldom
covers the entire lower part of the face. There are usually bare patches
between the ends of the mustache and the chin beard. Body hair, aside
from the pubis and axis, is absent in one- third of the entire group and, on
the whole, but moderately developed. There is a minority of 10 per cent
which shows excessive hairiness. On the whole, the classic Mediterranean
racial type is characterized by a moderate to slight amount of body hair,
but one must not conclude that excessive hairiness cannot be found among
individual Mediterraneans.
The head hair is black in 90 per cent of the series; except for one example
of blondism and another of rufosity, the rest of the group is dark brown
haired. Beard color, however, is black in only 75 per cent of the group, and
the remaining one-fourth of the series is divided between various hues of
brown and red. Beard rufosity occurs in 6 per cent of the Yemeni series,
while head hair rufosity was found in but one individual. Twelve men out
of 400 had beards which contained visible increments of golden-brown
hair. Reddish-brown beards are as common as red ones. Since there is no
evidence of ash-blondism in either the head or beard hair, while golden
and red hues account for all of the existing blondism, it is apparent that
the hair of the basic Mediterranean stock, as exemplified by these Yemenis,
contains a considerable amount of red pigmentation.
The 25 per cent of brown and blond beards may be matched by 25 per
cent of light and mixed eye color. Dark brown, however, accounts for
nearly half of the entire series, and black and light brown eyes are def-
initely in the minority. Of the mixed eyes, green-brown is the most fre-
quent hue, and the dark-mixed outnumber the light-mixed. Not a single
case of pure blue or pure gray eyes was encountered in the Yemen; the
lightest contained a few flecks of superficial brown pigment.
It is extremely suggestive that the percentage of beards containing evi-
dence of blondism is the same as that of mixed irises, while the head hair
color is almost exclusively black. Since it would be difficult to find a purer
Mediterranean racial strain than this, one may postulate that some tend-
ency towards a blond mutation is present in roughly one-fourth of this
otherwise brunet branch of the Mediterranean race, but this tendency
rarely expresses itself in extreme blondism. For historical reasons a 25
per cent incidence in the Yemen is too high to be explained on the basis of
outside mixture alone.
406 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Internal eyefolds are wholly absent. Median eyefolds are found in some
1 0 per cent of the series, while external eyefolds account for another 1 5 per
cent. Thus a condition which is usually considered Nordic is found to
exist almost equally among Mediterraneans. In 1 5 per cent of the series a
slight upward obliquity of the eyes is found, and the opening between the
lids is usually moderate. The eyebrows are pronouncedly thick in one-
fourth of the series, and moderately so to medium in the rest. It is inter-
esting to note that eyebrow concurrency is present in all but 15 per cent
of the group. This is slight in most cases, but moderately pronounced in
40 per cent of the whole. One must, therefore, dismiss the idea that these
Mediterraneans, at least, have no eyebrow concurrency. A moderate
amount of it is apparently a Mediterranean trait. The browridges of these
Yemenis are slight in half the group and moderate in most of the other
half; only about 5 per cent have pronounced browridges comparable to
those so frequently found in northern Europe.
From the observational standpoint, the forehead is of moderate to great
height; the slope is less than that usually found among Nordics. Absent or
very slight slopes are found in nearly half of the group, while a slope com-
parable to that of Nordics accounts for the other half.
The nasion depression is usually slight; in many cases nearly absent.
The nasal root is almost always high and narrow, the nasal bridge is of
greater than medium height in 60 per cent of the series, while its breadth
is characteristically narrow to medium. The nasal profile is convex in
half of the group. Concave profiles are limited to 3 per cent of the whole,
and the rest are straight. The concavo-convex profile, so common in some
types of Nordic, is absent here. The nasal tip is usually narrow to medium.
It is usually horizontal or inclined slightly upwards; downward inclina-
tion occurs in only one-sixth of the group. The nasal wings are alternately
medium or compressed, and flaring in but 2 per cent of the group. The
nostrils usually take the form of a thin oval in outline, and are set at slightly
oblique axes.
On the whole, the nasal form of the Yemenis is quite constant and of
little variability. The Yemeni nose is high-rooted, high-bridged, and nar-
row, with a convex to straight profile, and a narrow, slightly elevated tip,
compressed to moderate wings, and narrow, slightly oblique nostril open-
ings. The amount of nasal convexity is greater among Mediterraneans
than among most Nordics, and the Mediterranean group as exemplified
by this series is, in fact, slightly more leptorrhine than all but the most
extreme Nordic groups.
The lips of the Yemenis are of moderate integumental thickness, and
their membranous thickness is usually thin to medium. The lips are as a
rule only slightly everted. The lip seam is visible in the entire group.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 407
Prognathism is rare; 9 per cent of the total group shows a slight to medium
development of the facial variety, while the alveolar type is limited to
2 per cent. It must be remembered at this point that a small amount of
facial prognathism is a characteristic white and particularly Mediterra-
nean trait, while alveolar prognathism is more of a negroid character.
This, like other negroid traits, is to all practical purposes absent in the
Yemen highlands.
Despite the shallowness and narrowness of the Yemenis mandible, chins
are of moderate European prominence in 70 per cent of the series.
Markedly prominent chins such as one finds in northern Europe among
Upper Palaeolithic survivors are lacking. These chins are median in three-
fourths of the entire group, while the remaining fourth possess the bi-
lateral form common among Europeans. Only one man out of five has the
edge-to-edge bite so frequently found among mediaeval and earlier Euro-
pean skulls, for in dentition and in general jaw development, the Yemenis
possess the same features already noticed in the skulls of Mesopotamia as
early as Sumerian times.
In the larger features of the face, Yemenis show little or no frontal pro-
jection of the malars, while a moderate lateral projection is usual, owing
to the small development of the temporal muscle and to the general thin-
ness of the soft parts of the face. Gonial angles are medium or slight in most
cases. The occipital protrusion is usually considerable, and flattening is
absent or very slight in three-fourths of the series, and the other fourth is
as pronounced as among most Nordics.
Although the plateau Yemenis of the region centered about Sana'a
may rightly be taken to represent the smaller variety of the Mediterranean
race in its purest form, this is not equally true of other parts of the Yemen.
In the southern part of the mountain district, in the neighborhood of the
cities of Yerirn, Ibb, and Taiz, a mixture is seen between this Mediter-
ranean strain and the Veddoid type characteristic of the Hadhramaut.
Along the Yemen coast, furthermore, since the climatic conditions are
such as to discourage serious physical effort among white men, the coun-
tryside has been largely taken over by negroid farmers brought in as agri-
cultural serfs. There is, however, a minority of white agriculturalists, and
these belong partly to the Mediterranean type described above. However,
there is a considerable coastal population located in the larger towns and
maritime villages, which belongs to an entirely different physical type.
These coastal Yemenis are shorter than the plateau Mediterraneans,
with a mean stature of only 160 cm. They are smaller-headed, with the
extremely short mean glabello-occipital length of 177 mm., a vault height
of only 122 mm., and a cephalic index mean of 84. 4 Their faces are broader
4 The common misconception that the Yemenis as a whole are brachycephalic is due
408 THE RAGES OF EUROPE
than those of the plateau people, and very short, with a mean total face
height of 1 1 8 mm. The nasal index of 64 is less leptorrhine, and the length
of eye-slit opening is much greater. These maritime coastal people fre-
quently have coarse and straight hair; their skin color tends to be darker
than that of the plateau people, their faces fuller, and their ears promi-
nent and slanting.
These brachycephalic coastal people bear a strong resemblance to Ma-
lays and Indonesians, in a number of metrical characters, and there is a
tradition that they have absorbed Malay blood in certain families. On the
other hand, from the morphological standpoint, most of them look Arme-
noid, since thick-tipped convex noses and sloping foreheads are frequent
among them. In any case, whatever their origin, and it is undoubtedly
mixed, they represent an intrusive people borne to southern Arabia by
the sea, and have no connection with the original Mediterranean group
which developed in the highlands. Evidence of their racial influence may
be seen among the agricultural population of the coast, and to a certain
extent in the southern towns, but as yet they seem to have exerted no in-
fluence whatever on the plateau country. The barrier of a 10,000 foot
escarpment and of a complete difference in climate seems to have sufficed
to keep the coastal population from the plateau, while the plateau people,
at the same time, have penetrated the unhealthy lowlands but little.
Within the Yemen plateau population it is possible for the careful ob-
server to notice a differentiation between a number of sub-types. In the
cities is concentrated a specialized and exaggeratedly Mediterranean
population with shorter stature, narrower and lower heads, narrower
faces and noses, and lighter skin color than the rest of the Yemenis. This
city type seems to have been largely selected on an occupational basis,
and represents the quintessence of the Mediterranean race. The country
people, on the whole, are somewhat larger, somewhat broader-shouldered,
and somewhat wavier or curlier in hair form.
Among the tribal and village sheikhs and the officers in the Imam's
army one frequently encounters tall, very long-headed, and long-faced
examples of the Atlanto-Mediterranean type, which seems to form a
socially selected variant in this group. The Nordic-looking people are
usually confined to the social stratum from which civil officers and re-
ligious men are drawn, and it is more than a coincidence that the ac-
to the fact that Europeans are more familiar with Yemeni sailors than with the more
numerous highlanders. Previous anthropometric series of Yemenis include mostly
coastal subjects.
See Cipriani, L., AFA, vols. 60-61, 1930-31, pp. 138-163.
Leys, N. M., and Joyce, T. A., JRAI, vol. 43, 1913, pp. 195-267.
Mochi, A., APA, vol. 37, 1907, pp. 411-428.
Seligman, G. G., JRAI, vol. 47, 1917, pp. 211-237.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 409
knowledged descendants of the Prophet are lighter-skinned and show
greater evidence of blondism than the rest of the population. There may
perhaps have been a Nordic strain associated with the holy families who
entered this region from the Hejaz in early post- Islamic times.
We have no data whatever from Asir, but it is likely that the inhabitants
of this mountain province resemble those of the Yemen highlands in large
measure. In the Hejaz, there is almost no material,5 but a few words
may be said on the basis of personal observation. Today the city people
who derive rich profits from the pilgrim trade and who inhabit mostly
Jidda, Mekka, Taif, and Medina are as motley and heterogeneous a
group as one would find in Port Said or Honolulu. Thousands of Javanese,
of Chinese Moslems, of Bokharis from Turkestan, and of Indian Moslems
as well as of African negroes, have been attracted to the holy places and
have remained there. The permanent population of these cities is prob-
ably less than half Arab. So far these foreign elements have not greatly
mixed with the indigenous people, and the old families have kept them-
selves aloof from these foreign strains, but the importance of the new-
comers in the future cannot be exaggerated. The Hejaz will eventually
be the seat of a greatly mixed and blended population, drawn from the
three primary racial groups of white, negroid, and mongoloid.
Members of the old Hejaz families seem to fall, in many cases, into a
clearly differentiated type which, in its extreme form, may be described
without difficulty. Its members are men of medium to tall stature; they
are broad shouldered, long-bodied, heavy of weight, and of a constitu-
tional type which tends to an excess of both muscle and fat. Their heads
are large and mesocephalic to brachycephalic, their faces are both broad
and long, their noses frequently large-tipped and fleshy. The chin is
prominent and the mandible strong. Their hair is dark brown to black,
the beard heavy, and the eye color characteristically brown, although
light eyes are by no means uncommon. ,
Although this Alpine-looking Hejaz type may not yet be established
on a scientific basis,6 its existence will be confirmed by readers who are
acquainted with the people of this region. It seems very likely that men
of this general type went to North Africa with the early Moslem invasions,
for this type is frequent among the aristocratic families in North African
cities, particularly in Fez, in contrast with the rest of the population which
is almost exclusively dolichocephalic. What the origin of this hypotheti-
cal type may be, it would be foolish to consider without some metrical
6 Mochi, A., APA, vol. 37, 1907, pp. 411-428, gives raw data for a series of 12 Arabs
from Jidda.
6 Mochi's series of 12 Arabs from Jidda has a mean stature of 168 cm., a G. I. of 79.4,
a bizygomatic of 132 mm,, and a nose breadth of 37 mm.
410 THE RACES OF EUROPE
evidence, but we may be sure that it is not of pure Mediterranean origin.
It is probably confined largely to the city people and to the older of the
indigenous families.
Information on the exact physical character of the nomadic peoples of
the Nejd is likewise lacking, but we possess a body of information upon a
number of the tribes which pasture their camels in Transjordania and in
the desert portions of Syria and Iraq. Notable among these is the Ruwalla
tribe made famous by the writings of Lawrence, Musil, Raswan, and
others.7 A series of 270 adult male Ruwalla measured by Shanklin 8 is
shorter than the Yemenis, with a mean stature of 162 cm., but other
Bedawin tribes, such as the Shammar,9 are taller, and as one enters
sedentary regions in the north the Bedawin stature reaches 170 cm.10
On the whole, however, the northern Arabs must be considered a medium
to short people. A relative sitting height of 51, among the Ruwalla, agrees
with that of the Yemenis, and is a standard Mediterranean character.
The heads of the Ruwalla, with a mean length of 192 mm., are a little
longer than those of the Yemenis, and the cephalic index of 75 a little
lower. The faces of the Ruwalla, with a mean bizygomatic diameter of
130 mm., are extremely narrow. Other dimensions resemble those fa-
miliar to us in the Yemen. The skin color of the Ruwalla seems to be
on the whole somewhat darker than that of the Yemenis. The hair is
usually black or dark brown, and no instance of partial blondism is re-
corded by Shanklin, although individuals who possess it have been no-
ticed by other observers. It is evident, however, that the 25 per cent of
incipient blondism noted in the Yemen is not present in this tribe, although
Field has found an even higher ratio among the Shammar.11
There are two easily distinguished types among the Ruwalla: a grosser
type, with a broader face and straight and medium to broad nose, which
bears certain resemblances to the aboriginal population of the Hadhra-
maut and Dhofar; and what may be described as a finer type, to which
most of the sheikhly families belong; this is narrower-faced and narrower-
nosed, with often a concave or beaked nasal profile. This hawk-faced
type of Arabian aristocrat is better known than the other type, but is
probably the less numerous. It reaches its extreme personification in
the- old warrior Sheikh 'Auda Abu Tayy, whose lineaments are familiar
7 Lawrence, Col. T. E., The Seven Pillars of Wisdom.
Musil, A., The Manners and Customs of the Ruwalla Bedawin,
Raswan, C., Black Tents of Arabia.
8 Shanklin, W. M., JRAI, vol. 65, 1935, pp. 375-390.
9 Unpublished data, courtesy Dr. Henry Field.
10 Shanklin, W. M., AJPA, vol. 21, #2, 1936, pp. 217-252.
Shanklin, W. M., and Izzeddin, N., AJPA, vol. 22, #3, 1937, pp. 381-415.
11 Unpublished data. Courtesy Dr. Henry Field.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 411
to thousands through the charcoal portrait published in Lawrence's
Seven Pillars of Wisdom.
The purest Mediterranean group in northern Arabia is that of the
Solubbies or Sleyb, a curious outcast people who wander about in small
family units from camp to camp acting as hunters, leather workers, and
tinkers to the Bedawin.12 The despised position of the Sleyb may be de-
duced from their ragged clothing, small tents, and the fact that they have
no camels and are not allowed to ride on horses. They are, however,
regarded as true natives of the desert, and know more about its topog-
raphy, and can survive in it under greater hardships than any other people.
Measurements taken by Dr. Henry Field on a series of these scattered
people13 show them to fall closely to the Yemen plateau standard, and
they appear lighter skinned and less Dravidian than the common run
of Bedawin.
The origin of the camel-herding Bedawin, with their long genealogies
and their complex social structure, has long been a problem to ethnol-
ogists. Although there is no space here for a lengthy dissertation upon
this subject, it is the author's belief that the camel- and mare-breeding
complex of the Bedawin is an off-shoot of the cattle culture of southern
Arabia, which is, in turn, closely related to the cattle complex of India
and East Africa. With advancing desiccation and the collapse of the early
civilizations of southern Arabia, it is likely that one or more tribes and
families of Yemenite and Veddoid origin moved northward from the
Nejran into the Nejd and the Syrian desert, transferring the economic
aspects of their cattle culture to their camels, and its social aspects to
their mares. According to this hypothesis the Sleyb and the socially in-
ferior non-Aneyze tribesmen, who live as much on sheep as on camels,
represent the earlier elements in the population, and are more purely
Mediterranean than the Ruwalla.
(3) IRAQ AND THE COASTAL REGIONS OF THE
PERSIAN GULF
The physical anthropology of the Arabic-speaking inhabitants of Meso-
potamia has been extensively studied; u and we have adequate series to
indicate that this population is reasonably homogeneous throughout the
middle and lower courses of the Tigris and Euphrates. The stature of
these modern Mesopotamians is higher than that of the Arabs of Arabia
12 The authority on this people is Maj. Glubb, who has written a paper on them soon
to be published by Dr. Henry Field.
13 Unpublished data. Courtesy Dr. Henry Field.
14 Field, Henry, Arabs of Central Iraq; further publications in preparation.
Ehrich, Robert, a series of 33 Mesopotamiah Arabs published in Coon, C. S.,
Tribes of the Rif.
412 THE RACES OF EUROPE
proper, with means ranging from 168 cm. in the Kish area south of Bag-
dad to 171 cm. in the region of Kirkuk. The Iraq army, which is a se-
lected group, has a mean stature of 172.6 cm. Like the Arabs, however,
the Mesopotamians are long legged, and their body build is predom-
inantly linear. The cephalic index of various series approximates 76,
and only a small minority is brachycephalic.
The dimensions of the head are very similar to those of the Arabs, but
with a mean length of approximately 190 and a mean breadth of 142 to
146 mm. in various series. The total face height is moderate, except in
the north, where it rises to a mean of 128 mm. The upper face height is
in all regions great, and the bizygomatic diameters are moderate, with
means of 130 to 133 mm. in the Kish region and among Iraqian soldiers,
but run as high as 138 mm. in the Kirkuk region. Both facial and upper
facial indices of the Iraqians show leptoprosopic tendencies, but the accent
is upon the length of the upper face and not on the total face height.
Nasal dimensions are somewhat larger than in Arabia; the noses are
both longer and broader, with leptorrhine nasal indices. The bigonial
breadth of 102 mm. is comparable to that of most Arabians. From the
standpoint of regional distribution, the most important anthropometric
differentiation in the Iraqian area is the increase in face length and breadth
found in the upper part of the valley. A heavier, deeper jaw and a broader
face, characteristic of the people of northern Iraq, serves as a transition to
the facial form of mountaineers of Armenia and Azerbaijan.
The hair form of the Mesopotamians is usually low waves, and it is on
the whole straighter than that of Arabs. It is prevailingly dark brown or
black, with a small minority of some 5 per cent with blond or reddish
hues. The head hair is usually thick, while the beard hair is very strong
and, in at least one-half of the group, it is much heavier than the beards
in Arabia. The body hair is also on the heavy side, and 50 per cent is
recorded as excessive. As in Arabia, the eye color is prevailingly dark
brown, and one finds 25 per cent of mixed light hues. The eyebrows are
thick, concurrent in all but 12 per cent of the series, and extend widely
beyond the orbits in a lateral direction.
In the morphology of the nose the Mesopotamian population differs
considerably from that of Arabia. The nasal profile is usually straight,
but convex forms are more numerous than concave. The tip is thick in
75 per cent of the group, and depressed in 70 per cent. The wings are
rarely compressed, usually medium, and in 25 per cent flaring. Photo-
graphs of Iraqians shown in Dr. Henry Field's monograph show that the
faces are larger, the noses much more prominent and thicker- tipped, the
beards much heavier, the browridges heavier in Iraq than among either
the Yemeni Arabs or the pure northern Bedawin. There is a strong Irano-
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 413
Afghan element here as well as the Atlan to-Mediterranean, and many tran-
sitional forms, while small, fine-featured Arab Mediterranean types are rare.
The Iraqian population is without doubt much the same today as it
was in Sumerian and Babylonian times; the post-Islamic acquisition of
Arab blood has made very little difference in the racial constitution of
this country, while the infiltration of Armenoids from the north has also
been negligible. There are, however, some unabsorbed tribes of northern
Arabian Bedawin, living in the heart of Mesopotamia, as a study of the
extremely dolichocephalic and narrow-faced Ba'ij Bedawin, who pasture
their flocks in the so-called "island" between the Tigris and Euphrates,
will make clear.15
At the head of the Persian Gulf, on the western side just below Basra,
is a small, independent kingdom called Kuwait. Kuwaitis are noted
navigators, and sail their large dhows full of dates down the Persian Gulf
past Oman and around to Aden, and even cross over to Dar es-Salaam
and Mombasa. A small series of 40 Kuwait sailors measured in Aden
harbor,16 show closer relationships, in many respects, with Mesopotamia
than with the rest of Arabia. However, the stature of 165 cm. is not
great, but the bodily build is frequently heavy and thick-set. The shoulders
are especially broad, the sitting height great. A mean relative span of
106 far exceeds that of all other known Arabs, and the relative sitting
height of 52.5 approaches average European proportions.
There are two chief differences in the anthropometry of the head and
face between the Kuwaitis and the normal Mediterranean Arab type
as exemplified by the Yemenis; in the first place, the Kuwaiti head,
while about the same size as that of the Yemenis, is usually both shorter
and broader, with a mean cephalic index of 79.6; in the second place, the
faces and noses of the Kuwaitis are much larger. A total face height of
128.2 mm. is as long as any in Mesopotamia, and the upper face height of
73.5 varies accordingly. This excessive length does not apply particu-
larly to the nose, which has a mean length of 56 mm. and a mean breadth
of 36 mm. The facial index of the Kuwaitis, 96.4, is extremely lepto-
prosopic, and the upper face index of 56 extremely leptene. A nasal index
of 64.7, while still leptorrhine, is higher than that of most Arabs.
The exposed skin color of the Kuwait sailors is usually darker than
that of Yemenis, reaching in half of the series the brow/i shade represented
by Fischer #21 to #25. The unexposed skin color is also dark, and ranges,
in most cases, between-#10 and #18 in the Fischer chart. Thus the skin
color of these people is characteristically light brown. It is, at the same
time, however, frequently vascular.
16 Field, Henry, Arabs of Central Iraq, pp. 448-456.
16 This is part of the hitherto unpublished Arabian series measured by the author.
414 THE RACES OF EUROPE
The hair is straight in half of the series, and in the rest low-waved.
It is thus much straighter than the hair of the normal Mediterranean
Arabs. The beard and head hair are usually heavy. The head hair is
characteristically black, while the beard shows hues ranging from brown
to gold and red in one-third of the entire series. The high ratio of 1 8 per
cent of red beards was found in this small group.
The usual 25 per cent of mixed eyes occurs here, while the rest are
mostly dark brown. The eyebrows are in all cases thick, and usually
concurrent; the browridges are medium to heavy. The morphology of
the nose is different from that of the Yemenis, for the nasion depression
is frequently great, the nasal root and bridge somewhat broader than
among most Arabs, and the profile more often straight than convex. The
tip is medium to thick, and usually horizontal or inclined upwards. The
nasal wings are medium and seldom compressed. The nostrils are wider
than those of the Yemenis, and set at a more oblique axis. The lips are,
as a rule, thicker and more everted, and the chin more frequently strongly
developed. This straighter-haired, darker-skinned, heavier-nosed, and
longer-faced type seems at variance with the rest of Arabia, and has its
connections rather with Mesopotamia and regions to the east.
We know little about the population of Oman, except that it is of me-
dium stature, with a mean of 164.8 cm., and the heads are of moderate
size, with a mesocephalic index of 78. 17 The Omanis, the greatest sailors
of all Arabia, include brachycephals as well as Mediterraneans, and
through their centuries of dominance in East Africa and their monopoly
of the slave trade, have acquired much African blood. Although all
Omanis are by no means negroid, there is a large negro and negroid
population in the farming villages and date groves of Oman, as there is
on the Yemen coast.
On the other side of the Persian Gulf colonies of seafaring Arabs have
settled at various points. One of the most important colonies of this region
is at Lenja. A small series of sailors from this port was also measured at
Aden.18 These Lenja men are shorter (161 cm.) than the Omanis, and
built like the Kuwaitis; they are, for the most part, sub-brachycephalic,
with a mean cephalic index of 81; in facial dimensions they are not
unlike Yemenis, and they seem to bear a strain of the same brachycephalic
maritime element f^und along the Yemen coast, as well as in Oman.
They are somewhat lighter-skinned than the Kuwaitis; they are ex-
clusively straight-haired, tend to baldness and very heavy beards, and to
have black hair and reddish-brown beard color. The eyes are dark brown
in 75 per cent of the series, and the other fourth includes some pure lights.
17 Leys, N. M., and Joyce, T. A., JRAI, vol. 43, 1913, pp. 195-267.
M Part of the author's unpublished Arabian series. Only 21 Lenja men were measured.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 415
These Lenja people seem to have more than the usual fourth of partial
blondism, especially in reference to beard color.
It is a curious fact that in three ships' crews studied, two from Kuwait
and one from Lenja, in each ship the officers, who belonged to ship-
owning families, were partial blonds, the crew was mostly brunet, and
the cook was a negro.
The Lenja sailors have, almost without exception, extremely thick
concurrent eyebrows and heavy browridges. Their noses are character-
ized by considerable nasion depression, a much lower bridge than is
usual among the Arabs, and a greater bridge breadth. The nasal profile
is convex in 43 per cent of the group, straight in most of the others. The
nasal tip is of moderate thickness and usually horizontal. The wings are
frequently flaring, the lips are thicker than those of most Arabs in the in-
tegumental sense, but thin membranously, and of relatively little eversion.
The general character of the face is the same as that of most Arabs — com-
pressed malars and only moderate gonial angles. As is usual with the
coastal brachycephalic type, the ears frequently show an extreme slant.
Extreme occipital protrusion is not found, and occipital flattening occurs
in one-fourth of the series. The body build is broad and stocky.
On the whole the seafaring Arabs who occupy both sides of the Persian
Gulf conform but slightly to the Mediterranean Arab prototype. Meso-
potamian influence is apparent particularly in Kuwait, while it seems
likely that the coastal maritime brachycephalic people, who are found
in the fishing and seafaring villages of the Hadhramaut and Yemen, came
from the Persian Gulf region. Present information is not yet sufficiently
complete to permit a careful analysis of this maritime Persian Gulf popu-
lation, but it is very urgent that Bahrain Island and Oman in particular
should be carefully studied in the future.
(4) THE IRANO-AFGHAN RACE; IRAN AND AFGHANISTAN
In the previous section we have seen that the Arabs proper belong al-
most without exception to the most typical and most highly evolved form
of the Mediterranean race. The Mesopotamians, on the other hand,
represent a blend or a transitional form between the taller Atlanto-
Mediterranean and the Irano-Afghan race, while the Arabic-speaking
peoples on either side of the Persian Gulf contain a large contingent of a
short, round-headed, laterally built, maritime populatibn which has played
a considerable part in the history of Arabian navigation. The Irano-
Afghan race, prominent since Sumerian times in Mesopotamia, is the chief
population element in the entire highland territory from the western
border of Iran to northern India. In the present section we shall deal
primarily with the peoples of this mountain area who speak various forms
416
THE RACES OF EUROPE
of Iranian and allied Indo-European languages. Map 12 shows the gen-
eral distribution of these Iranian-speaking peoples, and of their neighbors.19
The languages of Iranian type spoken in this part of the world may be
divided into three sub-groups — (a) western Iranian or Persian; (b) eastern
Iranian, which includes Pushtu and Baluchi; (c) Dardic, an ill-defined
group of Satem dialects closely related to Iranian, but probably not to
MAP 12
THE DISTRIBUTION OF IRANIAN LANGUAGES
The Iranian languages, Persian, Afghan Pushtu, Pathan Pushtu, Baluchi, and Tajik,
as well as the closely related Dardic, including Kafiri, have been left unstippled. One
Iranian language, Ossetian, which is spoken in the Caucasus, is not shown here. San-
skrit derivatives are indicated by large dots, and non- Indo-European languages by
other stipples. The linguistic boundaries are not exact, since the purpose of the map is
instruction and clarity rather than technical accuracy. The boundary between Persian
and Pushtu is actually vague, since the two languages overlap widely.
be included as a branch of the general Iranian stock. Its relationship is
parallel to Iranian rather than derivative.
The present kingdom of Iran, formerly called Persia, is for the most
part occupied by Persian-speaking peoples. In the northwest, the Azerbai-
jani Turkish speech of the eastern Caucasus is the commonest medium,
while groups of Indo-European-speaking Armenians and Kurds are also
found in this part of Iranian territory. The southern shore of the Caspian
Sea is somewhat of a linguistic medley, with small groups of Turkish
speakers, while the whole northeastern border country of the Iranian
kingdom stretching east of the Caspian is occupied by Turkomans, who
19 1 am indebted to Dr. Gordon T. Bowles for help in preparing both the map and
this summary.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 417
continue over into northern Afghanistan. The valley of the Oxus River
in northwestern Afghanistan is really Afghan Turkestan.
In the eastern part of the Iranian kingdom, in Khorassan, one finds
not only Persians, but also Pushtu-speaking Afghans. The whole south-
eastern corner of Iran is occupied by Baluchis, who reach nearly as far
west as the seaport of Bandar Abbas, which lies just east of the Arabic-
speaking town of Lenja. This southeastern section occupied by Baluchis
is called Persian Makran. These Baluchis are part of the western Baluchi
group, which also occupies most of Baluchistan. They are separated from
the eastern Baluchis by groups of Indian speakers and by the non-Indo-
European-speaking Brahui.
In northern Afghanistan, immediately south of the Turki area, lies
the inaccessible mountain territory of the Kafir, a curiously primitive
group of Dardic speakers, who resisted the attempts of the Afghans to
convert them to Islam until early in the present century. These Kafirs
arc divided into strictly segregated social classes, representing conquerors
and aborigines. The conquering groups speak various Dardic dialects,
while it is said that some of the aboriginal peoples belonging to socially
inferior clans and villages speak non-Indo-European languages. The
exact nature of these languages, however, has not yet been determined.
To the east of Kafiristan is the Hunza country, north of Gilgit, where a
number of languages of apparently Gaucasic affinity are spoken. The
best known of these is Burushaski.20 Other languages spoken in the Tibetan
Himalayas may be related to this same linguistic family.
The Pathan group is divided into two main sub-divisions. One is that
of the western Pathans, or Afghans proper, who live in the country which
extends from beyond the Iranian border to Jallalabad, and includes the
territory of Kabul and the plains of Kandahar. The eastern Pathans
occupy the northeastern part of Baluchistan, including the Suleiman
Mountain range, and the southern two-thirds of the Northwestern Frontier
Province of India. These eastern Pathans include the Pathans proper,
the Afridis, the Mohmands, and the Waziris.
In the Hazara Jat of central Afghanistan, southwest of Kabul and south-
east of Herat, lives an isolated body of Turkish-speaking people who are
historically and racially of Mongol origin, being a remnant of the great
Mongol expansion of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. These Hazara
have tended to be endogamous, and have had little influence on the
physical type of the Iranian-speaking peoples.
Outside of the area which we shall discuss in this chapter, but included
on Map 12, are the Tajiks, sedentary agricultural peoples of Iranian
speech who live in the mountains of northwesternmost Afghanistan
20 See p. 175,
418 THE RACES OF EUROPE
and adjoining parts of Russian Turkestan. They are descended from an
early sedentary population of the Turkestan plains area, which was driven
into the mountains by the inroads of Turkish-speaking peoples, who now
occupy most of the Turkestan plain. Racially, the Tajiks are predom-
inantly Alpine, and therefore will be discussed in the next chapter.
Let us first consider the racial characters of the Persians themselves.
Very little has been published about the physical anthropology of this
people, but, with the help of unpublished material, it is possible to make a
number of reasonably accurate generalizations about their physical type.21
In the first place, they belong as a group to the Irano-Afghan branch
of the Mediterranean race. Their stature varies regionally from about
164 to 169 cm., and thus ranges from medium to moderately tall. The
relative sitting height is in most groups low, indicating that the long-
legged, short-bodied condition of the Mediterraneans seen in Arabia
is also prevalent here. The cephalic index is usually low, ranging from
73 to 76 in different groups, although one mountain tribe, the Bakhtiari,
is brachycephalic.22 The actual head dimensions are slightly greater than
those among Yemenis, but of typically Mediterranean proportions. The
mean head lengths range about the 1 90 mm. mark, and the head breadths
about 141 or 142 mm. The faces are similar in breadth to those of Arabs,
but the bigonial diameters are greater, ranging between 105 and 110 mm.;
the faces are, at the same time, variable in length, but, on the whole,
longer than those found in most parts of Arabia. Facial indices are
leptoprosopic, upper facial indices leptene, and the noses are markedly
leptorrhine, and usually convex in profile. As photographs of these people
show, the jaw is frequently deeper and heavier than is the case among Arabs.
Although the Persians derive their language from Nordics who entered
the Iranian plateau from the plains to the north, there is little evidence
of Nordic blood in the population except as it appears rarely among
individuals. Pigmentation is prevailingly dark. The hair color is usually
black or dark brown, with a minority of reddish-brown and brown tints
among certain isolated groups such as the Lurs in eastern Iran. Eye color
is usually dark brown, but the usual minority of mixed eyes is character-
istic, and is especially marked among the Lurs.
In addition to the Bakhtiari, there are small enclaves of brachycephalic
21 1 am deeply indebted to Dr. Henry Field for permission to summarize his unpub-
lished series of 52 Lurs, 46 men from Yezd-i-Khast, and 73 from Kinareh. Older refer-
ences include
Chantre, E., BSAP, vol. 14, 1895, pp. 26-29.
Danilov, N. P., IILE, vol. 88, 1894, Cols. 1-147
Houssay, M., BSAL, vol. 16, 1887, pp. 101-148.
KhanikofT, N., Memoir e sur V Ethnographie de la Perse.
22 Kappers, A. C. U., The Anthropology of the Near East.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 419
peoples in Iran, particularly in the cities, but the population as a whole
is long-headed. Persian brachycephaly may have been derived from two
sources, from the Alpines and Armenoids to the north, and from the
Baluchis to the south. The Bakhtiari say that their ancestors came from
the Lebanon country in Syria.
The published information upon the physical type of the Afghans is
even scantier than that from Persia, but again we may fortunately draw
upon unpublished information.23 These Afghans and Pathans are in
most respects as similar to the Persians as they are to each other. The
Afghans, however, are shorter than the Pathans, since the former have a
mean stature of 163 cm. and the latter of 170 cm. The body build of
both people is slight to intermediate. A relative sitting height of 52.6
found among Afghanis is close to that of Europeans, while most of the
Pathans fall a point lower. The heads of these people range in length
from 188 to 192 mm. by tribes, and in breadth from 141 to 145 mm. The
cephalic indices of the Afghanis and Pathans vary between tribal means
of 72 and 75; except for the Khattak and Bangash, who live in proximity
to the Baluchis, and who have a mean of 77. The vault height of all of
these peoples is quite low, with means of 121 to 123 mm. Faces are usually
long, reaching a maximum mean of 129 mm. among the Afridis, and are
at the same time only moderately narrow, with bizygomatic means of
135 to 137 mm. Foreheads and jaws are of moderate dimensions; 104 rnm.
is the usual mean for the minimum frontal, and 103 mm. for the bigonial.
In the total face height and the three facial breadths, these Pathan
speakers cannot be distinguished from Nordics. The upper face height,
however, serves as a means of differentiation, since it is extremely long;
and the noses, at the same time, reach the extreme length of 61 mm.
Their mean facial index of 94 and upper facial index of 56 place these
people in an extremely long- and narrow-faced category, while the nasal
index of 61 confirms their extreme leptorrhiny.
If one compares these measurements with those from the Yemen on
the one hand and from the eastern provinces of Norway on the other,
one sees that the Iranian-speakers are much closer to the Nordic mean
than to that of the normal Mediterraneans. The head dimensions of the
Afghans and Pathans are slightly smaller than those of Nordics, and the
23 Dr. Gordon T. Bowles, who measured some 6000 adult males in the country run-
ning between eastern Afghanistan and Burma, all of whom were inhabitants of the
Himalayan foothills and valleys, and of the adjacent Tibetan plateau, has kindly given
me his permission to draw upon his series of 40 Afghanis from the Jillalabad plain, 40
Afridis, 42 Mohmands, and 40 Khattak and Bangash. With the addition of 6 Gilzais,
this makes a total series of 1 68 Pushtu speakers from Afghanistan. Published data from
this region may be found in the Ethnographic Survey of India, Calcutta, 1908. (See Anony-
mous, Anthropometric Data from Baluchistan.
420 THE RACES OF EUROPE
vault height is lower,24 but the facial dimensions are essentially similar,
except that the upper face and nose heights of the Afghans and Pathans
are greater.
The Afghans and Pathans, like the Persians, are usually brunet, and
at the same time show a persistent minority of blondism, which in this
case reflects Nordic admixture. They are heavy- bearded, and possess
heavy body hair. Their facial features show a maximum of bony relief,
and, on the whole, their facial skeletons seem much heavier and much
more strongly marked than those of the more delicate Arabian Mediter-
raneans. They possess, in common with the Arabian Mediterranean
group, a sharpness in definition of feature which stands in contrast to the
coarser lineaments of the average Mesopotamian countenance.
In respect to the Dardic group, we have a certain amount of published
and unpublished information which will be useful here.25
The Kafirs of the Kati tribe, who live in the easternmost section of
Kafiristan, are taller and larger-headed than the Pathans, but still essen-
tially dolichocephalic and leptorrhine.26 They seem also to possess a
high ratio of blondism. Like the Pathans, their commonest skin color is
a medium brunet white, von Luschan #9, but in hair and eye color they
seem to be lighter than the Pushtu-speaking peoples. Thirty-four per cent
have mixed or light eyes, as opposed to 20 per cent of Pushtus. Their
hair color, according to Stein, is blond or light brown in 28 per cent
of the group.27
It would seem that the upper class of the Kafirs contains a much larger
proportion of the invading, Indo-European-speaking Nordic type than
is found among the Persians and Afghans. This is not surprising, since
Kafiristan is essentially a refuge area. The lower classes of the Kafiri
population seem to be shorter in stature, somewhat smaller-headed, and
may perhaps be broader-nosed.28
Other Dardic-speaking peoples, studied by Ujfalvy, are of moderate
stature, with means between 163 and 166 cm., dolicho- to mesocephalic,
with mean cephalic indices of 76, and moderately leptorrhine, with a
24 Early Nordic crania from Turkestan and from Armenia are low-vaulted. See
pp. 169-170, 201.
26 Dixon, R. B., a series of 92 Burushaskis of Hunza, seriated by the author and pub-
lished by B. S. Guha, in Census of India.
Guha, B. S., Census of India.
Joyce, T. A., JRAI, vol. 42, 1912, pp. 450-484.
Ujfalvy, K. E. von, Aus dem westihchen Himalaja.
Also unpublished materal of Dr. Bowles.
26 Guha's data on the Red Kafirs presented in his 1931 Census of India volume includes
no exact figures, aside from observation percentages. Guha, op. cit., p. xviii.
27 Stein, Sir Aurel, Serindia, Appendix C, vol. 3, pp. 1387-1388.
28 Joyce's series of 18 Kafirs has the relatively short stature mean of 167 cm., a cephalic
index of 76.9, His facial measurements appear unreliable.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 421
nasal index mean of 64. The pigmentation is usually brunet, with a
minority of blondism, the beards heavy, and the hair form wavy. On
the whole, judging from present material, the Dardic-speakers seem to
be essentially the same as the Afghans and Pathans, with the addition of
a strong Nordic element among some of the Kafirs, and a smaller, essen-
tially Mediterranean factor among the lower classes of the same population.
The non-Indo-European-speaking Burushaski of Hunza, measured by
Dixon, may be compared to the Bardic-speaking peoples. The mean
stature of 92 Burushaski is 168 cm., the head length 190 mm., its breadth
146 mm., and the cephalic index 77. Facially the Burushaski seem like-
wise to resemble the Dardic-speakers,29 and both are essentially Irano-
Afghan in racial type. This type is apparently the autochthonous element
in the southern slopes of the western Himalayas, as well as in the plateau
of Iran and Afghanistan. The invasion of the Iranian ancestors, who
brought Indo-European speech to this plateau and mountain country,
seems to have had little lasting racial affect, except in Kafiristan.
Before leaving the subject of Iranian-speaking peoples in the western
Asiatic highlands, let us return to the northwestern end of this area, and
consider the Kurds, who are thought to be the descendants of the Kar-
duchoi encountered by Xenophon and his ten thousand in their march
from Persia to the Black Sea.
The present-day Kurds are partial or complete nomads who graze
their flocks in the three countries of Iraq, Iran, and Turkey, and who,
owing to their warlike activities, have been periodically ejected from each.
They are tall men, with a mean stature which, although variable by
tribal groups, lies usually between 168 and 170 cm.30 The mean cephalic
index of Kurdish tribesmen measured in Kurdistan and the Caucasic
region is consistently 77 or 78; the Kurds have preserved their dolicho-
ccphaly intact. Their pigmentation is for the most part brunet, although
there is a distinct blond minority which, as with the Riffians, has led
travellers to describe the Kurds, as a whole, as blond; their nasal profiles
are usually convex or straight, and their total metrical character, so far
as it is known, indicates that they are a mixture between the Irano-
Afghan racial type described earlier in this section and the ancestral
Iranian Nordics, with a larger minority of the latter factor than is usual in
29 The low facial and high nasal indices given by Dixon are apparently the result of a
mistake in locating nasion.
30 Chantrc, E., Recherchfs anthropology ques dans I'Asie Occidental*.
Ehrich, R. W., unpublished series in Peabody Museum.
Kappcrs, C. U. A., and Parr, L. W., An Introduction to the Anthropology of the Near
East.
Nassonoff, N. W., IILE, vol. 68, 1890, pp. 400-401, resumS in AFA, vol. 24, 1896,
pp. 646-647.
422 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Iran. Culturally and racially they have conserved the ancestral type with
more fidelity than the majority of their linguistic brethren. It is particu-
larly remarkable that, living in close proximity to pronounced brachy-
cephals in Anatolia, Armenia, and the Caucasus, the majority of them
have preserved their ancient dolichocephaly.
All groups of Kurds, however, have not fully escaped this brachycepha-
lization. The Bilikani Kurds, who live among Armenians near Erivan,
have a mean cephalic index of 84; others, who live in northeastern Iraq
and who are fully sedentary, have been altered to a lesser extent through
admixture. A small sample measured at Kirkuk has a cephalic index mean
of 82, and a mean stature of 170 cm.; despite the change in head form
the facial dimensions remain both long and narrow; the facial index of
93 is leptoprosopic, the nasal index of 60 on the lower border of leptor-
rhiny. The Kurdish facial features are more persistent than the Kurdish
head form.
(5) THE TURKS AS MEDITERRANEANS
In most of the Eurasiatic land mass, the brunet Mediterranean world
is blocked from direct contact with mongoloids by intervening populations
of other kinds of white men, but there is one exception to this rule. The
Turkomans who live east of the Caspian, south of the Aral, west of the
greater oases of Russian Turkestan, and north of the Iranian plateau,
form an extension of the Mediterranean race into central Asia, where
> their territory borders on that of partially or fully mongoloid peoples to
whom they are linguistically related. A few of them are likewise to be
found in small colonies in the northern Caucasus.
The purer tribes of Turkomans are as a rule those who have not settled
down, but who still maintain their pastoral nomadic existence. As an
example of almost wholly unmixed Turkomans we may consider the
Yornuds who live in the oasis of Khoresm, in Russian Turkestan.31
Several of the Turkoman groups studied in Iraq and in Turkmenistan
are tall, with mean statures of 169 and 170 cm., but this is not true of all
of them. The Yomuds, for example, have a mean of but 166 cm., as do
their neighbors the Chaudir. The Yomuds are dolichocephalic, with a
cephalic index of 75.2, and absolutely long-headed, with a mean head
length of 194 mm. Their auricular height is very great, 132 mm., and
they are markedly hypsicephalic. Other Turkoman tribes have cephalic
indices ranging from 75 to nearly 80, but all seem to have auricular heights
of 129 mm. or over.
31 larcho, A. I., AZM, 1933, #1-2, pp. 70-119.
See also, Kappers, C. U. A., and Parr, L. W., op. cit.
I shall also use a series of 31 Turkomans measured at Kirkuk, Iraq, by Mr. Robert W.
Ehrich, with his kind permission.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 423
With the great vault height goes an extraordinary height of the face;
the mean for the Yomuds is 130 mm., and the same great facial length
is found among all Turkoman groups studied. A mean bizygomatic
diameter of 138 mm., absolutely on the narrow side of medium, yields
the hyperleptoprosopic facial index of 95. The forehead and jaw, with
mean breadths of 105 mm. and 108 mm., respectively, are by no means
narrow. Narrower jaws, however, are found among Turkomans in Iraq.
The mean nose height of Yomuds, 59 mm., and the nose breadth, 36 mm.,
combine to give the Turkomans the very leptorrhine nasal index of 61.
In some Turkoman groups the index is as low as 59, or hyperleptorrhine.
All of the Turkoman tribes are predominantly brunet in head hair
color; the majority of head hair is black, straight or slightly wavy, and of
fine texture. The beard, however, is sometimes lighter; among Turkomans
in northern Mesopotamia no black beards were observed in a small
series, and while 50 per cent were dark brown, the remainder were reddish-
brown, red, and blond. Part of this beard blondism may have been
derived from Kurdish mixture, but part must be native to the Turkomans.
Among the Yomuds, 65 per cent of eyes are pure brown, and the com-
monest color is dark brown; the same is true among Mesopotamian
Turkomans, although mixed groups are darker eyed. Among the Yomuds
the 35 per cent minority of eyes are all mixed, and most of these are dark
mixed. Blondism of the iris is thoroughly mixed and definitely submerged.
Among Yomuds, the beard development is usually heavy; eyebrows are
of moderate thickness. The forehead is of medium slope, as a rule; the
browridges slight to medium in development. Most of the Yomuds have
an oval face form, and a deeply excavated horizontal facial profile; the
nasal root is almost always high and thin, the profile straight in 65 per cent
of cases, and convex in most of the others. The nasal tip is of moderate
thickness, and usually horizontal; it is elevated more often than depressed.
The nostrils are oval and often parallel, the wings usually medium to
compressed. The Turkoman nose, with its high, narrow bridge and its
great absolute length, is definitely of Irano-Afghan size and proportions.
The lips are usually thin, and little everted.
A trace of mongoloid admixture appears through the presence of a
slight inner eyefold in 7 per cent of Yomuds; this is never, however, pro-
nounced. In Mesopotamian Turkomans it never or almost never appears.
The Turkomans, as exemplified by the samples described above, with
their medium-statured to tall bodies, slender build, thin extremities, and
long, thin faces, with noses which reach the white extreme in height and
thinness, form a characteristic racial sub- type of their own. They form
a variety of the Irano-Afghan race, but differ most succinctly from other
branches of it in one feature, the possession of an extremely high head
424 THE RACES OF EUROPE
vault. In this feature and in others they resemble the Corded people
who first appeared during the Neolithic.
The usual explanation given to account for the Mediterranean racial
character of this Turkish-speaking people is that their linguistic ancestors
were mongoloids who became transformed racially through the absorption
of the old nomadic population of the central Asiatic plains. This explana-
tion, however, seems inadequate; in the first place, the Scytho-Sarmatian
nomads were Nordics, and there is not enough blondisni in the Turkomans
to permit such a derivation. In the second place the central Asiatic
Nordics were broad-faced, and the mixture of a broad-faced white with
a broader-faced mongoloid strain could hardly produce a facial form
narrower than either.
Furthermore, they are probably not Turkicized brunet Iranians from
the plateau, for their vault heights are too great for such a specific and
recent relationship. The most logical explanation is that which has al-
ready been set forth in Chapter VII, that the Turkomans are descended
from the early white people who went northward into Mongolia bearing
Altaic speech, agriculture, and later, horse nomadism; their partially
mongoloid relatives include the Kirghiz and the Turkish-speaking peoples
of both Chinese and Russian Turkestan. That the Turkomans in their
purest form have not wholly escaped a mongoloid infusion is to be expected.
Other Turkoman peoples show more mongoloid features than those
studied, or than those in Turkmenistan proper. A mixed group of Tur-
komans is to be found in the northern Caucasus, that asylum for small
fragments of peoples. This group includes sections of the tribes of Chaudir,
whose main home is in Khoresm, and of Suyun-Djadji and Igdir. These
Turkomans are shorter than the Yomuds, with a mean stature of 163.5 cm.,
and rounder headed, but equal in face and nose heights. They are darker
eyed, less heavily bearded, straighter in forehead profile, and frequently
round faced; their horizontal facial profile is often flat, their noses lower
rooted. In mixture with a mongoloid strain which is perceptible in most
individuals but strong in few, they have partly assumed the lateral breadth
dimensions of the mongoloids, while retaining the sagittal length and
height dimensions of their Mediterranean ancestors, except in head height
and in stature; in soft part features, their position is intermediate.
Close relatives of the Turkomans, and less exposed to mongoloid in-
fluences, are the Azerbaijani Turks, who occupy a large territory in
northwestern Iran on the southeastern shores of the Caspian, and whose
territory also includes a large portion of Russian Transcaucasia. Here the
Azerbaijans have, besides a province which is theirs almost uniquely,
scattered pastures and villages farther west and north, in the neighborhood
of Kurds, Georgians, and Armenians,
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 425
These Azerbaijanis may be divided on a racial basis into two groups:
those who are still mainly pastoralists and who are essentially similar to
the Turkomans in all physical features, and those who live in scattered
communities in Armenian, Georgian, or other territory and have been
altered by local admixture.32 The longest-headed groups have cephalic
index means ranging from 76 to 78, the roundest-headed as high as 81.
The brachycephalizing agent in the latter case is not mongoloid, as
with the Turkomans living on the northern slopes of the Caucasus, but
Alpine, as with Armenians and Georgians. The head height and face
height retain much of their original elevation among most of the Azer-
baijanis, and the facial form is the same as with Turkomans. A majority
of dark brown rather than black hair, however, is characteristic of the
more altered groups, as is a ratio of over 50 per cent of mixed and light
eyes. The mongoloid traits which appear sporadically among the Tur-
komans are here almost never encountered.
The Azerbaijanis, like the Turkomans, are members of the Irano-
Afghan family of the Mediterranean race. Their ancestors entered Iran
from the plains east of the Caspian at the beginning of the present millen-
nium, and took part in the western thrust of Turkish peoples across
northern Iran and into Anatolia, where other branches of the same
ethnic family, the Seljuks and Osmanlis, founded empires, the latter des-
tined to expand into southeastern Europe. The racial history of the
Osrnanli Turks in Anatolia and in Europe will be dealt with in the fol-
lowing chapter.
(6) THE VEDDOID PERIPHERY, HADHRAMAUT TO
BALUCHISTAN
Although this chapter is primarily concerned with the Mediterranean
race, it will be necessary, for the sake of geographical continuity, to dis-
cuss certain non-Mediterranean racial elements in southwestern Asia
before turning back to the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea and con-
tinuing the study of the rest of the Mediterranean racial area. These
racial elements may be lumped under one category, the Veddoid. Veddoid-
looking people are first noticed, in proceeding from west to east, in the
country around Aden, and as a minority element in the population of
southern Yemen. In the Hadhramaut country they become numerically
important; while among the Mahra, Qara, and Shahara, the non-
82 Anserov, N. I., AZM, 1934, #1-2, pp. 109-115.
Djawachischwili, A. L., AFA, vol. 48, 1925, pp. 77-89.
Chantre, E., Recherches anthropologiques dans V Asit Occidental.
Erckert, R. von, AFA, vol. 18, 1889, pp. 263-281, pp. 297-335; vol. 19, 1890,
pp. 55-84, 211-249, 331-356.
larcho, A. I., AZM, 1932, #2, pp. 49-83.
426 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Arabic-speaking tribesmen who live between the Hadhramaut and Oman,
they constitute the principal racial factor in the groups mentioned.
In the Hadhramaut country there are tribes and clans of Arabs who
entered the valley from the west and north in pre-Islamic and post-
Islamic times; there are also holy families of Sayyids, who concern them-
selves with the spiritual life of the region; besides these Arabs, however,
and besides the so-called Bedawin who are the subjects of this section,
other population elements of relatively recent arrival must be mentioned.
These consist of two groups, an African and a Southeast Asiatic.
Negroes have been imported into the Hadhramaut as agricultural
slaves ever since the beginning of the sea-power of Oman in the Middle
Ages, and probably were introduced in smaller numbers in even earlier
times. These negroes and descendants of negroes, bonded and eman-
cipated, form a large community which is called by the general term
Hojeri. This class remains at least as distinct as the negro group in the
United States; although there is much mixture, the Arabs and Bedawin
still remain almost wholly free from negroid traits, since the product of
the mixture remains, as a rule, in the Hojeri category.
These Hojeris are numerous on the Yemen coastal plain, and a very
old class of Hojeris exists in the southern Yemen, probably since the time
of the Abyssinian domination in the century just before the arrival of
Islam. They are not, however, found in the Yemen plateau country,
which we have already designated as the home of the purest Mediter-
ranean racial type in Asia. In the Hejaz negroes are numerous, and in
the Nejd every important family has its negro or negroid slaves, while a
subservient class of blacksmiths is partly negroid.
In the Hadhramaut itself, and in the Mahra and Dhofar regions, the
free tribesmen of Veddoid racial tendency distinguish carefully between
themselves and negroids, and use as their primary basis of judgment,
when genealogies are not known, hair form and facial features rather than
skin color. Besides the Hojeris of slave descent there are villages of Somalis
along the coasts of the Hadhramaut country, and also in the valley itself.
These Somali villages are suburbs of straw huts, built outside the walls
of the proper masonry towns of the Arabs. The Somali arrival is still so
recent a phenomenon that these people have kept their own language and
customs, and show no tendency toward assimilation, either physical or
cultural.
Whereas the African element in the South Arabian population has kept
itself distinct, the opposite is true of the immigrants from southeastern
Asia and Indonesia. For centuries it has been a common practice for
members of the Arab families of the towns in the valley, for example,
Terim, Saiwun, and Shibam, to go as young men to Singapore, Batavia,
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 427
and Colombo, and to set up shop as merchants. This practice dates back
to the time when Hadhrarni missionaries converted the Malay to Islam,
and probably even earlier. The cultural influence of the Hadhramis on
the Malay States and Indonesia has been profound, and, to a lesser
extent, the reverse is true. From the racial standpoint, however, the few
thousand Hadhramis have made little impress on the millions of Malays,
while the merchants who have brought their native wives home from
Singapore and Java have introduced an important mongoloid factor into
the valley. Except for the Sayyid group, it is the upper stratum of Ha-
dhramaut society which has been affected by this mongoloid infusion.
The Bedawin remain genetically isolated from mongoloid and negroid
alike.
These Bedawin represent a variety of blendings between the standard
southern Arabian Mediterranean type, and one or more alien strains
which are neither mongoloid nor negroid. These Bedawin may be divided
without difficulty into three types which are not the product of the sorting
machine, but which any observer, whether or not anthropologically
trained, would notice. The first is Mediterranean, and approaches the
Yemenitic form. The second, which we will call the fine type, is hook-
nosed and lean bodied; the third, which we will call the coarse type, is
broader and lower-nosed, and thicker-set in bodily build. Since the
character of the first is already well known, we shall describe only the
second and third. In the population of the country from Aden eastward
to Mahra, the fine type is the most numerous, forming more than half of
the whole; the Mediterranean is nearly twice as common as the coarse
type. As one goes eastward into the Mahra and Qara country, among
non-Arabic speakers, and also, apparently, to Socotra, the Mediterranean
type falls into the background. According to Bertram Thomas's data,
the Mahra and Qara belong mostly to the fine type, and the subject
peoples, including the Shahara, mostly, to the coarse. All cultural data
point to the priority of the coarse type as a primitive local population.
In stature these Bedawin are shorter than the Mediterraneans, with
statures of 163 cm, for the fine type, and 161 cm. for the coarse; the arms
of both are relatively longer than with the Mediterraneans, the legs
shorter, the sitting height greater. In all these bodily traits the coarse
type exceeds the fine in its divergence from the Mediterranean norm.
The heads are smaller than those of most indubitably white groups yet
studied; in length and breadth dimensions the two types are much alike,
with length means of 180 to 182 mrn., and breadths of 148 mm. The
resultant cephalic index means are 82 for the fine type, and 81 for the
coarse.33 The vaults are of moderate height; the faces narrow. The fine
33 The extremely high cephalic indices found by Bertram Thomas in his small series
428 THE RACES OF EUROPE
type has the extraordinarily small bigonial mean of 98 mm., which gives
the face a triangular appearance.
In a number of metrical characters these types deviate quite widely
from the Mediterranean mean; the distance between the outer eye
corners (biorbital diameter) is great, especially in the coarse type, while
in the fine type the distance between the inner corners (interorbital
diameter) is extremely narrow. The faces are absolutely very short,
especially those of coarse type, with a mean of 1 1 5 mm. ; the noses of the
fine type are very leptorrhine (N. I. = 60.2); those of the coarse type
nearly mesorrhine (N. I. = 68.1).
In skin color the Hadhramis are definitely darker than the Mediterranean
Yemenis. The exposed hue of the fine type — and with the Hadhrami
costume most of the skin is exposed — is light to medium brown, ranging
mostly from von Luschan #15 to #25, and, in a few instances, very dark
brown; among individuals of the coarse type it is usually darker, with
nearly 20 per cent in the chocolate-brown class, from #26 to #29. These
skins are definitely too dark for white men. The unexposed color of the
fine type is swarthy-white to light brown, with the darkest individual at
von Luschan #18, a cafe au lait hue. The coarse type again is usually
darker, within the same general range.
The hair-form is the most noticeable diagnostic of these types, partly
because of the fashion of wearing the head hair long, either loose or
bunched on top of the head in a knot. No individual in the series of
either type has straight hair; in the former, 40 per cent are curly, the rest
wavy; in the latter, 57 per cent are curly. No frizzly or negroid hair
occurs in either type. The curls are wide ringlets like those of many
European children, and like those cultivated by orthodox Jews and by
ladies' hairdressers. Much of the wavy hair might also be curly if it
were not combed out. This hair is of medium texture among the first
type, often fine among the second.
Correlations and contingencies made upon the total Hadhramaut group
show that deeply waved and curly hair form a correlative unit; they are
correlated with fine hair, cephalic indices running up to 83, higher nasal
indices and shorter stature than the other hair forms. By means of these
correlations, using hair form as a primary diagnostic, one may isolate by
directional influences a short-statured, short-legged, fine-haired, moder-
ately brachycephalic, euryporsopic, mesorrhine racial type.
In both the coarse and fine types, the head hair is abundant and
of southern Arabian tribesmen may be partly attributed to technical inconsistency.
The head lengths seem to be some 10 to 20 mm. short. This may be checked by his
mean of 174.8 mm. on 6 Somalis. The standard Somali mean is 192 mm., taken from
a series of 80 Somalis measured by the author in southern Arabia. Thomas, B., Arabia
Felix, Appendix I, by Keith, Sir A., and Krogman, W. M.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 429
baldness rare; in the fine type the beard is sparse, in the coarse type
moderate to heavy; the body hair varies likewise. Among the members
of the coarse type the head and beard hair are both uniformly black;
among those of the fine type, a few brown heads appear, and about 10
per cent of brown and red beards. In the eye color also, the same differ-
ence appears; the coarse type has 22 per cent of black eyes, and all but
9 per cent of the rest are dark brown. The 9 per cent represents a mixed
minority with gray or green elements in the iris. Among the members
of the fine type, partial eye blondism rises to 15 per cent, and there is
much mixture between various shades of brown and black. This again
indicates the mixed condition of the fine type, and the relatively stable
condition of the coarse.
The eyes of both are typically without folds, and show no obliquity.
The browridges of the fine type are heavier than those of the Mediter-
raneans, while among the members of the coarse type 35 per cent of
browridges are actually heavy. The greatest difference between the two
types comes in the nose. That of the fine type is extremely high-rooted
and high-bridged, and extremely narrow; the nasion depression is slight
or absent, and the profile, in 72 per cent of cases, convex. This convexity
takes the form of a highly beaked curve, unlike the angular convexity
observed among northern Europeans, and among many I rano- Afghans.
The tip is thin and horizontal, the wings closely compressed, the nostrils
thin and parallel.
The noses most frequently observed in the coarse type are deep-rooted
under glabella, of moderate height and breadth, often wide; they are
straight in 78 per cent of cases, with an everted tip of medium thickness.
The nostrils are moderately wide, and the wings intermediate between
compressed and flaring.
Among the members of the fine type the lips are thin and little everted;
those of the coarse type are thicker and quite frequently everted to a
considerable degree. The fine type has little prognathism, while a minority
of the coarse type shows both facial and alveolar varieties.
The fine type, with its thin face, has little malar prominence; the
coarse type is distinguished by a positive forward projection and a con-
siderable lateral extension. This is purely a morphological feature, how-
ever, for the bizygomatic is still absolutely narrow.
It is easy enough to account for the southern Arabian Bedawi of the
coarse type. He is obviously related to the Vedda of Ceylon, and to the
most important element in the Dravidian-speaking population of southern
India. His hair form, his facial features, his pigmentation, and his general
size and proportions confirm this relationship. The Veddoid race, in
turn, has many eastward extensions, among the Shorn Pen of Great
430 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Nicobar, the Toala of the Celebes, and as a racial sub-stratum in many
of the islands of the chain running from Sumatra through Java, Flores,
Sumbawa, and Timor, almost to New Guinea.
The Veddoids possess an obvious relationship with the aborigines of
Australia, and possibly a less patent one with the Negritos. The racial
history of southern Asia has not yet been thoroughly worked out, and it
is too early to postulate what these relationships may be. At any rate,
like all major divisions, the Veddoid group appears to include both
dolichocephalic and brachycephalic sub-races. Among the present
inhabitants of southern Arabia the Veddoid strain is found in various
degrees of dilution. Individuals who could pass for Vedda may easily
be found, however, and in a few instances, individuals who are to all
extents and purposes Australoid; but these latter, as illustrated on Plate
19, are rare.
The fine type, with its paper-thin hooked nose, is intermediate between
the Mediterranean and Veddoid positions in most metrical and morpholog-
ical characters. Only in its sagittally mid-facial and nasal compression,
and in perhaps a slightly greater tendency to brachyccphaly, is it different
from either. At this point we must anticipate the findings of our analysis
of the Dinaric and Armenoid races of Europe and Asia Minor,34 and
restate the principle that in a cross between A and B, the formula — = —
does not apply to all characters, and most rarely of all, if ever, to the nose.
In the formation of the Dinaric and Armenoid racial types, roughly a
third of Alpine, when combined with some Mediterranean form produces
a brachycephalic, beaky-faced hybrid of considerable stability.36 If we
substitute the Veddoid of brachycephalic tendency for the Alpine, we
obtain, by the same principle, the finely featured, beak-nosed Hadhrami.
It is possible that the short-statured, low-vaulted, relatively broad-nosed
brachycephalic seafaring race of the Persian Gulf and the coastal towns
of the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea is involved in this mixture, but this
is unnecessary and, on metrical, morphological, cultural, and historical
grounds, unlikely.
Directly across the Persian Gulf from the easternmost tip of Arabia,
on the Persian mainland, lies the western boundary of the Persian Makran,
the territory occupied by part of the western Baluchis. These are separated
by an intrusion of Indians, speaking Sanskrit derivatives, from the eastern
34 See Chapter XII, sections 13 and 18.
35 This principle was discovered by Dr. Byron O. Hughes in an extensive statistical
analysis of 1500 Armenian males, carried on according to genetic principles. It was
stated in his doctor's thesis, "The Physical Anthropology of Native Born Armenians,"
submitted to the Division of Anthropology of Harvard University in 1 938 and as yet
unpublished.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 431
Baluchis and from the Brahui, whose language has been linked with
Dravidian. Although the Baluchis speak Indo-European languages of
the Iranian family, like the Persians, Afghans, and Pathans, their racial
relationship lies partly elsewhere.36 With the Brahui they seem to be
the results of a mixture between the Veddoid type isolated in the Ha-
dhramaut, and the Irano-Afghan race to which their linguistic relatives
belong. The difference between the majority of the Baluchis and Brahui
and the fine type of the Hadhramaut is simply the difference between the
small Mediterranean type of southern Arabia and the Irano-Afghan.
On the whole the Baluchis are somewhat taller, with stature means from
164 to 168 cm., their heads, however, are of about the same length,
from 178 to 182 mm., and the cephalic index hovers about the 82
mark.37 The facial measurements are much the same, except for an
excessive nose length, which is without doubt an Irano-Afghan contribu-
tion.
For pigment and morphology we are reduced almost entirely to photo-
graphs and general descriptions. It is evident, however, that many of
the Baluchis are thin-faced and hook-nosed; that their hair is abundant
and seldom straight; and that their skins are dark and their hair and
eyes usually brunet.
This survey has shown that there still exists, along the shores of the
Indian Ocean, from the mouth of the Indus to the Bab-el Mandeb, a
submerged population of Veddoid peoples who are in turn related to the
whole early southern Asiatic racial group, which includes, as an extreme
and evolutionarily retarded branch, the Australoids. This racial group,
in combination with the pygmies, has without doubt had much to do
with the formation of Papuans and Melanesians. At present it is impossible
to tell how old this Veddoid sub-stratum is in southern Arabia; whether
it is as ancient as the Mediterraneans, or is a fairly recent prehistoric
intrusion from the east. For a further sjtudy of it one must turn to India,
but since the present book is concerned with The Races of Europe, we
feel that we have wandered eastward far enough, and we shall leave the
problems of Indian physical anthropology in the competent hands of
Guha and of Bowles.
86 Metrical data upon which the following discussion is based come from an unsigned
publication, entitled Anthropometric Data from Baluchistan, a part of the Ethnographic
Survey of India series, published in Calcutta, 1908. A few groups are taken from Joyce's
publication of Sir Aurel Stein's measurements, JRAI, vol. 62, 1912, pp. 450-484.
I am indebted to Dr. Gordon Bowles for the collection and presentation of this
material.
87 One group of Baluchi, the Sangur, represented by 1 6 individuals in the Ethno-
graphic Survey of India publication, has a mean C. I. of 86.3, but this is due to the pos-
session of a greater head breadth than the others, rather than to a reduction in head
length.
432 THE RACES OF EUROPE
(7) PALESTINE, JEWISH ORIGINS, AND THE EASTERN JEWS88
An integral part of the racial history of Mediterranean peoples is that
of the Jews, who have spread widely throughout the world, and whose
cultural position within the ranks of the white race is unique. From the
standpoint of the physical anthropologist, Jewish history may be divided
into two segments, (a) the formation of the Jewish people, and (b) their
dispersion and subsequent racial history. Since the Jews are basically
Mediterranean in race, the first segment, and that portion of the second
which deals with the Mediterranean world, merit consideration in the
present chapter.
The Children of Israel, who formed the basic stock of the present-day
Jews, lived continuously and exclusively in Palestine from about 1200
B.C. until the capture of Jerusalem by the Babylonians in 586 B.C. These
centuries of Jewish history may be considered the period of formation,
and those which follow the Babylonian conquest the period of dispersal,
for the first diaspora was initiated by the Babylonian captivity.
The ethnic contents of Palestine, during the second half of the second
millennium B.C., was varied. Aside from the Israelites it included the
Amorites, whose domain was centered farther to the north, and who had
controlled much of Palestine before the spread of Egyptian power north-
eastward at about 1600 B.C.; the Canaanites, who inhabited the land
which bears their name until their absorption into the Israelitish body;
and the Philistines, who were a branch of the western sea-peoples who
harried Egypt 'and the whole eastern end of the Mediterranean about
1200 B.C., the time of the Trojan War, and who may have come from the
general neighborhood of the Aegean.
Egyptian monuments give us excellent pictures of Philistines, Amorites,
and Semites in general, under which last grouping the Canaanites must
have been included. The Philistines (Fig. 33) are represented as straight-
nosed, European-looking Mediterraneans, with light skins; the Amorites
(Fig. 36) as yellowish-skinned and long-faced, with long, con vex- profiled
noses and, in some representations, heavy browridges. The drawings of
the Semites in general (Fig. 34), show sloping foreheads and exaggeratedly
Near Eastern noses of types easily recognizable today. The Egyptian
artists had a genius for accurate racial representation which emphasized
characteristic features and eliminated non-essentials. The Bible, a literary
document which is poor in descriptions of persons, indicates nevertheless
38 The information on which the introductory pages of this section are based is drawn
partly from Oesterley, W. O. E., and Robinson, T. H., A History of Israel (vol. 1); and
partly from data given me by Dr. Robert E. Pfeiffer and by Professor Harry Wolfson.
I am especially indebted to Dr. Pfeiffer for the earlier material, and to Professor Wolf-
son for that concerning the history of the Jews from the time of the Babylonian captivity
onward.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD
433
REPRESENTATIONS OF PALESTINIANS IN EGYPTIAN AND
BABYLONIAN ART
FIG. 33. PHILISTINES. (Egyptian.)
FIG. 34. "SEMITES." (EGYPTIAN.)
FIG. 35. JEWS. (BABYLONIAN.) FIG. 36, AMORITES. (EGYPTIAN.)
Redrawn from Gressmann, H,, Altorientalische Bilder zum alter Testament, Berlin und
Leipzig, 1927; Plates IV, V, VI, and LVI, Figs. 11, 17, 19, and 125.
434
THE RACES OF EUROPE
that the Amorites were physically different in some respects from other
Palestinians — they are called "tall like cedars" and "strong as oaks." 39
The exact origin of the Children of Israel who entered Palestine, who
fought the various independent kingdoms which they found there, and
later the Philistines, and who founded a Jewish kingdom, is not known,
but Biblical accounts as well as other sources indicate that they were
probably nomadic or transhumant Semitic-speakers from the desert
border of southern Mesopotamia, who moved north-
ward and westward along the edges of cultivation
and finally into Palestine. The tribes of Ammon,
Moab, and Edom were probably nomads from the
same general source who had established themselves
in the countries bordering Palestine before the arrival
of the Children of Israel, as were the Amorites; in
Palestine itself others attempted to follow them in
later times. The Israelites themselves did not arrive
as a single, united body, but came at several times,
over several routes, and under several leaderships.
Once in Palestine they gradually absorbed the ear-
lier inhabitants, both racially and culturally, so that
the composite group became eventually Hebraic;
the Philistines of the coastal settlements resisted this
process the longest.
The racial composition of the Jews at the time of
David was without doubt simpler than the complex-
ity of their ethnic origin would indicate. The origi-
nal Children of Israel must have been brunet Med-
I * Afr i que
tale, Egypte;
p. 31.
O r i e n-
Fig. 15,
Fio, 37. ANCIENT
JEW.
Redrawn from - 1-1 A A t i x x
Ghantre E Rkherckes lterraneans5 hke most Arabs and Mesopotamians,
anthropologiques dans and so, presumably, were for the most part the
peoples whom they absorbed in Palestine. Skeletal
material from early Palestine indicates the predomi-
nance of a Cappadocian Mediterranean type, with
a minor incidence of Dinaric brachycephaly.40 Both Egyptian (Fig. 37) and
Babylonian (Fig. 35) sculptural materials give us pictorial representations
of early Palestinian Jews, and both show familiar Palestinian facial forms
consistent with the representations of Amorites and other Semites.41
39 Amos. ii-9.
40 See Chapter V, pp. 137-138. In addition to the Bronze Age material, two skulls
from Megiddo, dating from the time of Solomon, have been measured. These have
cranial indices of 79.6 and 81.4 respectively. See Kappers, C. U. A., The Anthropology of
the Near East. Four crania from the Jewish catacombs on the Via Appia, Rome, rep-
resenting a much later date, include one brachycephal of small size, and three dolicho-
cephals with long faces. EPkind, A., RAJ, vol. 8, 1912, pp. 1-50.
41 Reference to the possible absorption of Hittites by the early Jews has been pur-
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 435
Although we may be reasonably sure that the Jews of Palestine during
the time of David were for the most part brunet Mediterraneans of several
types, at least one of which was characterized by a long face and a convex
nasal profile, we have not enough data to specify more accurate details.
Our task is now to follow the complexities of Jewish history from 586 B.C.
onward, and to study the racial characters of the living Jews.42
The capitivity of the Jews in Babylon may be considered the first
Jewish diaspora. At this time strong Jewish colonies were founded in
Mesopotamia, and at the time of the Restoration under Cyrus (538 B.C.)
when some of the Jews of Mesopotamia returned to Palestine, the majority
of them remained in Iraq. There the Jewish colony continued to exist,
and from the beginning of the third century A.D. to the middle of the
eleventh, under the successive rules of the Persians and the Moslem
Arabs, it flourished as one of the most important cultural centers of the
Jews. By the time of Christ this colony had reached the number of a
million persons, and in later centuries it grew even greater.
The history of the Jews in Babylon, like that of the rest of the population,
was interrupted by the arrival of the Mongols, who wreaked irreparable
damage upon the valley of the two rivers, and reduced its population to
a fraction of its former numbers. At this time the Jews shrank from over
a million to a few thousands. At present the Jewish population of Iraq
posely omitted from the text, since statements that such an absorption took place in
quantity are based not so much upon historical records as upon two assumptions:
(a) that the brachycephalic, Armenoid-like type of modern, European Jew derives his
brachycephaly from a Near Eastern source; (b) that the Hittites were " Armenoid " in
race. Both assumptions are erroneous. For an exposition of the Hittite theory, see
Oesterley and Robinson, who state: "We have little or no record of the next invaders,
the Hittites, though they must have settled in numbers, since they have left their mark
on the physical build of the Palestinian peoples" (vol. 1, p. 30). And again: "We may
have no details of the Hittite invasion, but it has left its stamp so clearly impressed on
the faces of the people that we hardly need further evidence of its historicity" (vol. 1,
p. 40). Whether or not some of the Hittites became Jews, the facial features depicted on
their monuments were common to most of the peoples of Palestine, Syria, and Asia
Minor at that period. Neither the Hittites nor the Jews were Armenoid.
42 A selected bibliography on the subject of Jewish history, of especial value to an-
thropologists, is :
Barons, S., A Social and Religious History of the Jewish People.
Dubnow, S., Die neueste Geschichte des j lidischen Volkes, 1789-1914. 10 vols.; History
of the Jews in Russia and Poland.
Kastein, J., History and Destiny of the Jews.
Margolis, M., and Marx, A., History of the Jewish People.
Roth, G., A Short History of the Jewish People.
Ruppin, A., The Jew in the Modern World.
Wischnitzer, M., Die Juden in der Welt.
Dubnow's ten volume work is the principal authority. The concise compilation of
Wischnitzer is extremely useful, and has been largely employed here. I am particularly
grateful to Professor Harry Wolfson for suggesting this list as well as for his assistance in
preparing the accompanying historical summary.
436 THE RACES OF EUROPE
is 87,000, a small number in comparison to its former strength. Those
who remain are, however, important as representatives of the ethnic
source from which the Jewish colonies of many other Asiatic countries
were drawn. Among these may be numbered the Persian Jews, who
first left Iraq in the time of Cyrus, but whose major emigration from the
same source took place during the twelfth century A.D. The Jews of
Bokhara, in Russian Turkestan, are derivatives of the Persian nucleus.
The second Jewish diaspora was the stream of migration of Jews which
followed the expansion of Hellenism; it began with Alexander and his
successors, and continued under the Byzantine Empire. Although Jews
spread to the entire Hellenistic and Byzantine worlds, there were two
main centers (aside from Egypt,43 Syria, and Asia Minor), in which
these Hellenistic Jews were concentrated; (a) the Balkans, and (b) the
northern shore of the Black Sea. Both of these Jewish centers were estab-
lished well before the Christian era. On the north shore of the Black Sea
the greatest Jewish concentration point was the Crimea, where Jews
went with the Greeks after the days of Alexander. The Hellenistic and
Byzantine Jews of what is now southern Russia sustained the invasions
of the Goths and of the Huns without dislodgement; in the seventh
century A.D. they met the invasions of the Tatars. The rise of the Khazar
kingdom, a Tatar state, was of some importance in Jewish history, for
in 740 A.D. the reigning family and a few of the upper class of the Khazars
were converted to Judaism.
The Khazars had two centers, one on the shores of the Caspian Sea
at the mouth of the Volga, the other in the Crimea. The Caspian cen-
ter was abolished between 966 and 969 A.D., but the Crimean center
lasted until 1016 A.D. The power which broke up this kingdom was
mainly that of the newly established Slavic state of Kiev. After the de-
struction of their kingdom, some of the Khazars who had accepted
Judaism, together with the racial Jews who lived among them and had
taken over Jagatai Turkish speech from them, scattered in various parts
of southern Russia. Kiev and its neighborhood drew Jews not only from
the disintegrated Khazar kingdom, but also from the Balkans, though
there may have been Byzantine Jews in Kiev before 1016 A.D., since that
Slavic center had been for some time under strong Byzantine influence.
The third and final diaspora of the Jews was that which took them to
the Roman world. This dispersion began in the time of the Maccabees,
with the first contact between Jews and Romans, but it became particu-
larly active from the time of the second destruction of the Temple in
43 There was an earlier settlement of the Jews in Lower Egypt, established after the
destruction of Jerusalem under Nebuchadnezzar in 586 B.C. These colonists were
later absorbed by the Hellenistic group.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 437
70 A.D. onward. The Jews who moved westward with the Romans were
drawn from all the places of Jewish settlement, from Palestine as well
as from the Hellenistic world. They followed the Romans into Italy, Spain,
and France, and into Germany as far as the Rhine. The French Jews
disappeared in 1394 A.D., when, as a result of mass expulsions, they were
scattered among Jews in neighboring countries. The Italian Jews re-
mained localized in Italy, where they have had a continuous history, and
have, at various times, been influenced by successive immigrations of
other Jews from other countries. The Jews who originally settled in Spain
and in the Rhine Valley in Germany, spread, as a result of expulsions and
migrations, to other countries, and the descendants of these two stocks
are distinguished respectively by the terms Sephardim and Ashkenazim,
borrowed from two Biblical words which, in mediaeval Jewish literature,
were applied to Spain and Germany.
The expulsion of the Jews from Spain, along with that of the Moors,
took place in 1492 A.D. These Spanish Jews spread at various times to
Holland, to England, to Italy, and to North Africa, but the bulk of them
took refuge in the newly expanded Turkish Empire. In many places
where they went, they became the predominant element in the Jewish
communities; in some of the Balkan cities the Jewish population was
overwhelmingly if not exclusively Sephardic. Their descendants still
speak a form of Spanish known as Ladino, and still preserve a costume
and other cultural traits which are reminiscent of their Iberian sojourn.
The other branch of the western Jews, which was destined to become
the most numerous element in the Jewish world, was that of the Ash-
kenazim, descendants of the original Jewish settlers in Germany. While
the German Jews were originally confined to the Rhine Valley, after the
First Crusade in 1096 A.D. they moved eastward in large numbers until
they reached the Slavic countries, although small groups may have pre-
ceded them by at least two centuries in Bohemia and Poland.
In Poland and in southern Russia these German Jews met the remnants
of the Byzantine Jews and of those who had been dominated by the
Khazars, all of whom were being forced northward and westward by
political disturbances. This meeting resulted in a fusion, in which the
Jews from the west predominated both numerically and culturally. The
German Jews, in their migration to the Slavic countries, carried with
them their High German speech which developed into the Yiddish lan-
guage, just as the Spanish Jews Carried their Spanish idiom. Both, how-
ever, retained Hebrew as the language of literature, liturgy, and edu-
cation.
As a result of the historical events summarized in the preceding pages,
the Jews of the world may be divided into three principal groups: (a) The
438 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Ashkenazirn; the central and eastern European Jews, and their offshoots
in the newer settlements of North and South America, the Near East,
South Africa, and elsewhere, (b) The Sephardim, who are most numer-
ous in the Balkan states and the Near East, but who also live in scattered
colonies on both shores of the Mediterranean Sea, and who have emi-
grated in some numbers to both North and South America, (c) The
Oriental Jews, who belong in neither of the two categories just named,
but owe their origins to various original migrations from Palestine, or
to others from secondary Jewish sources.
The Oriental Jewish world includes colonies in North Africa, Palestine,
Mesopotamia, the Caucasus, Persia, Russian Turkestan, and even India
and China. Exotic varieties of Jews include the Falasha of northern
Ethiopia, the so-called "Black Jews," who are somewhat negroid and who
speak Agau, an early Cushitic language; and the Daggatuns, the black
Jews of the southern Sahara. In North Africa there are many colonies
of Berber-speaking Jews living in the mountains, who claim that their
ancestors left Palestine before the Babylonian captivity.
It is possible that Jews entered North Africa with the Phoenicians, and
it is certain that Judaism was once strong among many tribes of Berbers
shortly before the arrival of the Moslems. The present Berber-speaking
Jews are sharply distinguished from the Spanish-speaking Sephardim of
Moroccan cities. Arabic-speaking Jews found in the mellahs of such cities
as Casablanca, Marrakesh, Mogador, and Sefrou are derived from more
than one Jewish source, but mostly from the Berber-speaking element.
The Jews were numerous in central and southern Arabia in the cen-
turies immediately preceding Islam, although there is some uncertainty
as to what time they arrived there and by what route. Colonies of them
were to be found in the cities of the Hejaz and Yemen. In the latter
country large numbers of the Sabaean population were converted to
Judaism, and one of the sixth-century Sabaean kings, Yusuf Dhu Nuwas,
was Jewish in religion. The Hadhramauti immigrants who colonized the
Ethiopian highlands and founded the Ethiopian Empire were originally
Jewish in belief, but shifted early to Coptic Christianity. During the life-
time of Mohammed the Jews were expelled from the Hejaz, and today
they are found only in the Yemen.
At the present time there is no single Jewish community in the world
which has been genetically isolated from admixture with Jews from other
communities since the period of its first formation. For this reason we
cannot assume that any one group of Oriental Jews is fully representative
of the Palestinian Jews of the time of Christ. If, however, we study
the Jews of the Mediterranean world both separately and as a group, we
should be able to find the common racial denominator or denominators
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 439
which will reveal to us the physical characteristics of their united ancient
Jewish ancestors. Let us begin with present-day Palestine, where al-
though representatives of every type of Jew have come together, there is a
complete historical continuity of Jews from the time of Christ.
The modern Samaritans, who are generally supposed to represent the
indigenous Palestinian Jewish strain more faithfully than any other, are
tall, with a mean stature of 173 cm.,44 and mesocephalic (C. I. = 78), with
heads similar in dimensions to both Yemenis and Mesopotamians. Their
faces are moderately long (125 mm.), and narrow (132 mm.), while their
thin foreheads are of moderate breadth (103 mm.). Their noses are lep-
torrhine (N. I. = 66), and of moderate dimensions.
In pigmentation the Samaritans show more than the usual Mediter-
ranean 25 per cent of partial or incipient blondism; out of 35 males, 17,
or two-thirds, had black or dark brown head hair, one was blond, and
the rest brown. Only 7 (22 per cent) out of 35 had black or dark brown
beards, the rest were brown, blond, and red. In eye color, one- third
were light or mixed; the rest were equally divided between dark brown
and brown.
The general body of Oriental Jews, however, is less tall and less blond
than these comparatively specialized and inbred Samaritans. Weissen-
berg, in a general series of Palestine Jews,45 finds no blondism, and the
short stature of 159 cm., combined with the mean cephalic index of 79.8,
extremely narrow faces (128 mm.), and a nasal index of 61. Convex noses,
of a type which he designates as "Semitic," are found in 78 per cent of his
series.
Weissenberg, following von Luschan, thinks that the so-called Jewish
face, and in particular the Jewish nose, were acquired by the Jews through
mixture with Hittites.46 It is, however, unnecessary to postulate the exact
source of these well-known features, since they are a part of the heritage
of the entire Mediterranean racial population of Asia Minor, Syria, Meso-
potamia, and points east. Some of the Jews must have had the high-
bridged, convex nose, with a tendency to depression of the tip, from before
the time of their dispersal, since it was common among Amorites and
Canaanites, and since there is no group of living Jews anywhere some
members of which do not possess these traits.
The Yemenite Jews, who form the only large colony of this people in
Arabia, may be divided into two groups on the basis of residence and
occupation. The largest and best known is the community of city Jews,
living in the Kaa'-el-Yahud in Sana* a, and in other towns such as Sa'ada,
u Huxley, H. M., The Jewish Encyclopedia, vol. 10, 1916, pp. 675-676.
46 Weissenberg, S., AFA, vol. 41, 1915, p. 386, Also, ZDSJ, 1909.
48 See footnote 41 , p. 434.
440 THE RAGES OF EUROPE
Raudha, Ibb, and Taiz. The others are the country Jews, who live in
small villages as farmers. The city Jews live mostly by commerce and by
the exercise of manual trades, such as metal work, carpentry, masonry,
and the manufacture of jewelry.
The city Jews of Sana' a 47 are for the most part short, slender people,
light-skinned but purely brunet in hair and eye color. The commonest
shade of the hair is black and of the eyes dark brown. Weissenberg, how-
ever, finds four different shades of brown eyes among them. In stature
and in cranial and facial dimensions, they resemble the Palestinian Jews
greatly, except that the brachycephalic element is almost entirely lacking;
the mean cephalic index of the Yemenites is 74. Their faces are absolutely
small, with a total face height of under 120 mm., and a bizygomatic of
130 mm. In Weissenberg's series, 60 per cent had straight nasal profiles,
and a few even concave.
To anyone familiar with these Jews in their native habitat, it is clear
that there are two easily distinguished types among them. The more
numerous is only moderately slender, often well muscled in the extrem-
ities. The face is short and of moderate breadth, the chin well developed,
the lips of medium thickness or in some cases thick, the nose short and
straight, with a tip of medium thickness and nasal wings usually medium,
seldom compressed or flaring. The nasion depression is medium, and the
browridges usually noticeable but not heavy. The eyebrows are thick
and convergent, the eyes deep set and the palpebral opening is sometimes
narrow.
The second and less numerous type is lighter in weight and slenderer,
with small hands and feet, an extremely narrow head, a projecting occiput,
and a sweeping curve to the forehead when seen in profile. The face is
long and very narrow, the mandible slender, the lips thin, the nose ex-
tremely long with compressed wings, the nasion depression slight, the
nasal tip somewhat depressed, and the nostrils highly set on the sides.
Although the nasal profile is convex, the bridge of the nose is not un-
usually high.
Both of these types are purely or almost purely brunet in hair and eye
color; both are brunet- white in skin color. Owing to the indoor life of the
city Jews, they seem lighter-skinned, on the whole, than Arabs. The first
type is sometimes heavy- bearded, the second usually scantily equipped
with facial hair. The first type, which is the commonest, is found among
the common run of Yemeni tic Jews; the second may be seen most fre-
quently among the wealthier and more prominent families.
47 The author has lived among these Jews and is familiar with their physical type, but
failed to measure them. The only published series is that of Weissenberg, S., in ZFE,
vol. 41, 1909, pp. 309-327. The series includes 78 males measured in Palestine.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 441
To a foreigner used to seeing Ashkenazim, the aristocratic type, which
would not be out of place among European Sephardim, looks the more
Jewish; but to an Arab both look equally so. The Jewish appearance of
the coarse type is concentrated in the eyebrows, eyes, and mouth; of the
fine type in the nose. Although there is no doubt that much local blood
was absorbed into the Jewish community by conversion in pre-Islamic
days, it is not difficult to distinguish a Jew from an Arab in Sana' a,
regardless of costume.
There is quality of looking Jewish, and its existence cannot be denied.
Both Jews and Gentiles are aware of it, and any observant European or
Arab who has seen many Jews can distinguish most of them from Gentiles
with some accuracy, whether in Europe, America, or the Near East. There
is, however, no known physical criterion or set of criteria by which this
quality may be measured. It cannot be nasal convexity, for Arabs,
Afghans, and many Europeans have high incidences of it, while among
Arabian, North African, and Sephardic Jews, the majority of noses are
straight. It cannot be tip depression, for that is also common among other
peoples. It cannot be the external eye, for while Arabian Jews sometimes
have deep-set slitty eyes, European Jews often have prominent, widely
open, large-lidded ones. Two other characters may be mentioned as pos-
sibilities, but neither is by any means universal among Jews. One is a high
attachment of the nasal wings on the cheek, with a great lateral visibility of
the septum; the other is a characteristic slant to the ear in both the frontal
and lateral planes.
It seems most likely that, while all of these racial criteria enter into this
quality, the deciding factor may not be so much physical, as social and
psychological.48 It is possible that the feature which confirms the tentative
identification of a person as a Jew, aside from clothing, speech, and other
external cultural phenomena, is a characteristic facial expression centered
about the eyes, nose, and mouth; this seems to be a socially induced ele-
ment of behavior. Not all Jews, by any means, have it; those who lack
it may be just as "Jewish5* in the racial sense as those that possess it; it
is the absence of this expression, as well as the absence of other purely
cultural diagnostics, which may be responsible for faulty identifications
in many such instances. The Jewish look may be seen occasionally upon
members of other ethnic groups; it is one of the standard patterns of facial
expression which man possesses in his repertoire as a primate.
The Jews are by no means unique in the possession of a national or
ethnic facial expression. The English Public School man of standard type,
48 This subject is not directly concerned with the subject of race. It is, however, intro-
duced here because it has often been confused with race and hence merits full exposi-
tion.
442 THE RACES OF EUROPE
trained in a social tradition as definite in its own way as that of the Jew,
has a look that can be recognized almost anywhere, and one which is just
as easy prey to the cartoonist as is that of the Jew. Many further examples
could be introduced, if necessary; however, the only point that needs be
brought out here is that the Jews form an ethnic group; that like all ethnic
groups they have their own racial elements distributed in their own pro-
portions; like all or most ethnic groups they have their "look," a part of
their cultural heritage that both preserves and expresses their cultural
solidarity. And since the ethnic solidarity of the Jews is remarkable for
its strength and constancy, so the Jewish look seems to be one of the most
noticeable and most easily distinguished of characteristic facial expres-
sions found within the racial family of white people.
Leaving their cultural attributes aside, we find nothing mysterious
about the physical, racial origin of the Jews. Those with whom we are, in
the present section, concerned are a group of Mediterranean Semites,
who absorbed, early in their history, the old population of Palestine,
which was also largely Mediterranean in blood. The strains which they
absorbed contained much of the old Cappadocian element typical of
both Palestine and Asia Minor. From this heritage, through subsequent
inbreeding and through the influences of social and occupational selec-
tion— stronger in their case than with any other important white people —
they have developed a special racial sub-type and a special pattern of
facial and bodily expression easy to identify but difficult to define.
The Mesopotamian Jews, 49 to continue our study of the Oriental divi-
sion, are no different as a group from their coreligionists in Arabia, Egypt,
Morocco, and Palestine; they are of moderate stature (164 cm.), dolicho-
to mesocephalic (C. I. = 78), leptorrhine (N. I. = 61), narrow-faced,
straight- or convex-nosed, and brunet in pigmentation. The preservation
by them of a Mediterranean type in a Mediterranean country is to be
expected, but that these Jews are for the most part truly Jews and not
Judaized Iraqians is apparent from their absolutely smaller heads and
faces, in comparison to those of the Moslems, and from the dimensions
and proportions of their noses.
The Jews in northern Mesopotamia, especially in Mosul, where many
of the Arabic-speaking Moslems are themselves round-headed, have
been altered by a process of brachycephalization.50 The same is true in
northern Persia; the mean cephalic index for Jews of Urmia 61 is 82, and
this rise over the lowland Mesopotamian Jewish level is accompanied by
a shortening of the head length, an increase in its breadth, and an increase
• Weissenberg, S., AFA, vol. 10, 1910, pp. 233-239.
60 Krischner, H., and Mrs., KAWA, vol. 35, 1932, pp. 205-227.
61 Weissenberg, S., ZFE, vol. 45, 1913, pp. 108-119.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 443
in the facial breadth as well. The stature rises to 165 cm., while the nose
form and the pigmentation remain constant. It is apparent that a Dinaric-
like form has been produced by Alpine admixture, probably through some
already Dinaricized medium. In southern Persia, however, the Jews re-
tain their long-headed form.52
Turning to the west again, we find ample statistical evidence to prove
that the Jews of Egypt and North Africa, as well as the Spaniols or exiled
Sephardim, whether living in Salonika and other parts of the former
Turkish empire in Europe, or in Palestine, conform closely to the Oriental
Jewish types already defined, and form with them an anthropometric
unit.63 The North African Jews are on the whole taller than those of
Palestine and Yemen, with a mean stature almost uniformly between 164
and 166 cm.; their cephalic index is 74, and very few individuals are
brachycephalic. No more than 5 per cent show any evidence of blondism.
The same two facial types noticed in the Yemen were found by Kossovitch
and Benoit in Morocco,64 and confirmed by the discovery of bimodality
in facial and nasal index curves. Regional variations of Jews in North
Africa are extremely slight. Although mixture with Arabs and Berbers
would tend to preserve the original Jewish indices, the absolute cranial
dimensions of the Jews are smaller than those of most Berbers, and agree
with the Palestinian and Yemenitic means.
The Sephardic Jews of Salonika and of Turkey in Europe differ from
the North African ones only in possessing the mesocephalic cephalic in-
dex of 78; they are predominantly straight-nosed, and partly blond in
one-sixth of the group. Correlations within the Moroccan and Turkish
series show that the blond element is no different anthropometrically from
the brunet, and that it is probably a minority tendency inherent in the
Jews, rather than an accretion acquired in their wanderings. Jews in
Egypt differ in no important way from their co-religionists in North Africa
and Palestine.
On the whole the Jews of the entire Mediterranean racial belt, from
Persia to Morocco, and including those whose ancestors once lived in
Spain, are remarkably constant in their racial unity. This unity may be
partly due to the fact that these Jews have lived among peoples little
62 Krischner, op. cit.
63 Principal works of North African Jews are :
Fishberg, M., Boas Anniversary Volume^ 1906, pp. 55-63.
Kossovitch, N., and Benoit, M. F., RA, vol. 42, 1932, pp. 99-125.
Weissenberg, S., MAGW, vol. 42, 1912, pp. 85-102.
On Sephardic Spaniols:
Szpidbaum, H., ACAP, pp. 207-216; STNW, vol. 24, 1931, pp. 146-156.
Wagenseil, F., ZFMA, vol. 23, 1923, pp. 33-150.
Weissenberg, S., MAGW, vol. 39, 1909, pp. 225-239.
64 The personal observation of the author agrees with this conclusion.
444 THE RACES OF EUROPE
different from themselves racially, but it cannot be wholly or even largely
explained on that basis, since, as has been shown above, these Jews differ
less from each other, regardless of geographical distance, than they do
from the peoples nearest at hand. Endogamy and an extraordinary ethnic
solidarity must be the most important causes.
So far as our present study of living Jewish peoples has been carried, we
are justified in concluding that the Jews are an ethnic unit, although one
which has little regard for spatial considerations. Like other ethnic units,
the Jews have their own standard racial character, in this case a stable
combination of several brunet Mediterranean sub-races. How far this
Jewish racial entity is concerned with the Jews of central Europe and of
central Asia is a question which must be deferred to the next chapter.
(8) THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE IN EAST AFRICA
In the present section we shall consider what is today a second southern
periphery of the white racial stock; peripheral in this case to the world of
the African Negro. East Africa, with its highland plateaux of Eritrea,
Ethiopia, and Kenya, and with its treeless grasslands, forms an environ-
mental zone suitable for the economies of highland agriculture and of
pastoral nomadism. Its early connections lie with the north and east,
with Egypt and Arabia, rather than with the equatorial forests to the west.
The highlands of Ethiopia, according to studies conducted by economic
botanists, seem to contain a number of indigenous varieties of cultivated
cereals and legumes.55 It is possible, but by no means established, that
these highlands formed one of the primary centers of Old World agricul-
ture, in which the Neolithic economy originated. It is also possible that
part of the agricultural impulse which initiated the high civilization of
ancient Egypt was derived from this source.
Later than the development of highland agriculture in East Africa was
the introduction and diffusion of pastoral nomadism. The cattle complex,
with its elaborate set of social restrictions and of social differentiation on
the basis of wealth in herds, was introduced from India by way of southern
Arabia, along with the humped zebu, at some none too distant period,
probably as late as the first millennium B.C. Its diffusion passed south-
eastward into the Lake Region, where it was taken up by Bantu peoples
and spread, in modern times, as far south as the Cape of Good Hope,
where an earlier version of the same complex had already arrived, in
the hands of the Hottentots.
In the Horn of Africa region, however, and northward into Egypt, the
humped cow is replaced by the more thirst-resisting camel; camel nomads
are found in all regions in which agriculture is impractical. The antiquity
66 Vavilov, N., Studies on the Origin of Cultivated Plants.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 445
of camel nomadism in East Africa is unknown, but it cannot be as old as
in Arabia, for the camel is an Asiatic animal.66 Camels did not appear in
any numbers in North Africa east of the Nile before 300 A.D., but they
must have been earlier than that in East Africa, having been introduced,
at some unknown period, from Arabia by way of Suez, of the Bab el
Mandeb, or simply across the Red Sea.
The living peoples with whom this section is concerned live by all three
economies mentioned — highland agriculture, cattle nomadism, and camel
nomadism. They are the whites and near- whites who live east of the
equatorial forests, of the Nilotic swamps, and of the deep escarpment of
the Blue Nile. They are the Gallas, the Sornalis, the Ethiopians, and the
inhabitants of Eritrea. They speak languages of two stocks — Hamitic and
Semitic. Of the two, Harnitic is the older, for Semitic speech was intro-
duced by colonists from the Hadhramaut only a few centuries B.C.
The Hamitic linguistic stock is divided into three families of languages:
(1) Libico-Berber, (2) Ancient Egyptian and its derivative Coptic,
(3) Cushitic. These families seem to be nearly as closely related to Semitic
as they are to each other,67 so that a Semito-Hamitic superstock has been
postulated, with Semitic as the fourth branch. Ancient Egyptian,
according to a recent analysis,58 may have been merely a blend of the
other three. The East African Hamites, however, all speak languages
of the Cushitic family, and the word Hamitic, when applied to East
Africans, is equivalent to Cushitic.
Our knowledge of the racial history of East Africa in antiquity is
limited to the southern frontier of the present Hamitic linguistic area.
Excavations in Kenya and Tanganyika have uncovered remains of a
tall, extremely long-headed, Mediterranean racial type, with a tendency
to great elongation and narrowness of the face, in pre-Neolithic times.
In Mesolithic times, if not earlier, some of these Mediterranean skeletons
show evidence of negroid admixture.59 The country east of Lake Victoria
may be taken as the southern boundary of the area occupied by this race,
since to the south all known sapiens skeletal remains belong to the ancestors
of Bushmen. The center of this area, and its northern boundary, are
unknown, owing to the lack of archaeological work in Ethiopia and the
eastern Sudan. The present distribution of a similar and without doubt
derivative racial type coincides with that of Hamitic languages, and for
that reason the term "Hamitic Race," has been frequently employed.
68 Asiatic in the sense that it must have been domesticated in Asia, where wild camels
are still found. It evolved, of course, in America.
67 Meillet, A., and Cohen, M., Les Langues du Monde; Langues Chamito-Semitiques,
pp. 81-151.
58 Information given me by Professor O. Menghin.
m See Chapter II, pp. 44-46; Chapter III, pp. 57-59.
446
THE RACES OF EUROPE
MAP 13
LINGUISTIC MAP OF THE EAST AFRICAN HAMITIC AREA
The Cushitic languages of East Africa and of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan are shown
in parallel line representation. The Semitic languages of this region which are derived
from Geez are designated by cross-hatching. It should be noted that Tigrigna is the
language of Tigre Kingdom; the Tigre language, however, is a related coastal speech.
Sudanese Negro languages are shown by means of large dots, Arabic by means of
vertical crescents. (Adapted from Meillet and Cohen, Les Langues du Monde.)
The living inhabitants of the Abyssinia-Somaliland-Eritrea area may
be divided into the following groups:
(1) The Highland Cushites: Descendants of the pre-Semitic agricultural
population of the northern Ethiopian plateau, speaking early Cushitic
dialects. The most numerous and best known of this scattered group are
the Agaus, peasants and agricultural serfs living mostly in the kingdom
of Gojjam, in the Lake Tsana country.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 447
(2) The Sidamos: The corresponding pre-Semitic agricultural popula-
tion of the present Galla country, living in the midst of Galla tribal terri-
tories, and in small separate kingdoms of their own, in southwestern
Ethiopia. The best known Sidamo state is that of Kaffa, whose name
has been given to coffee. Throughout the Galla country, the numerous
peasant class consists largely of linguistically altered Sidamos.
(3) The Amharas: This is a general name applied to the Ethiopians
proper, members of the four kingdoms of Tigre", Amhara, Gojjam, and
Shoa. The Guraghes, who live south of Addis Ababa, speak Amharic, as
do all the others named except the Tigris, whose language is a parallel
derivative of Geez. These people are the descendants of the Hadhrami
invaders of the late pre-Christian era, and were, until the Italian conquest
of 1935-37, the dominant people of Ethiopia.
(4) The Gallas: The inhabitants of most of southwestern Ethiopia, in-
cluding the country as far north and east as Addis Ababa, are Gallas;
descendants of a warlike confederation of nomadic tribes who invaded
Ethiopia from the southwest in the sixteenth century. The original Gallas,
who came in great numbers, were cattle people with the traditional East
African dislike for agriculture or menial occupations, and settled down in
their present territory as aristocrats. Galla society today is divided into
four classes: the Oromo, or Galla proper, the aristocrats; the Tumtu
or blacksmiths, the subservient class of artisans who are also farmers; the
Faki, a low caste of tanners; and the Watta, outcaste hunters who live
in separate villages. The Oromo have, for the most part, submitted to
the pursuit of agriculture, while continuing at the same time their cattle
raising.
(5) The Somalis: The whole Horn of Africa, including the three Somali-
lands and the Ogaden region of Ethiopia, is occupied by various tribes
of Somalis, nomadic Hamites who profess Islam and claim descent from
Arabian missionaries. Their origin is not clearly known, but it is evident
that there must have been some Galla as well as Arabian mixture, grafted
onto a local Hamitic population.
(6) The Danakil (also called Afar): In southwestern Eritrea and ad-
jacent parts of the desert of northeastern Ethiopia, as well as in part of
French Somaliland, live the Danakil, tribesmen culturally related to the
Somalis, who also claim Arabian ancestry. North of the Danakil in
Eritrea live other tribes of the same general type. The Somalis, Danakil,
and their northern relatives form part of a continuous belt of nomadic
Hamites reaching from the Horn of Africa to Egypt; the northern repre-
sentatives, however, from the Eritrean Beja to the Egyptian Bisharin,
have been subjected to strong admixture with Sudanese negroes.
(7) Negroes in Hamitic Territory: In Eritrea the tribes of Baria and
Cunama, in the midst of Hamitic-Tigre territory, probably represent, in
448 THE RACES OF EUROPE
the linguistic sense at least, an eastward thrust of Sudanese negroes.
In Ethiopia proper many Shankalla, negroes brought as slaves from the
Blue Nile country, have propagated both as a slave population and
through mixture. In Italian Somaliland, it is said that some of the slave
tribes subservient to the Somalis speak Bantu. The speech of the Wattas
may also be neither Hamitic nor Semitic.
The study of the physical anthropology of this ethnologically and
historically complex region may be said to have barely begun; neverthe-
less it has progressed far enough to warrant reasonably accurate state-
ments as to the racial characters of the more numerous and better known
peoples.60 Before proceeding further, it may be well to state that all of
the peoples of this "Hamitic" area, whether Hamitic or Semitic in speech,
represent a blend in varying proportions between Mediterraneans of
several varieties, especially of the tall, Atlanto-Mediterranean group,
and negroes. Other elements include, of course, the Veddoid brought in
solution from southern Arabia; there is also a possibility of traces of
dilute pygmy and Bushman blood in southwestern Ethiopia and Somali-
land, although neither of these has been proved. Needless to say, the
Gallas and Amharas have mixed with each other greatly in the regions
in which they have been in contact; both the Amharas and Gallas have
absorbed the earlier Cushitic agricultural peoples in great numbers. The
most important single influence has been the infiltration of negroes,
through the slave trade, into the entire Ethiopian plateau region. So
extensive has this infiltration been that it is unlikely that a single genetic
60 The principal works on the physical anthropology of the living in this region are :
Castro, L. de, Nella Terra del Negus, vol. 2, pp. 342-477.
Frasetto, F., AnthPr, vol. 10, 1932, pp. 161-187.
Garson, J. G., Appendix to Bent, T. J., The Sacred City of the Ethiopians, pp. 286-296.
Klimek, S., APA, vols. 60-61, 1930-31, pp. 358-38L
Koettlitz, R., JRAI, vol. 30, 1900, pp. 50-55.
Lester, P., Anth, vol. 38, 1928, pp. 61-90, 289-315.
Leys, N. M., and Joyce, T. A., JRAI, vol. 43, 1913, p. 195.
Puccioni, N., APA, vol. 41, 1911, pp. 295-326; vol. 47, 1917, pp. 13-164; vol. 49,
1919, pp. 41-223; vol. 53, 1923, pp. 25-68; Anthropologia e Etnografia delle Genti delta
Somalia.
Radlauer, G., AFA, vol. 41, 1914, pp. 451-473.
Verneau, R,, Appendix in Duchesne-Fournet, Mission en Ethiopie.
In addition to these, the author has used, in the following exposition, a MS. of his
own, awaiting publication, and entitled: Contribution to the Study of the Physical Anthro-
pology of the Ethiopians and Somalis 3 based on a series of 100 Ethiopians and 80 Somalis
measured in 1933-34.
Principal works on the craniology of this region are :
Castro, L. de, APA, vol. 41, 1911, pp. 327-339.
Gipriani, L., APA, vol. 53, 1926, pp. 11-24.
Sergi, S., Crania Habessinica.
Verneau, R., Anth, vol. 10, 1899, pp. 641-662.
Works on the Danakil, Baria, Cunama, and Beja are listed later.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 449
line in the entire Horn of Africa is completely free from negroid ad-
mixture; but individuals may be found among the Amharas, Gallas, and
Somalis who show no visible signs of negro blood. These individuals
are extremely rare, On the whole the negroid element in the Hamitic
area cannot be much more than one-fourth of the whole, but it has
penetrated every ethnic group and every social level. Just when this
penetration had become complete we do not know, but one suspects
that it had already occurred by the sixth century A.D., when the Ethiopians
ruled the Yemen. The Gallas, despite their tradition of descent from
white men, were already partly negroid at the time of their arrival in
Ethiopia.
Despite this negroid penetration, and despite a mixture between non-
negroid elements, the four ethnic units of Amharas, Gallas, Sidamos,
and Somalis are all statistically distinct from each other.61 What evidence
we have for the Agaus suggests that this people constitutes a fifth anthropo-
metric entity. As one would expect, the more purely Hamitic peoples,
such as the Agaus, Gallas, and Somalis, are taller than the Amharas.
All of these three have stature means ranging from 169 to 174 cm., while
172 cm. seems to be the central mean for all of them. The Semitic speakers
range from a mean of 164-167 cm.62 for the Tigre, the most nearly Arabian
of the four main groups, to 167-169 cm. for each of the other three, while
a series of varied Ethiopians, mostly from Shoa, and measured in Addis
Ababa, rose to the mean of 169 cm. This latter figure may reflect Galla
mixture — for Addis Ababa is in Galla territory — or selection. The
Sidamos, in contrast to the Agaus, are apparently short (164 cm.).
In bodily build and proportions, all groups are much the same. The
predominant type is leptosome, with a relative sitting height index of 50 to
51, a relative span of 103, and a relative shoulder breadth of 21 . Long legs
and relatively short arms, narrow shoulders, and even narrower hips, are
the rule. Few Ethiopians of any category are thick-set, and what little
corpulence is seen hangs ill on fine-boned frames. The hands and feet
of all but the palpably negroid are small and extremely narrow, the
lower legs and wrists usually spindly and ill-muscled. This attenuation
of the distal segments of the limbs reaches its maximum among the Somalis.
The Sidamos, who are by far the most negroid of the Ethiopian peoples,
have the broadest shoulders in proportion to their height, and the narrow-
est hips.
There can be no doubt that the tall stature of the Gallas, Somalis, and
Agaus is an old Hamitic trait, since both the negroid Sidamos anpl the
Semites of Hadhramauti origin are much shorter. The tallness of this
61 From statistical analysis of author's unpublished material.
62 From several different series.
450 THE RACES OF EUROPE
East African Mediterranean strain stands in contrast to the moderate
stature of the Mediterranean Arabs across the Red Sea, and constitutes a
characteristic difference between them. The bodily build of the East
African Hamites is typically Mediterranean in the ratio of arms, legs,
and trunk, but the special attenuation of the extremities among the Somalis
is a strong local feature,63 which finds its closest parallels outside the
white racial group, in southern India and in Australia.
The different groups studied in Ethiopia share a tendency to dolicho-
cephaly or mesocephaly, and to a narrow face form. In the measurements
of the head and face, all are fundamentally Mediterranean, and the negroid
traits manifested in the soft parts do not reveal themselves in the measure-
ments, except in nose breadth and in the biorbital and interorbital
diameters. The heads are larger than those of the Yemeni Mediterraneans;
Amharas (in the sense of Semitic-speaking Abyssinians) have vault di-
mensions of 194 mm. (length) by 150 mm. (breadth) by 127 mm. (height);
these figures could apply as well to Nordics as to Abyssinians. The mean
cephalic index of 77 or lower 64 for Amharic speakers is in the dolicho-
cephalic to low mesocephalic class; the smaller diameters and higher
index of the present-day Hadhramaut population seem to have yielded
to the greater size and dolichocephaly of the indigenous Hamitic farmers,
as far as the total group is concerned. There is, however, some evidence
that while the Tigr6 people are strongly dolichocephalic, brachycephaly
may be common in the kingdoms of Gojjam and Amhara.65
The Gallas are on the whole smaller headed than the Amharas, but
also mesocephalic. Mesocephaly is also the prevalent head form of both
Agaus and Sidamos; among the latter the mean cephalic index is 78,
and there is a definite brachycephalic minority. So far the inhabitants
of the Abyssinian plateau, whatever their speech and ethnic origin, are
dolichocephalic or mesocephalic, and comparable to Mediterraneans
elsewhere, especially, as we shall later see, to North African Berbers, as
well as to North European Nordics. Among the Sidamos, however, the
vault is lower (124 mm.) than among Amharas and Gallas. The Somalis,
63 Schlaginhaufen, O., AJKS, vol. 9, 1934, pp. 265-273.
64 Verneau's mean is 75.
66 De Castro, in his 1915 study of Ethiopians, gives cephalic index means of 73.9 for
Tigre", 75.4 for Shoa, 80.7 for Amhara, and 83.2 for Gojjam. The Amhara series is rep-
resented by 50 men, the Gojjam series by 47. Garson finds a mean G. I. of 81.4 for 12
Amhara men measured by Bent. Against these positive evidences of brachycephaly
stands the fact that in none of the composite series of Amharic-speaking Ethiopians,
which include Gojjam and Amhara men, are brachycephalic individuals found in suffi-
cient numbers to support these figures. Verneau, out of a series of 83, of which 29 are
Gojjamites, finds a mean C. I. of 74.9, and a range of 67-82. In my own smaller series
the highest G. I. is 81 ; C. I.'s of 4 Gojjam men were 74, 76, 77, 80. Both Frasetto (1932)
and Klimek (1930-31) fail to find brachycephaly in composite Abyssinian series. At
present it is impossible to confirm or refute de Castro's figures.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 451
as contrasted with the highland bloc, are smaller headed and purely
dolichocephalic, with vault dimensions of 192 mm. (length) by 143 mm.
(breadth) by 123 mm. (height), and a mean cephalic index of 74.5. In this
they resemble closely the finer Mediterranean type in Yemen, and some
of the northern Bedawin.
Facially this division between highlanders and Somalis is accentuated.
The highlanders have minimum frontal means of 104 mm. to 106 mm.;
the Somalis of 102 mm. The bizygomatics of the first group fall at 134-
136 mm., of the Somalis at 131 mm. The bigonials of the highlanders
have means of 101-102 mm., of the Somalis, 96 mrn. All are narrow
faced, but the Somalis approximate a world extreme. The forehead is
in all groups notably wider than the jaw, which reaches a record in
narrowness among the Somalis. In face breadths as in vault dimensions
the less extreme highland Ethiopians might as well be Nordics as negroids.
The total face heights of the four groups under consideration range
from 122 mm. to 124 mm.; the upper face heights from 71 mm. to 74 mm.
It is interesting to note that the Sidamos, who are the most negroid, have
the broadest foreheads, bizygomatics, and bigonials, the longest menton-
nasion heights, and by far the longest upper face heights, of the entire
group. It is the Somalis whose t^per face height is shortest. All four are
leptoprosopic and leptene, the Somalis hyperleptoprosopic.
The noses of Somalis, Arnharas, and Gallas are leptorrhine, with nasal
indices of 66, 68, and 69, respectively. This regression indicates with
some accuracy the relative amounts of negro blood. The Sidamos, with
an index of 71, arc mesorrhine and the most negroid. • In accordance
with the principle that the most negroid have the longest as well as the
broadest faces, the Sidamos have the longest and broadest noses, with a
mean height of 55 mm., and breadth of 39 mm. The Somalis, whose
noses are narrowest, also have the smallest, 52 mm. by 34 mm.
In the measurements of the external eye the Somalis differ again from
the highlanders; their mean interorbital diameter of 31 mm. is narrow,
while that of the highlanders, 34-35 mm., approximates a negroid con-
dition. In the biorbital, the distance between the outer eye corners,
the Somalis are narrowest, with 91 mm.; the Sidamos the broadest with
96 mm.
Our survey of the metrical characters of the inhabitants of the Hamitic
racial area has brought several facts to light; the agricultural population
of the Ethiopian highlands, both indigenous and imported from Arabia,
belongs to a tall, dolichocephalic to mesocephalic, leptoprosopic, moder-
ately leptorrhine race, which is Mediterranean in metrical position and
cannot be distinguished, on the basis of the more commonly taken measure-
ments, from blond and brunet Mediterraneans of Europe and North
452 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Africa. The Somalis, on the other hand, belong to an extreme racial
form; extremely linear in bodily build, extremely narrow-headed and
narrow-faced, with a special narrowness of the jaw. The relationship of
the Somalis, on metrical grounds, is with some of the peoples of India as
much as with the Mediterraneans elsewhere. The leptosome tendency, and
the narrowness of the face, remind one of the same tendency found
among the mixed Bedawin group of the Hadhramaut. It cannot be
attributed to negro-white mixture, for that phenomenon, as witnessed
among the Sidamos, has produced a heaping of characters, resulting
in an enlargement of both sagittal and lateral diameters of the face, in
some cases in excess of either the Hamitic white or the negroid parent.
Upper face height and nose height are especially affected. The Somali
face and nose are not long, they are merely narrow. The extremely long
faces and noses found among the Ba-Hima, the noble class of the Baganda,
and supposedly of Galla origin, have acquired a social value, and far
exceed those of the Somali. In this tendency to attenuation of the face,
we are reminded of Oldoway man and some of the Elmenteita skeletons.
This tendency is an extremely old one in East Africa.
In the skin color of the Arabs, however dark the exposed and tanned
parts might be, the unexposed epidermif was always considerably lighter.
A fundamental difference between Arabs and Ethiopians is seen in this
feature, for the latter are usually the same in skin color all over. In fact,
the foreheads of Ethiopians are in some instances lighter than their
shirt-protected bodies. In the three highland groups of Amharas, Gallas,
and Sidamos, the Amharas are lightest skinned, with the majority of
shades concentrated in the medium brown category, between von Luschan
#21 and #25; individually the series runs as light as #13, a brunet-white,
which is approximately the color of the former Emperor, Hailie Selassie.
At the other extreme it reaches #34, which is almost jet black, nearer the
color of the great Emperor Menelik II. Thus among the Amharas almost
the entire range of human skin color intensity is covered, with the excep-
tion of rosy or pinkish- white, which probably does not exist among
Ethiopians. The Gallas run somewhat darker, with their concentra-
tion in the medium to chocolate-brown class, between #22 and #29;
their range is somewhat less than that of the Amharas, and the rare
brunet-white of the former is in some cases replaced by a yellow of Bush-
man intensity. Most of the Sidamos are darker than #30, and are thus
really dark brown or black.
So far, the progression in skin color has followed that of relative amounts
of negro blood, with an immense range covered; the inheritance of skin
color in the Ethiopian highlands is not strictly Mendelian in a simple
sense, nor is it by any means a case of ordinary blending. If there was
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 453
ever a rosy-white shade in the non-negroid element, it has long since
disappeared. Among the Somalis, however, an entirely different situation
is found, for the majority are lumped around the von Luschan #29.
Numbers 27 and 30 account for most of the others; hence there is a single
and characteristic Somali color, which is a rich, glossy, chocolate-brown,
which accounts for seven-eights of the entire Somali group. A very few
are darker, and individuals are as light as light brown, in a very few
cases as light as Arabs. The contrast between highland Ethiopians and
Somalis in skin color is so great that one must postulate that the original
non-negroid narrow-bodied and narrow-faced strain which the living
Somalis represent was not white skinned in any sense of the word, for
the Somalis are the least negroid people in East Africa.
The Ethiopians themselves are extremely conscious of differences in
skin color, and divide themselves into four groups: "Yellow," " Yellow-
Red," "Red," and "Black." These groups do not correspond very well
with the von Luschan scale, but represent the product of centuries of
local experience, and are perhaps more significant from the genetic
standpoint. A jury of Amharas and Gallas called 20 per cent of the former
"Yellow," as against 8 per cent of the latter; only 2 per cent of either
was "Black." In both, the "Red" class was the most numerous; with
47 per cent of Amharas, and 70 per cent of Gallas. Most of the few Sidamos
studied are evenly divided between "Red" and "Black." This system
could not be applied to the Somalis, whose characteristic hue defied
classification.
In hair form the Ethiopians also have their -own system, which hardly
agrees with ours. It has three divisions; luchai, meaning "straight,"
gofari, meaning "curly," and another term which signifies extremely
negroid, or peppercorn. Actually, no single highland Ethiopian with
straight hair was measured in the author's series, although one apparently
straight-haired Agau was seen. Among the Amharas, 80 per cent were
called "curly," and the rest "straight," according to native terminology;
among the Gallas the same 20 per cent of "straight" were found, while
among the Sidamos this rose to 30 per cent. Actually, the gofari class
included both curly hair in a Hadhramaut sense, and frizzly hair of a
negroid character. Hair which the Ethiopians themselves considered
negroid was confined to a few individuals who were to all purposes pure
negroes, and undoubtedly slaves.
According to our own classification, 40 per cent of the Amharas have
non-negroid, wavy or curly hair,66 and the rest frizzly; the non-negroid
66 According to Fischer's findings, our "curly" could be called a negroid-white mixed
form.
Fischer, E., Die Rehobother Bastards.
454 THE RACES OF EUROPE
class among the Gallas is 30 per cent, among the Somalis 86 per cent.
Some of the Somalis actually have straight hair. Although our series of
Sidamos is too small to be reliable, it indicates that these people are not
as frequently negroid in hair form as are the Amharas.
The latter, however, show their predominantly non-negroid character
in the distribution of the pilous system; they have the most frequent
baldness, beards which are often heavy, and a strong minority of heavy
body hair; while the Gallas and Sidamos are less bearded and less hairy,
and the Somalis, with beards comparable to those of southern Arabs, are
almost glabrous on the body. Black hair is, of course, characteristic of
all groups; a sporadic individual with dark brown or red-brown hair may
be found, however, among all of them. The beard shows no difference
from the head hair.
In eye color mixtures between several brunet strains are apparent.
The Amharas have 47 per cent of dark brown and 1 1 per cent of light
brown irises, with 39 per cent of mixtures between these two, with a light
brown iridical background overlaid by rays of zones of dark brown;
among the Gallas the same proportions of the same types are found.
Among the Sidamos, black eyes begin to appear, and the dark brown
shade is in the great majority, while among the Somalis 32 per cent are
black and 56 per cent dark brown. In all groups an occasional case of
mixed blond eyes occurs, with a green-brown or gray-brown mixture, but
these form no more than 2 per cent of the whole.67 They indicate the
persistance of the minority tendency to eye blondism endemic in the
Mediterranean racial stock, rather than any northern admixture.
The external eye form varies between the different groups in proportion
of negroid blood; the Amharas and the Somalis have few eyefolds, little
obliquity, a medium to slight opening height; among the Gallas and
Sidamos, the pseudo-mongoloid 68 negroid internal fold is occasionally
seen, and a strong minority has oblique and wide open eye slits. Similarly,
the eyebrows are thickest and most concurrent among Amharas and
Somalis.
Browridges are moderate, in a western European sense, or heavy, in
over half of the Somali series; the Amharas are slight to moderate, the
Gallas and Sidamos slight or absent. Foreheads are usually high among
Amharas, and progressively lower among Gallas and Sidamos; the slope
is most variable among the Amharas, among whom all forms are fre-
quent; least variable among the Somalis, among whom it is usually slight.
On the whole the more negroid have the greatest slopes.
67 Higher percentages have been reported among Amharic speakers in some of the
northern kingdoms.
68 Seligman, C. G., and B. Z., Pagan Tribes of the Nilotic Sudan, p. 20.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 455
Considerable differences are seen in nose form between the different
peoples; the most European forms are found among the Somalis and
Amharas, while the Sidamo nose is for the most part negroid in morphology.
The Somali noses, although they vary between an extremely leptorrhine
and a negroid extreme, assume a normal distribution when tabulated by
individual criteria. The mean is a moderate root height, narrow to medium
root breadth, moderate bridge height, narrow to moderate bridge breadth,
a straight profile, a thin tip, which is inclined slightly upward, medium
wings, with thin to medium, slightly oblique nostrils. Although individual
Somalis are beaky in nasal appearance, the impression of the group as a
whole, and especially of the least negroid element, is that of a straight
profile and moderate bridge height; in other words, of a classic Mediter-
ranean nose form.
The noses of the Amharas, while very variable, are as a rule higher
in root and bridge, and at the same time broader, thicker tipped, and
often inclined downward, with a tendency to flaring nasal wings, and
highly excavated nostrils. The Amharic nasal profile is again usually
straight. The Galla noses are like those of the Amharas, with a slightly
higher ratio of broad and flaring forms. Among the Sidamos, thick
tips, flaring wings, and low roots and bridges are actually in the majority,
although convex profiles are more frequent than among the less negroid
groups. The Sidamo nose is morphologically as well as metrically a hybrid
negro-white organ, such as is frequently seen among American negroes.
In all groups, including the Somalis, thick lips are more numerous
than thin ones, both integumen tally and membranously; lip eversion
is also characteristically great in all of them, as is a prominent lip seam.
Really thin lips exceed 10 per cent only among the Amharas. All of
the groups show some degree of prognathism; facial prognathism is
approximately 10 per cent in all but the Sidamos, among whom it is
greater; alveolar prognathism is present among all but Sidamos, to the
extent of 25 per cent; among the Sidamos almost half are prognathous.
The chin is as prominent as among most white men in over 60 per cent
of all but Somalis, among whom it is characteristically receding. Frontal
projection of the malars is slight in all groups; lateral projection is often
pronounced among the Gallas and Sidamos, seldom so among Amharas
and Somalis. Prominence of the gonial angles is most frequently marked
among Amharas, never among Somalis.
Negroid traits are seen sometimes in the ear — among Sidamos the
most and Amharas the least. The negroid ear has a small, soldered lobe,
and an excessive roll to the helix. It rarely slants, while the ears of
Amharas and especially of Somalis are characteristically set at an angle
to the vertical.
456 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Among all of these peoples differences in racial as well as constitutional
type is seen, even among the relatively homogeneous Somalis. Here the
bulk of the population gravitates between two end types. The more
numerous of these two is typified by a long, thin, bodily form with ex-
tremely narrow hands and feet, with thin, gracefully built bodies which,
among the women, attain a degree of beauty seldom seen in Europe,
with high, conical breasts in the women, totally unlike the pendulous
negroid udders so common among Gallas and Amharas, and with the
characteristically narrow faces and noses typical of the Somali. The
other end type is an ordinary prognathous, thick-nosed, wide-eyed
negro. About one Somali out of five seems to have a strong strain of
negroid blood; in the others it is for the most part dilute. A few individ-
uals among the Somali 69 are lighter skinned, brachycephalic, curly
haired, and identical in almost all respects with the typical Hadhramis
of southern Arabia. They undoubtedly represent the strain of the mis-
sionaries who converted the Somalis to Islam, and who founded the
present tribes and families. They are, needless to say, rare.
Among the Amharas there is one very impressive type with a relatively
light skin color, a high, wide, sloping forehead, very frizzly hair, a high-
bridged nose with a thick, depressed tip, and a long, rather bony face.
The total effect is incipiently Papuan, and one feels that a veddoid-
negroid cross is indicated, in combination with various amounts of both
Arabian and Ethiopian varieties of Mediterranean. The linkage in
this type of frizzly hair with these exaggerated facial characters seems to
show a genetic realignment of some interest. This type is rare among
Hamitic-speaking Ethiopians, who conform for the most part to Medi-
terranean or negroid facial patterns, in various degrees of solution and
in various combinations.
Except for the peculiar behavior of the frizzly hair form among the
Amharas, white racial traits, on the whole, seem to be linked together.
Among the Somalis, straight or wavy hair is usually fine, inclined to
baldness on the head, moderate to heavy on the beard and present on
the body; frizzly or woolly hair is of medium texture and scanty on beard
and body; curly, Hadhramaut-style hair is often coarse, but is inter-
mediate between white and negroid hair in quantity and distribution.
Among both highland Hamites and Somalis, the lighter skins usually go
with narrower noses, and straighter hair; dark brown eyes are strongly
associated with narrow noses, black eyes with broad ones.
On the basis of these correlations, it is evident that the partly negroid
appearance of Ethiopians and of Somalis is due to a mixture between
whites and negroes, and that the Ethiopian cannot be considered the
M I measured but one, Puccioni gives photographs of several.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 457
representative of an undiflferentiated stage in the development of both
whites and blacks, as some anthropologists would have us believe. On
the whole, the white strain is much more numerous and much more
important metrically, while in pigmentation and in hair form the negroid
influence has made itself clearly seen. This study of Ethiopians and
Somalis has served to bring out the principle that metrical similarities
of a racial order have little reference to the soft parts, since Somalis,
Gallas, Arabs, Berbers, Norwegians, and Englishmen may all be closely
related in measurements, and at the same time fall at world extremes
in pigmentation and in hair form. Within the Mediterranean racial
family there is every variation in these external features between a Nordic
and a Somali.
The northern relatives of the Somalis, the Afar or Danakil, seem to
resemble them closely both metrically and morphologically. 70 If one
may hazard a guess from inadequate material, they are even less fre-
quently negroid than are the Somali. The Baria and Cunama, the Su-
danic-speaking tribes of Eritrea, are of moderate stature, and are small
headed; they are a negroid-Hamitic mixture in which the old Sudanese
negroid element is strong. 71
Of great importance from the standpoint of the history of Hamitic-
speaking peoples in North Africa are the various tribal divisions of the
great Beja people, who live to the east of the Nile from Eritrea north
into Upper Egypt. Some of them now speak Tigre, others Arabic, but
their original speech is Gushitic, and their racial relationship seems to
be with the Somalis and Danakils for the most part. Some of them, such
as the Haddendoa, have been largely mixed with Sudanese negroes;
the less mixed, such as the Beni Airier in northern Eritrea, and the Bish-
arin in the Egyptian desert, represent a fairly uniform type which Selig-
man compares to the predynastic Egyptians.72
This type is, in its least negroid form, of moderate stature, with tribal
means ranging from 164 to 169 cm., and comparable in head dimensions
and in facial and nasal breadths with the Somalis, although some tribes
are smaller headed. The characteristic narrow jaw of the Somalis is
also typical here. The skin color is usually somewhere between a bronze-
70 Bouchereau, A., Anth, vol. 8, 1897, pp. 149-164.
Santelli, BSA, Paris, ser. 4, vol. 4, 1893, pp. 479-501.
71 Pollera, A., / Baria e I Cunama. Pollera's data make both Baria and Cunama leptor-
rhine, a supposition which his photographs belie. His nasal breadth technique, and his
bizygomatic, are both obviously erroneous.
72 Seligman, G. G., JRAI, vol. 43, 1913, pp. 593-705.
See also:
Chantre, E., BSAL, vol. 18, 1899, pp. 138-141. Also, r6sum6 in Anth, vol. 13,
1902, pp. 122-123.
Murray, G. W., JRAI, vol. 57, 1927, pp. 39-53.
458 THE RACES OF EUROPE
like reddish-brown and a light-chocolate, probably in the lighter part
of the rather narrow Somali range; the hair, when not frizzly, is some-
times straight but is usually curly or wavy; and the nasal profile is,
like that of the Somalis, usually straight. The physical type of the present-
day northern Beja of the Egyptian desert does not exactly fulfill the
specifications of the peoples who, as we shall see shortly, must have
brought Hamitic speech and Hamitic culture into North Africa in antiq-
uity, but it approximates the general racial position of these Hamitic
culture bearers. The presence of the Beja and their apparent antiquity
indicate that the desert country east of the Nile and west of the Red Sea
has long been a corridor for northward movements by people adapted
to desert living, just as the Nile Valley itself, in its reaches below Khartum,
may have been a corridor for early agriculturalists.
(9) THE MODERN EGYPTIANS
The reader is already familiar with the physical characters of the an-
cient Egyptians, from predynastic to Roman times. It will be recalled
that throughout their pre-Islamic history the Egyptians consistently
maintained their affiliation to a central Mediterranean racial type of
moderate head size and intermediate stature. Nevertheless there may
have been several contributing Mediterranean elements from different
sources which together combined to produce the Egyptian population
as a whole. It will be recalled that the ruling class in Egypt was often
characterized by a Hamitic facial cast, recalling the upper class Somalis
and the aristocrats of the cattle-tending tribes of Uganda. The Cushitic
element in the Egyptian language had its racial counterpart.
Egypt has never been truly isolated, and has continually drawn to it
peoples from other countries. During the Alexandrian period, many
Greeks and Jews settled in the Delta, particularly in the new city to which
Alexander gave his name, and this metropolis has remained ever since
an international settlement. The Arabs, during the seventh century
A.D., swept over Egypt and imposed a new language and a new religion,
which only a few of the Nile Valley peasants, the ancestors of the modern
Copts, were able to resist. Although Coptic speech has passed, like Latin,
into the limbo of ritual languages, Coptic Christianity has been preserved
until the present day. The Arabs must have introduced their racial
increment into the sedentary Egyptian population, but largely in the
cities; on the other hand, the Bedawin tribes which pasture their flocks
in the deserts and oases on either side of the valley are, anthropometri-
cally at least, purely Arab, 73
78 Chantre says that they sometimes marry the daughters of the Egyptian Fellahin.
Chantre, E., Recherche* Anthropologiques dans VAJrique Orientate, figypte, p. 172.
See also Chantre, E., BSAL, vol. 20, 1901, pp. 127-165.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 459
After the absorption of the Arabs, the Turks settled as a ruling class
in Cairo and other cities, and with them Albanians, Circassians, and
other foreigners. With the digging of the Suez Canal, Port Said became
an international city, with inhabitants drawn from all nations. Mean-
while, thousands of negroes and Abyssinians have been introduced into
Egypt as slaves, and few of them have returned home.
All of these settlers in Egypt, from the time of the Jews and the Greeks
to the present, have been city people, while the slaves have been used
mostly in urban capacities. In Egypt as elsewhere, the country feeds
the city with men, and one may expect to find a racial continuity between
the landed peasants of ancient Egypt and the modern Fellahin. This
continuity should be, and is, as great as that between ancient Mesopo-
tamia- and modern Iraq. The Copts, who have lived endogamously
ever since the advent of Islam, must be even better representatives of
the early Egyptian type than the Moslem peasantry.
In general, the living Egyptian population is probably as tall as or
somewhat taller than that of its dynastic counterparts. 74 Mean statures
by districts, from the Delta to Assuan, run from 165 to 168 cm., with the
mean for the nation somewhere between 166 and 167 cm. There seems
to be no consistent difference in regional distribution, except that the
townsmen are shorter as a rule than the farmers. In bodily build neither
Copts nor Fellahin are especially thin or linear; a relative span of 104
shows a length of arm and breadth of shoulder in excess of most Medi-
terraneans. The small hands and attenuated extremities of the East
Africans are not common here.
The head form is consistent with that of ancient Egypt; cephalic
index means of the different districts are consistently dolichocephalic,
at the figures 74 and 75; only in the cities of Alexandria and Cairo, and
at Assuan on the Sudanese border, does it rise to 76. Individual brachy-
cephals are extremely rare. The head, size is considerable, but not ex-
cessive; the Coptic dimensions of 193 mm. by 143 mm. represent the
groups as a whole, except in the Delta, where breadths run to 145 mm.
The vault height, like that of the ancient Egyptians, is moderate, with
regional means varying between 122 mm. and 125 mm. 76 The modern
Egyptian cranial vault is slightly larger than that of most Mediterranean
74 Anthropometric data on living Egyptians have been obtained from the following
sources :
Ghantre, E., Recherches anthropologiques dans I'Afrique Orientate, £gypte.
Craig, J., Biometrika, vol. 8, 1911-12, pp. 66-78.
Myers, C. S., JRAI, vol. 35, 1905, pp. 80-91 ; vol. 36, 1906, pp. 237-271 ; ns. vol. 38,
1908, pp. 99-147.
78 Cephalic index distribution from Myers and from Craig ; auricular heights from
Chantre, whose technique alone seems to be standard.
460 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Arabs, and consistent with the dynastic Egyptian dimensions and form.
Facially this difference between Egyptians and Arabs becomes more
apparent; the bizygomatic diameters rise to means of 137 mm. among
some of the Fellahin groups, and the regional nose breadth means are
characteristically 35 mm. to 37 mm. In general, the faces seem meso-
prosopic, the noses mesorrhine. Mesorrhiny is also found on modern
Egyptian crania. The eye slit of the modern Egyptians is especially
long, with the excessive biorbital diameter of 93 mm., as compared to
88 mm. among Yemenis.
From the observational standpoint, the faces of Copts and Fellahin
vary between two extremes — a narrow face with a slender jaw, thin lips,
and a narrow, aquiline nose; and a broader, lower face with a strong
jaw, prominent chin, and a straight to concave nose with root and bridge
of medium height and breadth, and a moderately thick, horizontal tip.
The lips of this second type are usually full, but not excessively thick.
The exposed skin color of the Egyptians has been often described and
has been tabulated on the basis of subjective observation, but has not
been measured by means of a standard scale. It is the agreement of all
investigators that it varies greatly with latitude; that starting with the
brunet-white skin of the Delta, which often has a yellowish or honey-
colored tinge, it grows darker as one ascends the Nile, so that the charac-
teristic shade of the southernmost districts is a reddish brown to medium
brown hue. In all regions, however, it varies from a "very fair," seldom
exceeding 2 per cent, to a "very dark," which is presumably a chocolate
color. On the whole the Copts are lighter skinned than the Moslems,
but this must in a measure reflect occupational differences, since rela-
tively few of the Copts are farmers.
The hair form of the Egyptians varies from straight, which does not
exceed 10 per cent, to a close spiral with ringlets of small diameter. The
majority are curly in one sense or another; few are frizzly or palpably
negroid. Wavy hair is slightly more common in Lower than in Upper
Egypt, but not greatly so. The hair is almost always black or very dark
brown, but the beard is sometimes lighter; the eyes range from dark
brown to light brown, with many mixed or intermediate brown iris
patterns. Incipient eye blondism seems limited to 10 per cent or less,
and is, of course, commonest in the Delta.
Some 130 miles west of Luxor, in the Libyan Desert, is the beginning
of a long geological depression, which contains a number of oases. The
easternmost of these is Kharga, 76 which is part of Egypt both politically
and historically. The inhabitants of this oasis are isolated from the rest
of the world in a general sense, although during the centuries of intensive
78 This material derived from Hrdliclca, A., The Natives of Kharga Oasis, Egypt.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 461
slave trading it was frequently visited. There is some question as to
whether the inhabitants of this oasis were Libyans or Egyptians in Phar-
aonic times, but by the Roman period they were considered fully Egyp-
tian. With the introduction of the camel, Kharga became an important
station on the Sudanese slave route; sick slaves were left there, and other
slaves taken in exchange for animals and food; as a result of this some
third of the population now shows negroid traits. That this negroid
blood has been acquired wholly since Roman times has been demonstrated
by a study of many mummies and skeletons from a large Coptic cemetery
in Kharga. None of these show negroid traits either skele tally or in hair
form.
The non-negroid Khargans resemble the Fellahin of Upper Egypt
in most metrical characters; they are, however, shorter, with a mean
stature of 164 cm. Their relative sitting height mean, 51.3, conforms to
the usual Mediterranean standard. The heads are somewhat smaller
than those of most Egyptians, with length and breadth means of 189 mm.
and 141 mm., and are equally dolichocephalic (C. I. = 74.8). The faces are
short and of moderate breadth (132 mm.) while the foreheads and jaws,
with mean widths of 103 mm., are moderate and typically Mediterranean.
The noses are moderately broad (37 mm.) and apparently mesorrhine. 77
The skin color of the Khargans is said to be lighter than that of the
Upper Egyptian Fellahin; characteristically it ranges, where exposed,
from a brunet-white or tawny-brown to a medium brown, with lighter
colors on unexposed regions. The head hair is almost always black,
but the beard often contains lighter individual hairs; the beard quantity
is usually slight or moderate. In the individuals who are not otherwise
negroid, the head hair tends to be straight or wavy, with a minority of
curly forms. If our data are comparable, it is straighter than that of
most Egyptians.
The browridges are usually slight, the eyes horizontal, and the nasion
depression medium. The commonest nasal profile forms are straight and
slightly convex, with concavity rare. On the whole the nose resembles
that of the coarser end type of the Egyptian Fellahin. One of the pe-
culiarities of the Khargan group is an incidence of over 20 per cent of
noticeable prognathism. Hrdlicka finds that despite these close metrical
and morphological resemblances between Khargans and Upper Egyptians,
it is not difficult to tell them apart, and he attributes this to the lack of a
Semitic Mediterranean element in the oasis population. This would
imply the absence of an Asiatic Mediterranean strain in dynastic times,
77 Hrdlicka locates nasion at a point lower than would be the case were one to follow
the technique considered standard in this work. It must be made clear that his techni-
cal usage is not to be considered a "mistake," but rather the result of a difference of
opinion.
462 THE RACES OF EUROPE
especially if the early Khargans were Libyans; and the lack of any
considerable Arab admixture since the advent of Islam.
(10) NORTH AFRICA, INTRODUCTION
North Africa is today an integral part of the Mediterranean world,
but it has not always been so. It is land taken over by Mediterraneans,
rather than basic Mediterranean country; for this reason it, like Europe,
is racially complicated by the survival of Neanderthal-inspired Upper
Palaeolithic food-gatherers. This survival is important only in a few places
and among small populations, and in this respect North Africa differs
greatly from most of Europe. The Mediterranean inroads began here
earlier than in Europe, and since North Africa was the highway over
which many of the Mesolithic and Neolithic invasions of Europe passed,
it is natural that it should have a more thoroughly Mediterranean com-
plexion.
From the beginning of the third millennium onward, northern Africa
enjoyed, throughout Egyptian and classical history, the hazy repute of a
region peripheral to great centers of culture. From the beginning of the
first millennium B.C., the Phoenician colony of Carthage spread eastern
Mediterranean civilization into Tunisia; after the fall of Carthage, the
Romans extended the enlightened area to include much of Algeria, while
the Greeks had already colonized the coast of Cyrenaica. At the time of
the Arab invasions, North Africa was fast becoming a backyard of Europe.
The advent of Islam brought this process to a violent end, and it did not
begin again until after the conquest of Algeria by Napoleon.
Ever since the earliest notices of North Africans on the Egyptian
monuments, the native inhabitants of North Africa have spoken Hamitic
languages of the closely knit Libyan family. There is very little dialectic
difference between them, and it is possible for a Riffian, for example,
to speak with an Algerian Kabyle. Similarly, the Berber speech of the
natives of Siwa Oasis, on the eastern extremity of the Berber world, is
surprisingly like that of the Braber tribes of the Moroccan Middle Atlas,
some 3000 miles distant. When contrasted with the complex Cushitic
family of Hamitic speech, Berber appears extremely homogeneous, and
we are warned by linguistic principles that its spread over the immense
Berber area cannot have been too remote in time. It is possible that
earlier Berber languages have disappeared, and that the present ones
owe their distribution to a relatively recent diffusion.
There are, however, remnants of pre-Hamitic speech in various parts
of North Africa. The Guanche spoken in the Canary Islands, at the time
of the Spanish conquest, early in the fifteenth century, was only partly
Berber, and contained a large percentage of words of unknown linguistic
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 463
affiliation.78 In modern Riffian and in other Moroccan Berber dialects,
there is a residue of non-Hamitic words in the local languages. For
example, plant names ending in -nt or -nth may be seen in the word
iminthi, meaning barley, and in shinti, meaning rye. These words have
also been noticed in Indo-European languages of the northern Mediter-
ranean shore, such as Greek and Albanian, and are generally attributed
to the so-called Caucasic or Mediterranean linguistic group, which is
the B element in Indo-European. It is very likely that agriculture, in-
cluding the use of these two cereals, was introduced into North Africa
by pre-Hamitic peoples.
Although there can be no doubt that Libyan Berber was spoken in
the part of North Africa with which the Egyptians were in contact as
early as 3000 B.C. and earlier, especially since there is a Libyan element
in ancient Egyptian, we cannot assume the same for all of North Africa.
It is possible that pre-Hamitic languages were spoken in Morocco and in
isolated mountain regions in Algeria and Tunisia until much later,
perhaps as late as the time of Christ, since there are strong Riffian tradi-
tions of people living in remote valleys who did not speak languages
identifiable as tashilhait, or Berber.
According to the Arabian genealogies, all Berbers are descended from
two men: Berr ibn Branes and Berr ibn Botr.79 These two Berrs, although
possessing the same name, were not related. From them are descended
the great families of Berbers such as the Masmuda, Senhaja, and Zenata.
Of all these great families the earliest to spread seems to have been the
Masmuda or Ghomara branch. This was followed traditionally by the
Senhaja, who today include such varied peoples as the Si wans on the bor-
derlands of Egypt, the Tuareg of the Sahara, and the Braber of the
Middle Atlas in Morocco. The third great expansion was that of the
Zenata, who were known in Roman times in Cyrenaica, but who did
not reach Algeria and Morocco until the Middle Ages. In the thirteenth
century these Zenata finally invaded Spain, conquering Arabs and earlier
Berbers. One may compare the expansions of the Berber families to
those of Kelts, Germans, Slavs, etc. in Europe.
78 Hooton, E. A., The Ancient Inhabitants of the Canary Islands, pp. 16-19.
Abercromby, J., HAS, vol. 1, 1917, pp. 95-129.
79 Goon, G. S., Tribes of the RiJ, contains a survey of some of this material. See also
Bates, O., The Eastern Libyans.
Bertholon, L., and Chantre, E., Recherches anthropologiques dans la Berberie Orientale.
Fournel, H., Les Berbers.
Gautier, E. F., Les Sticles Obscurs dans I'Histoire du Maghreb; Sahara, the Great
Desert.
Gsell, S., Histoire Ancienne de FAfrique du Nord.
The primary sources for this section are chiefly: Herodotus, Sallust, Procopius, el
Bekri, Ibn Khaldun, Marmol, Leo Africanus.
464
THE RACES OF EUROPE
Unlike the later writings of mediaeval Arabs, the Egyptian and classical
notices of Berbers do not assign to them an orderly descent from a few
patrilineal ancestors in a typically Semitic scheme. The Egyptians,
throughout their artistic history, took pains to distinguish the Libyans
from other peoples by well-defined physical peculiarities. The Libyans
are shown as active barbarians, clothed in animal
skins, and wearing ostrich plumes in their hair; they
are definitely white men, with lighter skins than
either Egyptians themselves or Semites. Their faces
are usually more sharply cut in profile than those of
the Egyptians; the browridges are often prominent,
the noses aquiline, the chins pointed, and the beards
moderately abundant.
During the Old Empire, the Libyans are depicted
as brunets; but in New Empire representations we
see a change in the appearance of some of them.
One branch, the Tehennu, known to the Egyptians
from earlier times, still consists of brunet white men,
but another group, the Mashausha, coming from
farther west, is definitely blond.80 These two, the
new people and the old, joined forces and attacked
Egypt from the west. In dress and in other respects,
there is nothing to indicate that the Mashausha
were not Libyans.
Herodotus, in later times, places the Maxyces in
western Libya, and states that they were culturally
different from the purely nomadic Libyans to the
east. The continuity of the name Mashausha through
Maxyces extends to Mazuza, a sub-tribe of Riffians, and to the term
Imazighen, by which many of the Berber groups designate themselves, and
thamazighth, by which they identify their language.
These Maxyces, or Mashausha, as described by Herodotus, Sallust,
and others, seem curiously un-African in some respects. They drive about
in chariots, drawn by fiery horses; their garments are covered with gold;
they sacrifice oxen by strangulation, in a central Asiatic manner; the
details of their council form of government, as revealed by a study of its
modern counterpart, the Ait Arbain, are strangely Altaic.
While it would not be prudent to press this argument too far, it is
quite possible that one or more of the invasions of West central Asiatic
peoples which reached Palestine during the Bronze Age, or during the
80 Bates, O., The Eastern Libyans, pp. 39-43.
Maspero, G., The Struggle of the Nations , p. 431.
FIG. 38. ANCIENT
LIBYAN.
Redrawn from
Bates, O., The East-
ern Libyans, Plate 3,
p. 120.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 465
time of the earliest use of iron, crossed the Delta into northern Africa
and kept moving across a country which offered little feed for cattle and
horses, until they reached the Algerian and Moroccan grasslands. He-
rodotus specificially states that these people were descendants of Persians.
In any case, the horse and chariot entered North Africa from the east;
either some Libyans took both from the Egyptians and spread them
westward, or a specific people brought them in. The hypothesis of an
Asiatic invasion of blond horse-users is not necessary to explain the
Mashausha, nor the modern incidence of North African blondism, but,
as will be seen later, it agrees perfectly with the present distribution of
races in this area.
The history of North Africa during the last five millennia, as dimly
outlined by oblique literary and artistic references, and in the absence
of adequate archaeology, is not as simple a matter as the early Arab
historians, who codified Berber tradition in their own pattern, supposed.
It appears to have consisted of a succession of invasions of Hamitic-
speaking peoples, mostly nomadic, interspersed with various outsiders,
and later of Arabs, into the territory of agriculturalists of Neolithic
cultural tradition and of basically European racial character. The
Ghomara-Masmuda invasion is one of the earliest which may be salvaged
from Berber traditional history, and this was followed by that of the
Senhaja, and finally by that of the Zenata. Although the main direction
of these expansions seems to have been from east to west, from the Harm tic
center to its periphery, this is not true of all of them. The Senhaja, in at
least part of their history, moved eastward.
In remote parts of Barbary are still to be found clans and families
who cannot trace their ancestry to one of these noble Hamitic lines, or
to Arabs, but who admit descent from indigenous heathen or from Chris-
tians. These families are called by Marmol "Berbers without name,"
and represent the last survival in mountain communities of pre-Hamitic
patrilineal family lines, except in those cases in which descent from
Romanized Christians of various origins is indicated. Even in the clans
named after Hamites or Arabs, the indigenous blood may be strong
through continuous female infusion and through adoption.
The Masmuda and Ghomara, who made up the earliest invasion on
record, are said to have come from Rio de Oro, as are the Senhaja,
according to one tradition. There is, however, a story in both El Bekri
and Ibn Khaldun that Ifrikos, the ancestor of the Senhaja, came from
the Yemen, not long before the birth of Mohammed. This curious
legend is supported in ways unknown to the Arab historians, for cultural
traits diffused by some of the Senhaja-speaking peoples include terraced
agriculture with irrigation, high earthen tigremts or castles, architecturally
466 THE RACES OF EUROPE
similar to those in southern Arabia, textile techniques, textile designs, and
pottery forms and decorations all of which are strikingly similar to those
in the Yemen.
The Zenata, who appeared in Roman Africa in the third or fourth
century A.D. and did not invade northern Morocco and Spain until the
twelfth century,81 brought with them the camel, which they passed on to
some Middle Atlas Braber tribes, who, separately or in combination
with them, developed into the Tuareg. These Zenatan invaders were
what Gautier calls les grands nomads chamelliers, the tall, lean, desert
people, riding on camels, clothed in blue, and veiled, who trickled along
the northern rim of the desert, and who took from Rome the outlying
portions of her African empire.
The introduction of the camel changed profoundly the life of the North
African plains, although it had little effect on that of the mountains.
The wheel disappeared completely; the barbaric Libyans with their
bronze and gold vanished from history, and those of them who were not
absorbed by the newcomers and who refused to adopt the new economy
took to the hills, to found rustic family lines among the mountain farmers.
The camels of the newcomers pulled up the grass by the roots, flayed the
trunks of all the trees which they could reach, hastened the process of
soil erosion, and made the plains of North Africa at last truly African in
appearance.
With the introduction of the camel, however, the Sahara became once
more suitable for more than a sub-marginal human habitation. At some
time during the late Pleistocene or during the periods of post-pluvial
climatic change, negroes and negroids had moved up to occupy the
oases and mountains of the northern Sahara, and the southern fringe
of the Atlas country. Kufra was a negro oasis until the Arabs took it,
and the course of the Wed Dra'a is the home of the Haratin, an insuf-
ficiently studied group of negroes. With the camel, white men moved
down into the Sahara as swiftly riding nomads, enslaving the scattered
groups of local negroes, and bringing others up from the Sudan in slave
caravans, to cast a negroid tinge across the racial complexion of North
Africa, which had hitherto been wholly white man's country. Most of
the slave trading, however, was carried on in Arab times, and indeed,
the Arabs arrived in North Africa not long after their most useful animal,
the camel.
The Arab invasions of North Africa can be divided into two waves,
the first which came directly from Arabia, shortly after the death of the
Prophet, and which brought families of aristocratic Arabs from the Hejaz
and Yemen. These invaders came mostly without wives, married Berber
81 As Almohades, or al-Muwahhids.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 467
women, and founded towns and dynasties. Although they converted
much of the countryside to Islam, they did not force the Berbers to accept
Arabic speech, which was confined, at that time, to the cities. In the
eleventh century came the second Arab invasion, which was one of much
greater volume and importance. This was the invasion of the Beni
Hillal and Beni Soleim, tribes of apostate Bedawin from the Syrian
Desert, who had made nuisances of themselves by pillaging caravans.
This Hillali element introduced the first numerically important infusion
of Arab blood into North Africa. The Beni Hillal and their companions
settled first in Cyrenaica; thence some of them moved on to the Algerian
plateau country, and to the country just south of the Atlas in the Moroccan
Sahara, and onward to Rio de Oro. Other bands passed from Algeria
through the Taza gateway down the trik es-sultan, to occupy the Moroccan
plains along the Atlantic coast, from Safi to Tangier, and inland to Fez
and Wezzan.
At present the inhabitants of North Africa are about evenly divided be-
tween Arabic and Berber speech, with the former commoner in the east, and
the latter in the west. Although the Siwans speak Senhajan, the Gyrenai-
cans, largely Berber in blood, have been Arabized in language. Aside
from the Tuareg, who also speak Senhajan, the next most easterly area of
Berber speech lies in southern Tunisia and eastern Tripoli. In Algeria
Berber is spoken by two important Berber groups, the Kabyles of the
coastal mountains east of Algiers, and the Shawia of the Aures Mountains
farther south. Oasis people, such as the Mzabites of Ghardaia, are also
Berber speakers, as are the inhabitants of the Tunisian island of Jerba.
In Morocco Berbers hold more land than do Arabic speakers; the whole
northern strip from east of Melilla nearly to Tctwan, is occupied by
Riffians and Ghomarans; the whole Middle Atlas by Senhajan Braber,
and the Grand Atlas west of Demnat, by Shluh. In the lowlands east of
the Middle Atlas, on the Algerian- Morpccan borderlands, and reaching
up into the Riffian territory, are tribes of Zenata.
Throughout North Africa there are tribes and confederations of Arab-
ized Berbers, and also some Berberized Arabs. Language and ethnic
origins do not always coincide, and North Africa must be studied as a
whole. The present North African peoples, apart from Jews and negroes
and European colonists, represent a blend in different proportions be-
tween descendants of the old Afalou race, the Mesolithic and Neolithic
Mediterraneans, the hypothetical central Asiatic nomads who may or
may not have brought in the horse and chariot, the Hamitic-speaking
tribesmen whose relationships are east of the Nile and in Ethiopia, and
the two waves of Arabs. The regional variation between these elements
reflects, in the main, varying proportions of the different components.
468 THE RACES OF EUROPE
An exception is seen, however, in the coastal region of Tunisia, where
the Carthaginian state had its center, and where there may survive a
minor Punic element, and the Islamized descendants of the much more
numerous Greek and Italian settlers of the Roman period.
(11) TtfE EASTERN ARABO-BERBERS, LIBYA, AND THE OASES
The subject of this section will be the population of the eastern part
of the Italian territory of Libya, and of Siwa Oasis, which is under
Egyptian suzerainty. This population is largely Arabic-speaking, although
the Siwans still maintain a Senhajan idiom; the Cyrenaican tribes of
Berber ancestry have been linguistically Arabicized. In this territory
there are three general classes of people (1) Oasis Berbers (2) Arabized
agricultural Berbers, in Gyrenaica and Marmarica, (3) Nomadic tribes,
mostly of Arab origin. The third group lives mostly in the hinterland
of Cyrenaica, and in the neighborhood of the oases of Awjila and Magiabra.
The oasis dwellers of Siwa and Awjila are so much alike that they may
be considered together.82 In both there is a considerable homogeneity
of type, and this type differs little from that described in Kharga, except
that here it is more extreme. We have anthropometric data on the stature
and bodily segments only from Awjila. These oasis dwellers are short,
with a mean stature of 161 cm.; relatively long armed, with a relative
span of 105. The shoulders are relatively broad and the legs somewhat
short. The Siwans on the whole seem very much the same, judging from
descriptions and photographs. Neither of these populations appears
particularly well nourished.
The most notable feature about these oasis peoples is their extreme
dolichocephaly. The mean for both Siwa and Awjila is 71.7, and in
neither group has a single brachycephal been measured. The heads are
of moderate size, with lengths of 193 mm. and breadths of 138 mm. The
vault height, at least in Awjila, is relatively low, with a mean of 117
mm. On the whole these people are a hyperdolichocephalic and platy-
cephalic group, and stand at an extreme end of the Mediterranean
racial range in vault proportions. The faces are both short and narrow,
with a mean menton-nasion height of 118 and bizygomatics of 130 mm.
in the case of Siwa and 133 mm. in the case of Awjila. The corresponding
facial indices are mesoprosopic to mildly leptoprosopic. The noses of
these people are mesorrhine, with nasal indices of 70 in the case of Awjila
and 73 in the case of Siwa. In both the nose height is approximately
50 mm. and the mesorrhine condition is caused not by the breadth of the
nose but by its shortness.
82 Cline, W. B., HAS, vol. 10, 1932.
Puccioni,,N., Antropometria delle Gente delta Cyrenaica.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 469
The hair form in both groups is characteristically wavy. In Siwa,
one-fourth of the series is said to have curly to frizzly hair, while the same
type is apparently rare in Awjila. Beard and body hair are quite scanty,
and the hair color is usually black, but with a very few individuals in
Siwa classified as dark brown. The eye color is dark brown in three-
fourths of the Si wans examined, and the incidence of eye blondism totals
only 9 per cent in the Siwan group, while there is no evidence of it whatever
in Awjila, where the eye colors include both dark brown and light brown.
In hair and eye color, then, the oasis people are unusually brunet for
North Africans. The skin color of both these oasis populations is likewise
on the brunet side. In Siwa it falls for the most part between the von
Luschan #12 and #15, which is a dark brunet- white or a light brown, and
10 per cent of the group has pinkish-white skin. In Awjila it runs from
#16 to #24, and is often a medium brown.
In both these groups straight noses are commonest, but nasal convexity
is very frequent, and concave forms are rare. The roots are of moderate
height, but with a tendency toward broadness, and the bridge is moder-
ately high and moderately broad. The tips are of medium thickness
with medium or slightly flaring wings, and the nasal tip is usually slightly
elevated. One of the most characteristic features of the nose of the Siwans,
and of the Awjila people, is a considerable nasion depression. The
browridges, however, are usually absent or slight, and the forehead
slightly sloping to straight; in some cases bulbous.
The chins are frequently receding and the jaws narrow. The mean
bigonial diameter of 99 mm. among Siwans indicates the extreme narrow-
ness of jaws among these people, which, however, does not reach a Somali
extreme.
On the whole the evidence from these oases, when combined with
that from Kharga, demonstrates that the eastern Libyan peoples of
antiquity included an oasis dwelling branch of an extreme Mediterranean
type characterized by small stature, 'extreme dolichocephaly, a low
cranial vault, a short face, and a mesorrhine nose. This type, while
well-characterized today, cannot be identified with any hitherto studied
skeletal Mediterranean sub-race, although it appears closest to the small-
sized, mesorrhine or chamaerrhine Mediterranean type which reached
southwestern Europe during the Mesolithic or as a Neolithic advance
guard, and which is best represented by the cranial series from Chamb-
landes.83
The inhabitants of the oasis of Magiabra, adjacent to Awjila, belong
partly to the same type, but differ in having a higher cephalic index,
their mean being 75.5, and also in possessing the taller stature of 164 cm.
83 See Chapter IV, p. 115; also Appendix I, col. 14.
470 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Certain Marabutic tribes, who live on the outskirts of these oases and
who are of palpably Arab descent are much taller, with a mean stature
of 168 cm. and are dolichocephalic (C.I. = 74).
In the agricultural regions of Marmarica and Cyrenaica, the Arabo-
Berber tribesmen present a variety of physical types. On the whole
they are a moderately tall group with tribal stature means ranging from
166 to 171 cm. As with the oasis people, their characteristic hair form is
wavy, and curly forms are relatively rare. The hair is mostly black,
but brown hair rises to 20 per cent among certain tribes, and the mus-
taches are often lighter. This hair blondism is particularly prevalent
along the coast. The skin color is a dark brunet-white, usually between
von Luschan #12 to #18, but the range is considerable. The fairest skin
is again found coastally. Light brown is the commonest eye color, but
33 per cent show some evidence of eye blondism. All of these people are
dolichocephalic with cephalic index means ranging from 74 to 77, They
are all long faced, and all leptorrhine. Considerable differences are found
in their facial features, and in order to discuss these it will be best to de-
scribe some of the principal types under which this population falls.
Relatively rare is a thick-set type with a large head, a square, low
face, retreating forehead, heavy browridges, deep nasion depression,
and a rather short and wide nose with a straight or concave profile.
This type is not negroid, but is reminiscent of the Afalou type found in
the Upper Palaeolithic remains of Algeria, and seems to be the oldest
indigenous racial element. An ordinary Mediterranean type is also dis-
tinguishable, with a straight or slightly sloping forehead, moderate brow-
ridges, and a straight nasal profile. This Mediterranean type frequently
shows an admixture with the first type, and this influence is evidenced by
a rectangular facial contour and a considerable width and prominence
of the gonial angles.
A third type, which seems to be of considerable numerical importance,
is either Near Eastern or East African in affinity, or both; its diagnostic
features are a receding forehead, a high vault, small or absent browridges,
a minimum of nasion depression, and a long arc-shaped convex nose.
This type must be ancient in Cyrenaica, for it is commonly represented
as a standard Libyan type on Egyptian monuments. Now and then one
encounters individuals with extremely long, narrow faces and vaults,
with straight foreheads and straight noses, who look like the non-negroid
end type of the Somalis. Persons who give the impression of being largely
Nordic are not common, but may occasionally be observed.
Apparently pure northern Arabian Bedawin features are not infrequent,
but the Arabs in North Africa, from Cyrenaica to Morocco, are tall;
since they are taller than most Berbers, it is unlikely that this elevated
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 471
stature was acquired since their arrival. There are a few brachycephals
in Cyrenaica, living in the coastal villages, and these appear to be Dinarics
or Armenoids; neither of these racial types, however, has an important
part to play either here or in most other sections of North Africa. Cyrenaica,
with its medley of Mediterranean and pre-Mediterranean forms, serves
as a fitting threshold to the study of North African races.
(12) THE TUAREG
The most specialized, next to the Riffians the most famed, and at the
same time probably the least well-known of all North African Berber
groups is that of the Tuareg, a conglomeration of nomadic tribes
dominating the caravan routes and the few cultivable plots of land lying
between the Libyan Desert and Rio de Oro, and between the Algerian
oases and the Niger. Some indeed, live in the Air plateau on the southern
side of the Niger. Despite the vastness of their territory, the Tuareg are
not numerous, since their habitat will support but a minimum population.
They are divided into two free classes, the Ihaggaren, or nobles, the Imrad,
or tribute-paying tribesmen, and slaves. The nobles ride about on their
camels policing this territory, protecting their imrad, and pillaging those
of other tribes, taking toll of the caravans which pass through their coun-
try, and themselves raiding and transporting slaves.84
The social system of the Tuareg 86 is a finely balanced response to
their environmental needs, and resembles that of the northern Arabian
Bedawin in its high evaluation of self-reliance and independence of action.
The nobles maintain their superior position by protecting their dependents
and by their willingness to fight; with this attitude is connected the concept
of racial purity, which in effect makes the physical type of the Tuareg
nobles a result, in part, of their social system. Inheritance of rank among
the Tuareg passes through the mother, and the numerous mixed offspring
of Tuareg men and slave concubines are not given noble rank. Despite
the close association between the Tuareg and the negroes, who preceded
them in the Sahara and with whom they are in close contact in Nigeria,
the noble class has to a large extent preserved its freedom from negroid
admixture, although there are many individual exceptions to this rule.
The imrad are in some cases fully white, and individual imrad may be
found who are less negroid than individual nobles, but the reverse, as a
84 The tense used in the above sentence and in the following paragraph is the ethno-
graphic present. Actually, the Tuareg have largely ceased these activities, under
French military pressure, and are now faced with the problem of making a new social
and economic adjustment, no easy task for a people so specialized and so finely adjusted
to an extreme environment.
86 Sources on Tuareg culture are : Duveyrier, H., Les Touareg du Nord; and Benhazera,
M., Six Mois Chez, les Touareg du Ahaggar.
472 THE RACES OF EUROPE
rule, is true. The Tuareg have a definite standard of masculine beauty,
a well-recognized noble physique and cast of countenance, which un-
doubtedly has been crystallized by centuries of selection.
The physical type of the non-negroid Tuareg nobles, and of the imrad
who are white, is, thanks to a number of anthropometric studies,86 well
enough known to merit accurate description. Since the Tuareg males
are never seen without their face-coverings, an accurate knowledge of
their characteristic physiognomy is limited to a few scientists who have
literally succeeded in lifting the Tuareg veil.
The Tuareg nobles are tall men, with mean statures running tribally
from 172 cm. to 178 cm.; about 174 cm. would be their total mean.
They are lean, long-armed, and long-legged, with narrow shoulders,
narrow hips, and chests which are narrow in an antero-posterior direction;
their hands and feet are long and very narrow, their fingers long and
thin. The very fine wrists and ankles which we have observed among
the Somalis are also present here. The addition of Negro blood to this
Tuareg bodily type broadens the shoulders, shortens the legs, and makes
the hands and feet wider and larger. The Tuareg relative sitting height
mean of 49, indicating that the sitting height is less than half the stature,
serves to illustrate the extremely linear constitutional type of this people.
The heads of the Tuareg are dolichocephalic and large; tribal means
in the cephalic index vary between 72 and 75, but 73 is the central point
of the whole. No brachycephals are found among the white nobles,
although they occasionally appear among negroids of other classes.
The head length mean for a series of 75 Tuareg nobles is 195 mm., the
breadth 146 mm.; the vault is apparently also high. The faces are both
long and moderately broad, with a mean menton-nasion height of 126
mm.,87 and a bizygomatic of 136 mm. The upper face height (72 mm.)87 is
moderately great, and the mandible less shallow than with most Mediter-
raneans; the foreheads and jaws are said to be narrow. Among selected
groups of unmixed nobles, the nasal index means run as low as 62 and
63; among nobles in general, 67 or 68 87 is a commoner figure."
The skin color of the Tuareg is difficult to determine, since they do not
wash, and indigo runs from their garments. But when cleaned, the
unexposed skin of the non-negroid nobles and Imrad is seen to be a brunet-
8«Benoit, F., and Kossovitch, N., CRSB, vol. 109, 1932, pp. 198-200.
Leblanc, E., RDAP, vol. 38, 1928, pp. 331-357; vol. 39, 1929, pp. 19-24.
Leblanc, E., and Bercerot, J., RDAP, vol. 46, 1936, pp. 140-150.
Verneau, R., Anth, vol. 27, 1916, pp. 47-95, 211-242, 406-430, 539-568.
Zeltner, F., Anth, vol. 25, 1914, pp. 459-476; RDAP, vol. 25, 1915, pp. 170-173.
A craniological study is: Leblanc, E., RDAP, vol. 39, 1929, pp. 351-363.
87 Adjustments and recombinations of different sources, and substitutions for ques-
tionable techniques, have been employed in arriving at these figures. The results are, I
believe, reliable.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 473
white, without brownish tinge; the mixed bloods, however, who are
predominantly Tuareg and only in a minor degree negroid, assume a con-
stant and characteristic dark brown color, known in North Africa as
amrani, and comparable to the characteristic hue of the Somalis. Mixed
bloods of the Ifora Tuareg of the southern Sahara have a reddish-bronze
color, foreign to the northern Tuareg hybrids, and due, in all probability,
to mixture with Hausa people in the Nigerian plateau of Air.
The eyes of the Tuareg are all brown; not a single light or mixed eye
has been reported by competent observers; the blue eyes attributed to
the Tuareg by travellers cannot be supported by anthropometrists. The
characteristic Tuareg eye color is actually a very dark brown, verging
on black. The hair likewise is black, and no evidence of hair blondism
has been statistically reported from the noble group. The hair is straight,
wavy, or curly with ringlets; frizzly hair among the Tuareg is considered
a negroid diagnostic.
The classical Tuareg noble, an ideal type to which many of them, as a
matter of fact, belong, has a narrow, high, and but slightly sloping
forehead; there are no browridges or very slight ones. The face takes the
form of an attenuated pentagon, with the base aloft; prominent malars,
a narrow jaw, and a pointed chin produce this form. The unmixed
Tuareg are orthognathous, have thin to medium lips, and small teeth,
which in older people are often worn to the gums. The nose, which is
the most characteristic Tuareg feature, is high-bridged, narrow-rooted,
and often convex in the upper segment, while the lower or cartilaginous
part is straight, thin-tipped, and depressed at the end, with small wings
and oblique, highly excavated nostrils.
In mixed forms, which in the lower Tuareg classes are more numerous
than the pure noble strain, the stature tends to be lower, the shoulders
broader, the head vault wider and lower, the forehead and mid-face
broader, and the nose thicker tipped, with wider wings.
The Tuareg in their pure form belong to a specialized Mediterranean
sub-type, the creation of which is partly a matter of isolation and selec-
tion under extreme environmental stimuli. They resemble the East African
Hamites very closely, and especially the whiter element among the Somali,
but in their extreme stature and great head size they seem closer than
most other living Mediterraneans to the pre-Neolithic East African men.
Tuareg history does not support the view that they represent a survival
in isolation of a pure East African strain from a remote period. Their
own traditions trace the nobles and Imrad to two ancestresses, Tin
Hinan 88 and Takamat, who came from Tafilalet and who were Braber,
88 This ancestress was apparently a real person. The tomb traditionally associated with
her name has been excavated and found to contain a female skeleton, richly equipped.
474 THE RACES OF EUROPE
or Moroccan Senhaja. The Braber ancestry cannot, however, be the
only factor in the genetic composition of the Tuareg; their use of the
camel, and their general manner of living must be ascribed to Zenata
from Cyrenaica, who probably contributed largely to the ancestral strain.
It is more than likely that a number of Berber families participated in the
rapid adaptation to desert life which the Tuareg ancestors must have
undergone in the early centuries of the Christian era.89 It must be re-
membered that the chief contacts of the Tuareg with settled lands have
been with the Sudan rather than with the north, and that the non-
negroid elements in such peoples as the Fulah and Hausa must have
been Hamitic in an East African sense. The Tuareg probably represent
in a general way the ancestral physical type of the bringers of Hamitic
speech to North Africa, but their adherence to this type must be a matter
of recombination and % selection. They are by no means typical Berbers,
but may be taken as an end type in the Berber racial complex,
(13) EASTERN BARBARY, ALGERIA, AND TUNISIA
The population of Algeria and Tunisia, apart from the numerous
European colonists who have settled there during the last hundred years,
and from the Jews who have lived in the cities for a much longer period,
is varied and complex in the cultural and linguistic sense, as well as
racially. In this section it will not be possible to cover each tribe or even
each group of tribes, but it will be necessary to select representative
peoples for special consideration.
Any division of this population into segments must needs be arbitrary,
but it must be segmented if it is to be discussed simply, With this warning,
we shall proceed to divide it as follows:
(1) Mountain Berbers, terrace agriculturalists; perhaps the oldest and
most stable element in the population.
(2) The Berber-speaking oasis people of Ghardaia, Tidikelt, Biskra,
etc. A special group culturally, and belonging to the schismatic
religious sect of Kharejites, or Khawarij. To these may be added
the inhabitants of the Isle of Jerba.
(3) The Arabic-speaking tribesmen of the more arid plains and
plateaux; pastoral nomads or transhumants for the most part.
(4) The townsmen, A mixed urban population of diverse origin,
differing in each locality; the pre-Arab Christian population of
partly European origin is responsible for certain elements in
Tunisia; converted Jews have founded the important commercial
89 Comparable to the rapid convergence of American Indians from many quarters
to the western plains with the acquisition of the horse, and the equally rapid develop-
ment of a characteristic Plains culture.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 475
families in some cities; negro slaves, Christian slaves, Turks, and
wanderers of all sorts have all contributed to the general complexity.
A racial study of townspeople by social levels, here as well as in
Morocco, would be interesting, but remains to be made.
Of these four elements listed above, I propose to discuss only the
first in any detail. Hence it will be better to deal at once with the second
and third. The oasis Berbers, who live in compact villages and are noted
for their endogamy and clannishness, have a reputation in North Africa
for sharpness in money matters, and this is especially true of the Beni
Mzab of the oasis of Ghardaia.90 The Mzabites form a caste of shop-
keepers, setting up booths in the markets of most of the towns and cities
of eastern Barbary, associating only with their compatriots, and returning
to their oasis to retire and marry once their fortunes are made. In this
respect they resemble the Hadhramis in the East Indies, the Greeks
who come to America from the neighborhood of Sparta, and the Cantonese.
The Mzabites are short men, with a mean stature of 162 cm., relatively
wide-shouldered and long-armed, with the unusually high relative span
of 106. They are almost exclusively brunet, with less than 5 per cent of
incipient blondism in either hair or eye color. Their hair is character-
istically black or dark brown, their eyes include both dark and light
brown shades, and many irises which fall between the two brown extremes.
In bodily size and proportions, and in pigmentation, they resemble the
oasis people of Libya, from Kharga to Awjila. They differ, however, in
head form, for the mean cephalic index of Mzabite males is 77.3, in the
low mesocephalic category. The normal range of this index is from 71
to 85; there may have been originally both a dolichocephalic and a
brachy cephalic element involved, but the present type, whether or not
the result of a blend, is definitely mesocephalic. The face is moderately
narrow (133 mm.) and the nose is leptorrhine and absolutely long. The
Berber inhabitants of Biskra Oasis 91 resemble the Mzabites closely in
measurements and in pigmentation.. The hair form of these latter, and
probably of the Mzabites as well, is usually straight or slightly wavy.
A closer approach to true brachycephaly is found among both the
Berber -speaking and Arabic-speaking Kharejites of Jerba, who resemble
the more brachycephalic element among the Mzabites. The Jerbans are
of medium stature (165 cm.), and are often of a stockier bodily build
than is usual in North Africa.92 Their mean cephalic index, 80.8, is
90 Amat, C., RDAP, ser. 2, vol. 7, 1884, pp. 617-639; La Mzab et les Mzabites.
9lTopinard, P., BSAP, vol. 5, ser. 2, 1870, pp. 548-555.
92Benoit, F., and Kossovitch, N., CRSB, vol. 109, 1932, pp. 198-200.
Bertholon, L., Anth, vol. 8, 1897, pp. 399-425. Also
Bertholon, L., ajid Chantre, E., Recherches anthropologiques dans la Berberie Orientalet
pp. 175-176.
476 THE RACES OF EUROPE
actually sub-brachycephalic, and in one tribe, the Beni Maguel, it rise
to 82. These Jerbans are longer and narrower faced than most othe
North Africans (F.I. = 93.8) but at the same time are not as narrow
nosed (N.I. = 70.6). Their typical head form is globular, with a prominen
forehead equipped with frontal bosses, and a slightly flattened occiput
They are markedly brunet, with only two partial blonds in a series of 148
Facially, the Mzabites and Jerbans show a smoothness of feature and <
lack of bony prominence, combined with a frequent convexity of th<
nose, which gives them a characteristic appearance which renders then
easily recognizable. The Algerian and Tunisian Kharejites, whethe
living in oases or on an island, seem to be related to or similar to th<
oasis people farther east, with the addition of some brachycephalic 01
brachycephalizing factor which is strongest among the maritime Khare
jites, and which cannot be explained on the basis of present information
It is tempting, though unprofitable, to suspect the early accretion o
an exotic, sea-borne brachycephalic element, such as that found amon|
the maritime people of the Arabian coast. Whatever the origin of thi:
element, which does not appear to be native to North Africa,93 endogamy
and the following of specialized hereditary trades must have been impor
tant factors in the stabilization of the Kharejite type or types.
Division number three of our list, the nomadic or semi-nomadi<
Arabic speakers of the plains and plateaux,94 is comprised of numerous
tribes partly or wholly of Arab origin; some of them, however, must be
nothing more than Arabized groups of Zenata and Senhaja. They an
all, or nearly all, tall people, with stature means in the neighborhooc
of 170 cm.; they are dolichocephalic or mesocephalic, and leptorrhine
with a tendency to strong nasal convexity and high, sloping foreheads
Among them may be seen members of various Mediterranean sub-races
including chiefly Atlanto-Mediterranean and what appears to be Irano-
Afghan. Smaller Mediterraneans are not infrequent, and one sees amon§
them an occasional Nordic or near-Nordic.
The mountain agriculturalists are best represented by two groups QJ
tribes, the Shawia and the Kabyles, the former living in the Aures Moun-
tains south of Gonstantine, and the latter in the coastal Djurjura imme-
diately east of the city of Algiers.96 Both of these Berber groups are noted
93 The Jerbans possess a number of exotic cultural traits, such as dog-eating, the
drinking of palm toddy, etc.
94 Based on Bertholon and Chantre.
95 Besides Bertholon and Chantre, the chief sources are :
d'Hercourt, G., MSAP, vol. 3, 1868, pp. 1-23.
Malbot, H., and Verneau, R., Anth, vol. 8, 1897, pp. 1-18, 174-204.
Papillault, G. F., BSAP, ser. 4, vol. 8, 1897, p. 538.
Randall-Maclver, D., and Wilkin, A., Libyan Notes.
Vir6, A., BSAP, ser. 4, vol. 4, 1893, p. 71. (Continued on page 477.)
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 477
for their European-like features and fair skins; blondism of a high order
is frequently attributed to them in the non-statistical literature. Both of
them contain a minimum of Arab blood, and of the brunet Mediterranean
strain or strains which may have been associated with the introduction
of Hamitic speech into North Africa.
The notable fact about the Shawia is that, in a metrical sense, they are
identical with northwestern European Nordics. One could substitute
the means of the Shawia sample of Randall-Maclver and Wilkin for
those of a characteristic eastern Norwegian province without serious
discrepancy.96 This is true of stature, relative span, and relative sitting
height, as well as of the principal dimensions of the head and face. The
only difference of any importance is that the minimum frontal (106 mm.)
and the bigonial (105 mm.) of the Shawia are both a little wider than
those of the European Nordics — that they diverge from the Nordics in
a non-Mediterranean direction and in the direction of the population
of western Norway.
Although the Shawia are so Nordic anthropometrically, and although
they are characteristically white skinned, they are for the most part
brunet in hair and eye color. Only some 30 per cent have mixed or light
eyes, and 96 per cent are listed as having black head hair. The nasal
profile shows Nordic tendencies; concavo-convex forms, like those com-
mon in England, are as frequent as straight, and together account for
half of the whole; convex profiles are more frequent than concave,
which are found among one-sixth of the group. Against the prevailing
brunetness of the Shawia stands the tradition that their ancestors were
formerly much blonder, and that their present brunet condition is due
to mixture with outside Berber and Arab groups. This statement, how-
ever, belongs to the class of evidence which cannot be proved. Since
the available series of Shawia do not lend themselves to serious analysis,
the anthropometrically Nordic condition of this people cannot be dis-
cussed profitably here; there are other such populations in North Africa
which have been more extensively studied, and which will be dealt with
shortly.
The Kabyles of the Djurjura Mountains cover a considerable area,
and probably vary regionally, as differences between various series
Weissgerber, H., Les Blancs d'Afrique.
Also an unpublished series of 304 adult male Kabyles, measured at Tizi Ouzou by
H. H. Kidder under the auspices of the Division of Anthropology of Harvard Univer-
sity.
96 The same is true for the series of Papillault and of Bertholon and Ghantre, except
for a few technical discrepancies. Randall-Maclver and Wilkin find a total face height
mean of 120.95 mm. for the Shawia, and a nose height mean of 51.35 mm., both indi-
cating a low location of nasion. Since Bryn also locates nasion low in his Somatologie
der Norweger9 the comparability of the two is not impaired.
478 THE RACES OF EUROPE
would indicate.97 Some are very much like the Shawia, but those coming
from the neighborhood of Tizi Ouzou 98 are shorter statured and smaller
headed. They are, in fact, so constituted anthropometrically that they
serve as an excellent example of a centrally placed early Mediterranean
racial type, with certain modifications.
The stature of this group is moderate (164.6 cm.), the bodily propor-
tions the same as those of the Shawia, and of most Nordics; at the same
time comparable to those of Plateau Yemenis in Arabia. The light mean
body weight of 124 Ibs., with the heaviest man only 190 Ibs., is typically
Mediterranean. The head length, however, which varies from 161 mm.
to 211 mm., has a mean of 187 mm., while the breadth falls at 145 mm.,
with a cephalic index mean of 77.6. This index ranges from 68 to 91,
indicating a great variety of head form. The vault height of 127 mm.
completes the parallel between the mean of this variable group and the
Yemenis. In facial dimensions the Kabyles are good Mediterraneans,
except for an excess in forehead and jaw widths, in which they equal
the Shawia. In having an upper facial height mean of 73.7 mm., as
compared to the total face height of 122.4 mm., they are typically Mediter-
ranean as opposed to Nordic. Except for forehead and jaw breadths
their anthropometric position on the whole lies with not only the Yemenis
but also with the predynastic Egyptians.
Their pigmentation is characteristically brunet, but definite blonds
occur. Black and dark brown hair run to 85 per cent of the whole, while
reds number 4 per cent. The eye color is light or mixed in but 16 per
cent of the group; the rest are evenly divided between dark brown and
light brown. The skin color, observed on exposed parts only, is definitely
dark in almost all instances; while the unexposed skin is undoubtedly
lighter, the low incidence of freckling (9 per cent) would argue against
much extreme lightness of skin color. There is, without question, a
numerically minor blond element submerged in the brunet Kabyle
mass, as exemplified by this series, but it is relatively insignificant.
The hair growth is usually dense on the head, with little baldness,
and relatively sparse on the beard. The hair is, in the majority of in-
stances, straight or wavy, with a 23 per cent incidence of ringlet curls,
and 12 per cent of individuals showing what may be presumed to be a
negroid hair form. The texture of the hair is usually medium. In these
pilous characters, the group as a whole agrees with a normal Mediter-
ranean classification, with evidence of a negroid tendency in a minority
of cases.
87 Randall-Maclver and Wilkin, d'Hercourt, Vir6, and Kidder. Since Kidder's series
is the most extensive, it is the one chiefly used here.
98 Principally from Bellora, Beni Sirenzer, Ma'akta, and Sheikh Ou Meddour.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 479
The Kabyles lack, for the most part, either internal or external eye-
folds, but one-fifth of the sample shows median folds, .which indicate a
low orbit, and may be a reminder of the old Afalou race. The eyebrows
are typically and almost exclusively medium in thickness, lacking in
concurrency, and relatively great in lateral extension. Thus the bushi-
ness and concurrency of the eyebrows common among Asiatic Mediter-
ranean varieties hardly exist here.
In the conformation of the Kabyle face, in contradistinction to the
metrical variability of the vault, there is a considerable homogeneity,
and a characteristic type to which the majority of Kabyles conform.
The glabella is moderately developed and heavy browridges are rare;
the forehead is usually straight or only slightly sloping. In the nasal
observations, almost all of the characters tabulated exhibit an inter-
mediate position in regard to the total white racial group. The root
of the nose, set at a moderate depth below glabella, is of slightly more
than moderate height and breadth; the bridge tends to slightly more
than medium height and breadth. The profile is usually straight, with
a strong minority of concave and concavo-convex forms. The tip is
moderate in thickness; the wings are of medium lateral extension, and
rarely flaring. The septum is usually straight, and inclined upward
in nearly two-thirds of instances. On the whole, the Kabyle nose shows
little or nothing of a high-rooted, beaky Near Eastern quality, and less
that can be called negroid. It is, on the whole, an average Mediterranean
nose.
The lips are, for the most part, on the thin side of medium; prognathism
of any kind is almost completely absent, the chin prominence is average
for whites, and malars and gonial angles, which give prominence and
detail to the face, are on the strong side of medium. The square-faced
condition so often noted among Berbers is present in a minority of this
group. Lambdoid flattening, which with a great jaw breadth is a
diagnostic of the old Afalou race of Algeria, is present in 50 per cent
of the group; but it must be remembered that it is not entirely lacking
among pure Mediterraneans.
On both anthropometric and somatoscopic grounds, one is led to the
conclusion that the Kabyles represent a conglomerate survival of several
of the more ancient North African racial elements; the major one is a
central Mediterranean, with a slight negroid tendency or accretion; and
this Mediterranean dates back to the days of Early Neolithic agriculture
in North Africa. With it also survive traces of the Afalou men, whom we
shall see in greater strength farther west, and some of whom show a
tendency to brachycephaly; and of Nordics, whenever and however they
may have appeared in North Africa.
480 THE RACES OF EUROPE
(14) WESTERN BARBARY; MOROCCO AND THE
CANARY ISLANDS
Morocco contains the largest number of Berbers of any North African
country, both absolutely and relatively; 60 per cent of her population
is Berber-speaking, as compared to 33 per cent in Algeria. The Moroccan
Berbers are mostly mountain people, while the plains are occupied by
Arabs. The road from Oujda, on the Algerian border, to Taza and Fez,
separates the Berbers into two groups, who diverge to the west with
their mountain chains. The North Moroccan Berbers include the RifT-
ians, the Senhaja Sghir (a group of tribes of Senhajan origin living in
the highest mountain nucleus of the Riffian chain), the Ghomara, and
the linguistically Arabicized Jebala and Anjera. The southern group
includes, on the northeast, the Braber, a group of Senhaja tribes of
sheep-herders and horsemen, partly agricultural, living half the year in
great castles, and the other half in tents; and on the southwest, the Shluh,
Masmuda tribesmen, who are fully sedentary, and live on both slopes of
the great Atlas, and in the Wed Sous.
The Riffians, the best known of the Moroccan Berbers, are sedentary
agriculturalists, with the exceptions of two tribes, the Metalsa and Beni
Bu Yahi, who live in the Caret Desert through which the Muluya River
flows. They are the blondest and most Nordic of the Berbers, and have
received much acclaim for their warlike ability. They are not, however,
of homogeneous ethnic origin." In some tribes the leading families
claim descent from Senhaja, others from Zenata, while families of sherifs
are, of course, of saintly Arab origin. Families in the central Rif, such
as the Beni Khattab, the clan of Sidi Mohammed ben Abd el Krim, are
descended from the eighth century Arab missionaries who founded the
Kingdom of Nekor in the coastal section of what is now the tribe of Beni
Urriaghel. The tribes of purest Riffian descent, who admit indigenous
heathen lineage in many families, are the Beni Urriaghel, Beni Amart,
and Gzennaya. These form a cultural nucleus in the country back of the
Bay of Alhucemas.
Although the tribes are not uniform metrically in a strict sense, they
are all moderately tall, all dolichocephalic, all high-headed, and all
leptorrhine. The mean stature of the Riffian nation is 168.6 cm.; the
tribes vary from 166 cm. to 172 cm. Bodily proportions are on the whole
89 Both the cultural and anthropometric material in this section which deals with
Morocco are derived from Goon, G. S., Tribes of the Rif.
Other sources are :
Benoit, F., and Kossovitch, F., CRSB, vol. 109, 1932, p. 198. This contains data on
four constants for 4238 Moroccan Berbers, treated as a single group; also Kossovitch,
N.s ZFRK, vol. 1, 1935, pp. 134-136.
Kossovitch, N., and Benoit, F., Anth, vol. 45, 1935, pp. 347-363.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 481
lean and spare, with a relative sitting height of 50.9, and a relative span
of 104. The shoulders are moderately broad, the hips narrow. There is
a type of Riffian with a lateral body build, a long trunk, and wide shoulders
and hips, but this type is in no tribe numerous enough to influence the
mean of the whole.
Absolute head size among Riffians reaches European proportions;
the three major head dimensions are 195 mm. by 146 mm. by 129 mm.
The mean cephalic index of the whole group is 75, with tribal variations
running from 73.5 to 75.8. Very few Riffians are actually brachycephalic.
Heads which are large in one dimension are usually large in the others;
variation individually and tribally is more in size than in shape. In one
tribe, Beni Said, the bulk of the series is composed of the imgharen, or mem-
bers of the tribal council which was in session on the day of measuring; the
heads of this august group have the remarkable dimensions, for North
Africa, of 197 mm. by 148 mm. by 131 mm. To equal these diameters
one would need normally to go to western Norway, to Ireland, or to
the United States Senate. Some tribes have much smaller vaults, how-
ever; for example, Targuist, with 192 mm. by 144 rnm. by 127 mm., has
more typically Mediterranean or Nordic dimensions.
The faces of the Riffians are, as a rule, of moderate size; the total
face height mean of the whole group is 124 mm., the bizygomatic 136 mm.;
the minimum frontal and bigonial are both 106 mm. Tribally, the
heights vary from 121 mm. to 131 mm.; the bizygo^natics from 133 mm.
to 140 mm.; the minimum frontal from 104 mm. to 109 mm.; and the
bigonial from 104 mm. to 108 mm. The longest faces go with the tribes-
men of the eastern Rif, who claim Zenatan ancestry; the shortest ones
with the central tribes of purest Riffian tradition. The facial indices
of these latter are mesoprosopic, the others leptoprosopic. The noses are
largest and most leptorrhine (61-62) in the east, and smallest and least
leptorrhine (64-65) in the west.
The Riffians are pinkish-white skinned, like northern Europeans, in
65 per cent of the total group, and in approximately 80 per cent in the
central tribes. The exposed skin color is brick-red in many cases, being
incapable of tanning; in others it is brunet-white or light brown in
summer, and bleaches out again in winter. Freckles are found on 23 per
cent of Riffians; this figure is approximate since some were measured in
winter, others in the summer. The head hair is black in 44 per cent of
the total, and dark to medium brown in 46 per cent; the others are
reddish-brown or light brown; in a few cases, golden-blond. These last
form less than 1 per cent of the whole, however. The beard is usually much
lighter, being black in only 34 per cent of the total, dark or medium
brown in 25 per cent, reddish-brown in 14 per cent, light brown in 19
482 THE RACES OF EUROPE
per cent, and golden, ashen, or red in 8 per cent. Seventeen per cent of
Riffians show some rufosity in beard color. Since the Riffians wear tur-
bans, and since the few adults who still wear pigtails cover all but the ends
of these, it is the beard color and not the head hair color which is respon-
sible for the current idea of Riffian blondism. Furthermore the children,
who go bareheaded, possess an infantile dominance of blondism, as
among Europeans of mixed pigmentation. The blondest hair and beards
are found in the central Rif, especially in the tribe of Beni Amart, where
over 50 per cent of the men have beards light brown or lighter.
Fifty-seven per cent of Riffians have mixed or light eyes; of the re-
maining 43 per cent, dark brown is the commonest color. Green-brown
is the commonest mixed form, then gray-brown and finally blue-brown;
pure blue eyes account for only 2 per cent of the group, while only one
man was observed with gray eyes. Unmatched eyes are common. In
some tribes as few as 20 per cent are pure dark-eyed, in none more than
55 per cent. On the whole, blondism is strong in the Rif; over half of the
adult men show some trace of it. But the Rif is not a blond country in
the sense that Norway, Sweden, Finland, or even England are blond;
it is, however, blonder than most of Spain or southern Italy.
The morphological features of the head and face vary tribally in the
Rif, as well as individually; there is no such thing as a typical Riffian.
The hair form, however, is in all tribes wavy to ringlet-curly; it is never
frizzly except among blacksmiths and other outsiders who are negroid,
and who enter the Rif as tradesmen, to go out again when they have made
enough money. The Riffians have as heavy beards as northwestern Euro-
peans, and as heavy body hair in most cases; baldness, however, is rare.
Facially there are several well-differentiated types which can best be
described separately. One is a long-faced, hook-nosed brunet or mixed
pigment type commonest in the east, especially among the Nomads;
this physiognomy is considered by the Riffians to be *an importation
of Zenatan or Arab inspiration. Another is a classic Mediterranean, with
slightly sloping forehead, straight nasal profile, slightly elevated tip,
moderate nasal wings and oval facial contour; this type is usually brunet;
it is found everywhere, but especially in the central and western tribes.
A third is a Nordic in the strictest morphological sense, usually with
brown hair and mixed eyes, and a Riffian Nordic could be mistaken for
an Irishman or an Englishman, less easily for a Scandinavian.
A fourth is a large-bodied, large-headed type, tending to mesocephaly,
with a prominent lambdoid flattening especially visible when the scalp is
shaven; the face is broad, the orbits low, as one can easily discern from
the narrow palpebral opening and the presence of median or external
eyefolds; the nose is short, straight, or sometimes snubbed, the mouth
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 483
large, the chin prominent, and the jaw heavy. The pigmentation is
usually mixed, with brown or reddish hair, and light-mixed eyes. This
type, without further discussion, is obviously a somewhat reduced modern
survival of the old Cr6-Magnon-like Afalou men. It is found principally
among the oldest Riffian families, and among tribal office-holders. It
is not rare in the Rif, and its reemergence parallels in a minor sense the
reemergence of the same or a similar type in northwestern Europe.
A smaller variant of this is considered by the Riffians themselves typical
of the mountain Beni Urriaghel; short-statured, broad of build, with
short, broad hands, freckled skin, reddish beard, bluish eyes, a short, wide
face with a square jaw, and a snub nose. It is the prevalence of this last
type, concentrated in the mountain knot between the Beni Urriaghel and
Gzennaya, which has reduced the stature and facial dimensions of these
two tribes as units. These men are the most archaic culturally and the
most inveterate feud fighters in the whole Rif.
As one moves westward along the northern Berber zone of Morocco,
one encounters the Ghomara, on the Mediterranean slope of the curving
ridge of mountains. These Ghomara, who trace their ancestry to an
ancient invasion from the south, once formed an unbroken ethnic unit
with their traditional relatives the Grand Atlas Shluh. They are as
blond as the Riffians, but shorter (165 cm.), and are mesocephalic,
with a mean cephalic index of 77.3 and a minority of brachycephals.
Although the same types are found here as in the Rif, it is the shorter
faced reduced Afalou variety, which leans in an Alpine direction, which
is important.
South of the Ghomara and again west of the Rif, lie the high mountain
tribes of the Senhaja Sghir, including Taghzuth, famous for its craftsmen
in metal and leather; these people speak a Senhajan dialect normally
incomprehensible to Riffians, who can, on the other hand, understand
Ghornaran. Both the Senhaja Sghir and Ghomara, however, are in
recent years tending to lose their Berber speech in favor of Arabic, since
all or nearly all are bilingual. The Senhaja Sghir are darker, as a rule,
than Riffians. A number are definitely negroid, whereas in the Rif
negroid blood is confined to outsiders. Metrically the Senhaja Sghir
are similar to the Riffians, but slightly smaller headed as a rule, and
narrower jawed. There is among them a non- Riffian, Mediterranean
element, which shows itself in a convex nasal profile and a sloping fore-
head, and which is reminiscent of eastern Barbary and of points farther
east.
West of the Senhaja Sghir and Ghomara, and covering the entire
mountain zone of the western third of Spanish Morocco, is the Jebala
country, the home of numerous religious brotherhoods, and inhabited
484 THE RACES OF EUROPE
by tribes very different culturally from the Riffians. The Jeballis, who
have never been properly measured, are as a rule short, often stocky
men, with small to medium-sized mesocephalic heads, aquiline noses,
and small, pointed chins. They are usually brunet in hair color, but
often mixed-eyed, and fair-skinned. In the northern part of the Jebala
country, in the Anjera region which approaches the Straits of Gibraltar,
the Nordic type of the Rif appears again with some frequency.
The Braber of the Middle Atlas, one of the three most numerous
groups of Moroccan Berbers, have never been measured as a separate
entity. 10° Of them one can merely give an eye-witness description, with
all the faults of that method; the author's impression is that they are
among the tallest people in Morocco, that they are usually long-faced
and hook-nosed, with heavy beards, and that they are almost always
brunet.101 This impression is, needless to say, subject to future revision.
The fourth of the great Moroccan Berber groups, the Shluh, differs
from the northern Moroccans in that they are rarely blond. Mixed and
light eyes are reduced to the traditional Mediterranean 25 per cent; hair
lighter than dark brown to 5 per cent, and beards of the same category
to 25 per cent. Metrically they are fully Mediterranean, with a stature
mean of 165 cm., smaller vault and face dimensions than the Riffians,
and a mean cephalic index of 74.5. The total face height is 120 mm., the
bigonial 100 mm. Individually they are mostly Mediterranean, of the
straight-nosed, basic North African variety, and the chief deviation from
this norm is in a negroid direction.
The Arabic-speaking population of the Moroccan plains is reasonably
homogeneous, except for a certain negroid accretion, and looks like the
Arab population elsewhere in North Africa. Although these "Arabs"
must be partly Berber in blood, they, nevertheless, to a large extent,
preserve their Arabian facial types. It cannot be denied that their
ancestors who immigrated to Morocco at the time of the Hillali invasions
came in large numbers. The ordinary city Arabs are little different
from their pastoral and agricultural brethren, but this rule does not
apply to the aristocratic families. These merchant-princes are sometimes
blond, and of Nordic appearance; others of them look like Mekkan aristo-
crats in Arabia.
Before propounding any conclusions as to the racial history of western
Barbary, it seems advisable to consider the racial history of that supremely
100 The large series of Benoit and Kossovitch undoubtedly contains some Braber.
101 At the village of Bahlil, 5 km. northeast of Sefrou, Kossovitch and Benoit measured
an excellent series of Arabicized Berbers, who may be partly representative of the Mid-
dle Atlas population. These Bahloula are almost purely brunet, are of moderate stature
(166.7 cm.), purely dolichocephalic (C.I. = 73.7) long-faced and leptorrhine. Kosso-
vitch, N., and Benoit, F., Anth, vol. 45, 1935, pp. 347-363.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 485
marginal cultural province, the Canary Islands. These islands, consist-
ing of Lanzarote and Fuertaventura near the coast of Rio de Oro, Gran
Ganaria, Teneriffe, Gomera, and finally Palma and Hierro on the west-
ern fringe, were occupied by a Neolithic population of white racial
type when the Spaniards conquered them, with great difficulty, during
the fifteenth century. The adjacent African mainland, an utter desert,
had by then long been the home of primitive Bedawin Arabs and of
negroes. 102
It is unlikely that the Guanches, as the native Canarians were called,
had arrived there by the end of the Pleistocene, since no archaeological
remains of a pre-Neolithic culture have been found, and the islands
themselves are of recent volcanic origin. The Canarians lived by breeding
pigs, sheep, and goats, and by the cultivation of barley and perhaps of
wheat, although their use of the latter cereal is questionable. They ground
their grain on rotary querns, and used chipped stone cutting implements.
Polished stone celts of materials not found on the islands have been dis-
covered by archaeologists, and iron spear points as well; apparently
the Neolithic axe was given up by the early colonists through lack of
material, and the metal of later visitors was also irreplaceable. Pottery is
of a Neolithic type, but textiles were lacking. Arabic words in the speech
of most of the islands, as well as alphabetic inscriptions on rocks, and the
rotary querns, indicate that the islands were visited sporadically by
people from the mainland from Neolithic times to the seventh century
of the present era, if not later. The basic culture is a Neolithic Schwein-
hirtenkultur in Menghin's sense, with various losses and accretions.
At the time of the Spanish conquest, the islands contained a varied
population of different physical types, stratified in social classes. There
was definitely a tall, blond element, which lived by its flocks for the most
part, and which seems to have been socially superior,; a darker, more
Mediterranean element which was more agricultural. Gran Canaria
and Teneriffe were the centers of blondism, while of the two outlying
islands, Hierro was prevailingly brunet, and Palma partly blond. The
coastal islands of Lanzarote and Fuertaventura contained almost ex-
clusively a tall, brunet population. The Guanches were described by the
Spaniards as being frequently of giant size, and it is apparent from the
difficulties of the Spaniards that they were redoubtable fighters.
The osteology of the Guanches has been exhaustively studied,103 and
102 Rio de Oro is actually one of the least known segments of the earth's surface.
103 Hooton, E. A., The Ancient Inhabitants of the Canary Islands,
Verneau, R., Cinq Annees de Sejour aux Ues Canaries.
Tamagnini, E., Os Antiques Habitantes das Canarias.
A complete bibliography of this subject up to 1 925 will be found in Hooton's book.
The cultural and historical summary given here is derived from this source.
486 THE RACES OF EUROPE
does not wholly support the Spanish descriptions. For example, the mean
statures reckoned from the long bones in TenerifTe and in Gran Canaria
are only 166 cm. The crania as a whole are of moderate size; rneso-
cephaly seems to have been the prevailing head form, with a cranial
index of 75-76 in TeneriflPe, Gran Canada, and Hierro, and of 77.7 in
Gomera. Since this is equivalent to cephalic indices of 77 to 80, it is
apparent that the Guanches were less dolichocephalic than most living
North Africans. The upper faces of most were not particularly long,
and euryene crania are as numerous as mesene; in Gomera, the
euryene are more numerous. The characteristic nose form in the outward
islands (Lanzarote and Fuertaventura not studied) is mesorrhine, with
the narrowest in TenerifTe (of Teneriffe, Gran Canaria, Gomera, and
Hierro) and the least so in Hierro. The orbital index mean is in all
islands low, exceptionally so in Gomera. The majority of crania from all
islands is chamaeconch.
The Guanche skulls as a whole are unlike those of modern European
Mediterraneans, and resemble northern European series most closely,
especially those in which a brachycephalic element is present, as in
Burgundian and Alemanni series. Hooton has divided them into clearly
differentiated types, which include a Mediterranean, a Nordic, a
"Guanche," and an Alpine. The "Guanche" accounts for 50 per cent
of the whole on the four islands of Teneriffe, Gomera, Gran Canaria,
and Hierro; the Nordic for 31 per cent, the Mediterranean for 13 per
cent, and the Alpine for most of the remainder. The "Guanche" is
particularly prevalent on Teneriffe, the Alpine on Gomera, and the
Mediterranean on Hierro.
Hoo ton's " Guanche" type skulls, although not as large as the Afalou bou
Rummel crania, resemble them morphologically, with heavy brow-
ridges, strong muscular markings, low orbits, and lambdoidal flatten-
ing.104 His Nordic crania are distinguished from the Mediterranean
sub-group largely on a basis of size and robusticity. The Alpine crania
bear what Hooton considers to be a slightly Mongoloid cast, as is also
found in early European brachycephalic skulls of the Mesolithic and
earlier.
After the Spaniards had conquered the Guanches and converted the
survivors, they proceeded to intermarry with these new Christians, who
perpetuated their kind in large numbers. On historical grounds there is
every reason to believe that the living Canary Islanders are at least as
104 Hooton wrote before the discovery of the Afalou crania. His theory of the multi-
ple origin of this "Guanche" or Afalou group must be projected into an earlier period
than he had supposed, in fact, a period contemporaneous with that of the Cr6-Magnons
from whom Verneau thought that the Guanches were descended.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 487
much Guanche in origin as Spanish.106 Fischer, who has studied the
modern Canarians,106 finds among them the following types:
(1) A true, small Mediterranean, which may be partly of Spanish
introduction.
(2) A "Berber" type, with a heavier, broader face, but essentially
Mediterranean.
(3) An " Oriental" type, with a narrow face, thin, convex nose, dark
hair, and attenuated extremities.
(4) An Alpine of Bavarian appearance — this is said to be uncommon.
(5) The " Cro-Magnon" type; with a low, rectangular face, especially
characterized by bigonial prominence; deep-set eyes under heavy
browridges, with low orbits; a straight nasal profile, but relative
broad nose; thin lips, and heavy jaw. This type has a thick-set body
build, with trunk proportions similar to those of living Bavarians.
The living Canarians have nearly the same stature mean as their
Guanche predecessors, 165.3 cm.; they also possess a comparable head
form, with a cephalic index mean of 79. In a large series of males from
all islands, there are three definite index modes, at 74, 79, and 83. The
mean bizygomatic diameter of living Canarian males is 138 mm., the
mean bigonial 111 mm. Nasal profiles are straight in 73 per cent of cases,
and convex in only 11 per cent.
The hair varies from straight through wavy to ringlets, as in most
Berbers. The hair color is black (Fischer #27), in 24 per cent of the series,
dark brown (#4) in 47 per cent, and golden-brown to reddish in the rest.
The lightest Fischer number recorded is #9. All of the near blonds are on
the reddish or golden side; not a single ash-blond has been observed.
In eye color, 84 per cent have shades between the Martin #1 and #6,
including browns and very dark-mixed; the rest are evenly mixed or
light-mixed. On the whole, the modern Canarians seem less blond than
the Riffians. Despite this statistical evidence of the predominantly brunet
quality of the modern Canarians, the blond beauty of the female inhab-
itants of Teneriffe is famous in seafaring quarters, just as the blondism
of the early Guanches struck the Spaniards.
Fischer finds no Nordic type in the present-day Canarian population,
but attributes the mixed blondism present in it to his "Cr6-Magnon"
element, which is the modern version of Hooton's "Guanche" type.
Hooton readily states that he has no means of attributing any given
pigment character to any one of his selected cranial types. It is, therefore,
questionable whether there was a Nordic type in the Canary Islands in
the pigmental as well as in the skeletal sense.
we Wolfel, J., ZFE, vol. 62, 1930, pp. 282-302.
106 Fischer, E., ZFE, vol. 62, 1930, pp. 258-281.
488 THE RACES OF EUROPE
The Canarian evidence, taken as a whole, is of great value in the
reconstruction of the racial history of North Africa. It is evident that in
the time of the Neolithic agriculturalists the Mediterranean food-producers
must have associated, in some parts of North Africa at least, with the
descendants of earlier Afalou-type people, who survived in the Canary
Islands as an important factor in the imported population. The early
Alpine-like strain found in the Canaries, especially in Gomera, may
probably be attributed to a reemergence of the brachycephalic element
in the Afalou people, in a somewhat reduced form. This identification
is confirmed by its extreme lowness of orbit and shortness of face. This
type is comparable to the minor brachycephalic element found in other
parts of North Africa, as in Ghomara and among the Kabyles, and it
may conceivably be connected with the brachycephaly of Jerba. The
Guanches were less dolichocephalic than most living Berbers, and had
received a minimum infusion of the Atlanto-Mediterranean racial element
which carried Hamitic speech.
The most troublesome factor in the whole North African racial problem
lies in the necessity of explaining the origin of the local Nordics, whose
presence as a minority in the populations of Tunisia, Algeria, and northern
Morocco, if not in the Canary Islands, cannot be denied. There are
two possible explanations, as follows:
(1) The North African Nordics resemble the mixed Nordics of Upper
Palaeolithic inspiration found in Ireland and western Norway more than
they do the ash-blond Eastern Valley Nordics of Norway, and those of
Sweden. Therefore the so-called Nordics of North Africa are a mixture
of brunet Mediterraneans of tall stature and considerable facial length
with Afalou survivors. The minor blondism of these "Nordics" is derived
from the Afalou side of the ancestry.
(2) The North African Nordics were partly formed as stated, but not
wholly so, for there are some ash-blonds in the Rif; furthermore, the
Riffian Nordics are lighter-haired than individuals of Afalou type, just
as European Nordics are lighter-haired than are modern representatives
of the Briinn race. Blond hair is positively associated with narrow noses,
and the Afalou type nose is moderately broad. Unless it is possible to
explain these phenomena as genetic recombinations, we must admit a
Nordic invasion of North Africa from Europe or Asia as early as the
second millennium B.C. Of the two continents, Asia is by far the more
likely immediate source.
The racial history of North Africa may best be understood by analogy
with western Europe, since parallel invasions entered both continental
sub-areas, and parallel processes of evolution occurred in both. This
parallelism started in the Pleistocene, with the sequence of Upper Pa-
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 489
laeolithic racial types. This was followed by the entrance of small Mediter-
raneans into both areas, in Mesolithic and Neolithic times, but of course
earlier in North Africa, whence they entered western Europe. Tall
brunet Mediterraneans arrived in both areas, by land in North Africa,
by sea in western Europe. Nordics entered both from the east. Meanwhile
the Palaeolithic types asserted themselves, in both unreduced and smaller,
more brachycephalic forms. Thus we have in both regions Afalou or
Borreby men, and Alpines. In Europe, we may add the Mongol and Lapp,
in North Africa, the Arab and the Negro.
The difference between North Africa and western Europe racially is
largely a difference in the relative numerical survival of the component
elements, rather than in the nature of the elements themselves.
(15) THE IBERIAN PENINSULA
The Mediterranean world, which we have studied in Asia and Africa,
possesses little undisputed territory on European soil. Aside from the
western islands, including the Balearics, Corsica, and Sardinia, the only
truly Mediterranean country in Europe is that of the Iberian Peninsula.
The main events in Iberian racial history, as far as we know them, may
be summarized as follows. In Upper Palaeolithic times Spain and Portugal
were backward regions, peripheral to both France and North Africa.
Influences from the north came in the earliest Aurignacian times, and
again during the maximum cold of the last glaciation, when reindeer
migrated southward over the Pyrenees. The extent to which influences
came from across Gibraltar before the Mesolithic invasions is not known,
but such influences cannot have been extensive. In the absence of ade-
quate skeletal material, it is useless to speculate seriously upon the racial
characters of the Upper Palaeolithic people of Spain and Portugal.
If there were tall, large-headed rncn of Cro-Magnon or Afalou type,
they have long since disappeared. It is perhaps more likely that the pre-
Mesolithic Iberians may have included people resembling the T6viec
group in Brittany.
Spain felt the repercussions of the drying of the Sahara earlier than
did any other region in western Europe. Mesolithic invaders of a small,
rather primitive Mediterranean type brought with them microlithic
cultural traits; their racial characteristics are typified by the skeletal
remains from Muge. During the third millennium B.C., food-producing
peoples entered Spain from North Africa with swine, sheep, and goats,
and with barley, emmer, and other plants. The physical type of these
invaders is well known to us, not only through skeletal remains, but also
by means of our study of the living peoples of North Africa. Some of
these invaders remained in Spain and Portugal, where they became the
490 THE RACES OF EUROPE
basic populations of these countries; others passed northward over the
Pyrenees into eastern France and Switzerland, while still others passed
northward as far as Germany, and into the British Isles.
Toward the beginning of the second millennium B.C., if not earlier, these
agricultural colonists were reenforced by a people of much higher culture,
the megalith-building tall Mediterraneans, who came by sea, and many
of whom went on from Spain as far as the British Isles and Scandinavia.
Their settlements in Spain were located mostly upon the eastern seaboard,
and on the northern Atlantic coast, particularly in the region of the Bay
of Biscay. They are followed by other peoples of a general Mediterranean
type, but coming from Asia Minor, as their exaggerated nasal form in-
dicates. These new invaders brought the knowledge of metal with them
from the east, and were the first of the prospectors to visit this metal-
rich peninsula. They in turn were followed by round-headed compatriots
with the same nasal peculiarities, who introduced the Dinaric racial
type to western Europe. These Dinaric brachycephals, who settled in
the same regions as their maritime predecessors, probably left Spain in
large numbers after a brief sojourn, in favor of countries farther north.
From Bronze Age time until the Roman conquest, there were only
two known movements which may have affected Spain racially. One
was that of the Phoenicians, a continuation of the prehistoric invasions
from the eastern Mediterranean; the other was that of the Kelts into the
north, to form the mixed nation of Kelto-Iberians known to the Romans.
Many of the Kelts, however, also used Spain merely as a stopping place
on their wanderings. In post-Roman times Germanic invaders, the
Goths and Vandals, brought a second Nojrdic infusion to the peninsula,
but the Vandals soon moved on to Algeria, thence to Carthage, and
finally to Byzantium.
The invasions of the Goths and Vandals were shortly followed by a
movement in the opposite direction, that of the Moors from across the
Straits of Gibraltar. These Moors, who came in considerable numbers,
were of two ethnic origins, Arab and Berber, and the latter group was
without doubt the more numerous. During the eight centuries of Moorish
rule in Spain, many people other than Arabs and Berbers came to live
in the Iberian Peninsula; thousands of Sephardic Jews, some Slavs, a
few Huns, and peoples of most of the nationalities which were in contact
with the Moslem world. Persians were brought from Iran to make
Shiraz wine, which is our present sherry; during the height of the Omey-
yad caliphate in Spain, Andalusia became a center of world civilization,
and like all such centers, drew to it many people from many quarters.
The expulsion of the Moors and of the Jews in 1492 robbed Spain of
the forces which had brought it civilization, but gave the Spaniards
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 491
the impetus to conquer the New World. The shifting of population from
the wholly Christian north to the former Moorish territory, combined
with the drainage of men into the New World, must have caused some
changes in the racial distribution of the peninsula, especially in com-
bination with the departure of thousands of Moslems and of Jews. Many
of these, however, preferred baptism to expulsion, and the contribution
of North Africans and of Asiatics to the Iberian racial body, in historic
as in prehistoric times, must have been considerable.
Despite the complex political history of Spain, the living population
is basically and almost wholly Mediterranean. As we have seen in Chapter
VIII, the regional stature means vary from 161 cm. to 168 cm.; more than
one Mediterranean strain is obviously involved.107 The head form is al-
most everywhere rnesocephalic; 108 not even in Andalusia does a Moorish
or Arab degree of dolichocephaly prevail. Provincial index means as high
as 80 occur in the coastal regions of the northwest, in Lugo and Oviedo;
Galicia and the Asturias, mining country, are still inhabited by people
some of whom preserve the head form of the prospectors of the Bronze
Age.109
The cephalic index rises in Spain as stature increases,110 which would
indicate that the Dinaric element is to a certain extent concerned with
the coastal tallness, as is the early Atlanto-Mediterranean. In northern
Spain, in the provinces which the Moors never occupied, blondism is
commoner than in the south, where much of the population is as dark in
skin and eye color as most non-Riffian Berbers.111 Rufosity is rare in
Spain except in the Asturias 112 and Galicia. During the Riffian war it
was a common saying among the Riffian soldiers, "The ordinary Spaniards
are as nothing, but watch out for the small red-headed men, the Gallegos.
They are shaitans, and do not know fear."
Any careful observer acquainted with the Spanish will recognize a
number of distinct racial types; the honey-skinned Andalusian, with his
medium stature, lithe body, flat temples, and finely modeled nose and
chin; the hook-nosed Cappadocian type so well exemplified by General
Francisco Franco; the large, sometimes fleshy approach to a brunet
Dinaric; the rather small and delicate local variety of Nordic, with
exaggerated narrowness of face and nose, pale skin, and golden rather
than ashen blondness; and the coarse Mediterranean type found among
107 Oloriz y Aguilera, F., La Talla Humana en Espana.
™ Oloriz y Aguilera, F., BRSG, vol. 36, 1894, pp. 389-422.
Barras de Aragon, F. de las, MSAE, vol. 2, 1923, pp. 1-68.
109 Barras de Aragon, F. de las, MSAE, vol. 4, 1925, pp. 83-100.
»° MacAuliffe, L., and Marie, A., CRAS, Paris, vol. 171, 1920, pp. 1077-1079.
111 Hoyos Sainz, L., and Aranzadi, T. de, AFA, vol. 22, 1893-94, pp. 425-433.
112 Uria y Riu, J., MSAE, vol. 3, 1924, pp. 139-144.
492 THE RACES OF EUROPE
the peasantry in most of Spain, short of stature, relatively thick-set,
with a mesocephalic head form, a short, broad-looking face, and a short,
broad, and often concave nose. This last type may, to a large extent,
date back to the Mesolithic, with older accretions; it is the most primitive,
most submerged element in the Spanish population. Alpines may be
found, here and there, among Spaniards, but they are rare; it is their
virtual absence which makes Spain a Mediterranean rather than a
central European country, in the racial, as well as the geographical, sense.
Two widely observed racial characters serve to differentiate the Span-
iards from most of the living inhabitants of Arabia and North Africa: hair
color and nasal profile. In Spain, as a whole, some 29 per cent of the
male population has black hair, some 68 per cent dark brown, while
traces of blondism are visible in 17 per cent.113 In most of North Africa
and Arabia, the black hair is commoner than the dark brown. The
nasal profiles of some 120,000 Spaniards are convex in 15 per cent of
cases, straight in 72 per cent, and concave in 1 3 per cent. In Arabia and
North Africa east of Morocco, the commonest profile form is usually
convex, and concaves are very rare. The prevalence of these two features,
dark brown hair and a straight nasal profile, indicates that the bulk of
the Spanish population is derived from the earlier Mediterranean in-
vasions of Mesolithic and Neolithic date. The Spaniards are more like the
most marginal and fully sedentary of the brunet Berber groups in North
Africa than like the more recently settled transhumant ones or the Arabs.
The eye color in the total Spanish group is listed as: blue, 18 per cent;114
brown, 68 per cent; black, 14 per cent. Dark-mixed eyes must undoubt-
edly fall, in many cases, into the brown class; still it is doubtful that in
most parts of southern Spain, Catalonia, and Portugal much more than 25
per cent of incipient eye blondism is to be found.116 In Spain as a whole,
46 per cent of definitely dark skin, in the very brunet-white and light
brown category, again marks the population of this peninsula off from
most of Europe. The regional variation in this is great; the darkest
skins are in the south, in the country of Moorish occupation.
Several relatively complete anthropometric series give us a means of
comparing Spaniards with other peoples. A series of 79 Spaniards
measured in Madrid 11G have head dimensions comparable to those of
113 Sanchez Fernandez, L., El Hombre Espanol. Resum6 in MAGW, vol. 44, 1914,
p. 330. This work covers a series of 119,571 20 year old male Spaniards.
in Identical with the percentage of total light eyes found by Hoyos Sainz and Aran-
zadi. In the north of Spain this percentage runs from 21 per cent in Castile to 35 per
cent in Navarre and the Basque province.
115 An apparently accurate figure for Portugal is 28 per cent.
Tamagnini, E., CEAP, vol. 1, Facs. 3, 1936.
116 Barras de Aragon, F. de las, published in Williams, G, D., Maya Spanish Crosses
in Yucatan.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 493
Yemenite Arabs, Oriental Jews, and Kabyles. The vault length (191 mm.)
and breadth (150 mm.) yield a mean cephalic index of 78; the auricular
height is 126 mm. Facially, the Mediterranean character of this group
is pronounced; a menton-nasion height of 120 mm. and an upper face
height of 73 mm. show the typical Mediterranean exaggeration of upper
face length combined with the usual shallowness of jaw. The minimum
frontal (105 mm.), bizygomatic (133 mm.), and bigonial (102 mm.)
diameters, are likewise convincingly Mediterranean. The nose is high
(56 mm.), narrow (33 mm.), and very leptorrhine — more so than with
most Spanish groups. This sample could be used as a world standard of
the central Mediterranean race, although it undoubtedly consists of an
amalgam of several Mediterranean strains.117
Another useful series is one of 420 adult males from Andalusia, repre-
senting the most brunet population in Spain, and the one which supposedly
contains the most Arab and Berber blood.118 These Andalusians have a
mean stature of 166.5 cm., approximately the same as that of the smaller
Moroccan Berbers, the Kabyles, and the modern Egyptians. Their mean
relative sitting height, 50.6, relates them to North African and Asiatic
Mediterraneans, rather than to most Europeans. The rest of their bodily
proportions follow the same relationship. Cranially and facially, they
differ little from the Madrid series, except in the possession of a wider
bigonial (104.5 mm.) which may perhaps be a North African heritage.119
The skin color of the Andalusians is light brown, corresponding to
#15 to #18 on the von Luschan chart, in 80 per cent of cases, while
only one man in six has a pinkish-white skin of the type so frequent among
Riffians. Sixty per cent have dark brown hair, 30 per cent black hair.
The remaining 10 per cent show some evidence of blondism or of rufosity.
Only one man out of 420 was truly blond. The hair is straight in half
the series, wavy in a third, and curly in a sixth. Six men in the entire
group have negroid, frizzly hair; a minor absorption of negro blood, dating
from Moorish times, is evident. As a whole, however, Andalusians are
free from negroid traits. As among most Mediterraneans, beard and
body hair are not abundant.
Sixty per cent of Andalusians have pure brown eyes, of which the
majority are dark brown, although light brown and mixed-brown irises
occur. Mixed-light eyes comprise 30 per cent of the series, with a prev-
alence of greenish-brown shades, while 10 per cent of the whole sample
possesses bluish-gray eyes, on the gray rather than blue side. A ratio
117 Another good regional series, which is very similar, is that from Caceres.
Aranzadi, T. de, ASE, ser. 2, vol. 3, 1891.
118 Unpublished thesis by Dr. Frederick S. Hulse, "The Comparative Physical An-
thropology of Andalusians and Cubans," 1934, Cambridge.
119 Other differences seem to be of a technical nature.
494 THE RACES OF EUROPE
of 40 per cent of light or incipiently light eyes is higher than one expects
to find among racially pure Mediterraneans, and indicates the infusion
of Nordic blood, from both North European and Berber sources. Prob-
ably if the rest of Spain were studied for eye color in the same way, higher
ratios of eye blondism would appear elsewhere, since most of the green-
brown eyes in this sample are predominantly dark.
Eyefolds among Andalusians are practically lacking. The opening of
the eye lids is usually of moderate height, and of horizontal direction.
A very small minority shows slanting eyes reminiscent of the Egyptian
ideal of beauty. The eyebrows are moderately thick, and eyebrow con-
currency occurs in 70 per cent of the series; since concurrent eyebrows
are rare among present-day North African Mediterraneans, this suggests
early influences from the eastern Mediterranean, as well, perhaps, as
later ones from Arabia. Browridges are characteristically small to medium;
foreheads are of only moderate height and breadth, and the forehead
slope is, as a rule, slight; it is lacking or vertical in roughly 14 per cent
of the total group. On the whole, the forehead form of these Andalusians
is typically Mediterranean, and often infantile.
The nasion depression is small to medium; the nasal root is usually
quite high and of moderate breadth; the nasal bridge is of moderate
height and breadth, and the nasal profile is usually straight. As in the
total Spanish series, 18 per cent show convex profiles, while concavity
is limited to 15 per cent. The nasal tip is absolutely small or medium,
and usually horizontal or slightly depressed. Nasal wings are usually
compressed or medium. From these data we derive a picture of a high-
rooted nose with a moderate bridge height and a straight profile, a thin
tip, and compressed wings.
Lips are of medium integumental and membranous thickness; really
thick lips are rare, and the lip seam is usually difficult to observe. Al-
veolar prognathism is almost always absent. The chin is of slight to
medium prominence. The malars are of moderate forward prominence,
and are usually compressed laterally, while the gonial angles show usually
little or no flare. In the external morphology of the vault, the temporal
region is frequently flattish, giving the skull an ill-filled appearance.
The occipital protrusion is usually moderate, while 2 per cent are found
with no protrusion, indicating an occiput of Armenoid or Dinaric shape.
Lambdoid flattening occurs in 12 per cent of the series; this low incidence
suggests that little if any of the Afalou element from North Africa is
present in Andalusia.
The racial character of the richer, city-dwelling Moors of Andalusia,
before the time of their expulsion, may be suggested by a study of the
almost wholly unmixed descendants of these emigres in Morocco. In
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 495
the city of Sheshawen the old, aristocratic families are descended from
the former aristocrats of Granada, and have lived endogamously since
1492. A little Riffian blood has crept in, but aside from that the She-
shawen families remain an island of Andalusian Moors on Moroccan
soil.
A small, homogeneous sample 12° of these people shows a much closer
relationship with Spain than with Morocco. They are a little longer-
headed (194.5 mm.), a little more dolichocephalic (C. I. = 76.5) and a
little longer-faced (123 mm.) than the Christian Andalusians; the bigonial
diameter of 103 mm., although wide for Spain as a whole, is of Andalu-
sian size. The Sheshawen Moors have predominantly dark brown hair
and dark brown eyes, with brunet- white skin color. In facial morphology,
they are fully Andalusian. The implication is that the Moors in Spain
took more from the population of the peninsula, in a racial sense, than
they gave. Our earlier conclusion that the Andalusians are Mediter-
raneans of largely Neolithic derivation is supported by this unexpected
evidence.
Portugal is, on the whole, fully as Mediterranean in race as is Spain
and, perhaps, in some respects, it is more so.121 The chief differences be-
tween the two countries are: (1) that the Portuguese are almost uni-
formly brunet in pigmentation and (2) that there are no regions in
Portugal in which brachycephaly is as important as in the Asturias and
Galicia. In fact, Portugal contains some of the lowest cephalic index
means on the continent of Europe.
Historically, Portugal has long been divided into two parts, a northern
and a southern, with the river Tagus forming the boundary between the
two. In pre-Roman times the Lusitanians lived in the northern half of
the country, while other tribes inhabited the south. Later on, the Keltic
invasions affected only the north, as did the inroads of the Germans.
On the other hand, the Arabs and Berbers settled mostly in the south.
Relations between Moslems and Christians lacked, in Portugal, the
bitterness manifested in Spain, and many Portuguese Moslems were
baptized at the time of the expulsion.
120 Goon, G. S., Tribes of the Rif.
121 Some of the principal works on the physical anthropology of Portugal are :
Barros e Gunha, J. G. de, CEAP, vol. 2, Facs. 6, 1931.
Cardosa, F., Portugalia, vol. 1, 1899-1903, pp. 23-56; vol. 2, 1905-08, pp. 179-
186, 517-539.
Dos Santos, J. R. Jr., TSPA, vol. 2, Facs. 2, 1924, pp. 84-186.
Mendes Correa, A., AAPP, vol. 10, 1915; AJPA, vol. 2, 1919, pp. 117-145.
Tamagmni, E., CEAP, vol. 1, Facs. 3, 1936; vol. 2, Facs. 7, 1932; vol. 2, Facs. 10,
1933.
Themido, A. A., CEAP, vol. 2, Facs. 5, 1931 ; vol. 2, Facs. 9, 1933.
Sant'Anna Marques, S. de, Portugalia, vol. 1, 1899-1903, pp. 427-428.
496 THE RACES OF EUROPE
As in southern Spain, the skin color is evenly divided between a light
brown, 45 per cent, and brunet-white, 45 per cent, while pinkish-white
skins are found in only one-tenth of the population.122 Again as in Spain,
the prevailing hair color is dark brown, which amounts to 68 per cent
of the total; blond and red hair is limited to 2 per cent. Eye color, with
7 per cent of "blue," 15 per cent of "medium," 78 per cent of "dark,"
shows some correlation with latitude, which is not as clear in the cases
of skin color and hair color. Blue eyes run to 13 per cent in the north,
and as low as 1 and 2 per cent in the south. Dark eyes seem to range
inversely from 71 per cent to 87 per cent. Portugal contains no more than
the traditional 25 per cent of incipient blondism common to many
groups of Mediterraneans.
Regional stature means in Portugal vary from 162 to 165 cm., while
the mean for the whole country is 163.5 cm. The shortest statures are
found in the Tagus valley; the tallest in both the north and the south.
The stature curve for the entire country shows a slight skewness, with
concentrations at 158 to 160 cm., and 164 cm. The second peak is by
far the greater. The inference is that a short Mediterranean type has
been absorbed by one of moderate stature. The mean relative span of
the Portuguese is 102, a normal Mediterranean racial mean, but the
relative sitting height rises to a mean of 53.2, which is high for Mediter-
raneans and more typical of Europeans outside the Iberian Peninsula.
The cephalic index mean for the entire nation is 76.4, with two prominent
peaks in the distribution curve, one at 74 and the other at 77. Regional
variation is slight, with provincial means ranging from 75 to 78. The
most dolichocephalic local groups live in the northwestern part of the
country. The heads of the Portuguese are large in relationship to their
stature, with a mean head length of 194 mm. and a breadth of 147 mm.
In a large series of modern Portuguese crania, 123 while all are typically
Mediterranean in morphology, a clear difference may be seen between
several distinct types. In the first place, the head length has two definite
modes at 179 mm. and 186 mm., while the head breadth has modes
at 132 mm. and 141 mm. The cephalic index has modes at 70, 73,
and 75. From this evidence, as from that of stature, we are led to the
conclusion that two or more different Mediterranean strains are involved
in the Portuguese population. This conclusion is strengthened by the fact
that the orbital index of Portuguese crania is bimodal, with modes at
85 and 88. There is both a low-orbitted and a moderately high-orbitted
element in this population.124
122 Tamagnini, E., CEAP, vol. 1, Facs. 3, 1936.
*23 Barms e Cunha, J. G. de, CEAP, vol. 2, Facs. 6, 1931.
' i24 Themido, A. A., CEAP, vol. 2, Facs. 5, 1931.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 497
Returning to the living, we find that the upper facial index, the mean
of which is 54.3 for the entire nation, shows regional differences, being
consistently higher in the north and lower in the south. Two peaks at
49 and 54 are clearly differentiated, and the former is the larger. In
most of Portugal the leptene tendency is associated with relatively great
dolichocephaly, but in the coastal regions of the north, in Entre Douro
and Minho, a leptene face is associated with brachycephaly and tall
stature, indicating that in this region there is evidence of a submerged
Dinaric element which may, presumably, be attributed to the early
metal age invasions.
Detailed studies of small regional populations have been made in various
parts of Portugal. A particularly interesting community is that of Sao
Pedro Magodouro in a mountainous olive-growing section of Braganga,
in the province of Tras os Montes.125 These people are the most dolicho-
cephalic group in Portugal, and may serve as an illustration of one end
type in the Portuguese population. Stature is short to moderate, with a
mean of 163 cm.; the relative sitting height is 51.9; the relative span,
102.5. The head length mean is 193 mm., that of head breadth 141
mm. 5 the auricular height mean, 122 mm. Thus the cephalic index of
73.3 would be low even for North Africa; the absolute length is of a
normal Mediterranean size, while the vault is low. The face is short,
119 mm., and narrow, 133 mm., while the bigonial has the relatively
great breadth of 105 mm. The nasal dimensions, 55 mm. by 35 mm. are
typically Mediterranean, and the length is particularly great in relation-
ship to vertical facial dimensions. The nasal index of 67 is moderately
leptorrhine. In almost all instances the nasal profile is straight. The
skin is dark, the hair is dark brown, and the eyes are of a medium brown
shade. This population conforms, in most respects, to Deniker's Ibero-
Insular type, and may be taken as a relatively pure example of the shorter,
longer-headed strain among the Portuguese. A few individuals in this
a:roup show Nordic influences, which manifest themselves in taller stature
and mixed or light eye color.
Other local series, which represent the coastal regions of northern
Portugal rather than the interior, are relatively Mediterranean, and are
comparable metrically to Spanish groups. Some of the fishing villages
along the coasts, however, contain locally differentiated populations as
do fishing villages everywhere; one, Povoa de Varzin in Minho prov-
ince,126 is distinguished by a slightly greater than usual degree of blondism,
broad faces, and broad jaws (bizygomatic = 133 mm., bigonial, 108
mm.). Whence this broad-faced strain is derived is not known. It is
128 Dos Santos, TSPA, 1924.
126 Cardosa, F., Portugalia, vol. 2, 1905-08, pp. 517-539.
498 THE RACES OF EUROPE
curious that the Portuguese, like the Andalusians, are broader jawed than
most Mediterraneans, and comparable in this respect to some Berbers.
The apparent homogeneity of the Portuguese, in a racial sense, masks
the presence of several brunet Mediterranean strains, as Portuguese
anthropologists are well aware. One may distinguish tall Atlanto-
Mediterraneans, particularly in the southern provinces, as well as the
small, extremely long-headed type found in Sao Pedro Magodouro.
The coarser mesocephalic strain, which dates back to Muge, may also
be identified.
Non-Mediterranean elements in the Portuguese population are rare
and of little importance. A few Nordics are scattered throughout but
are particularly concentrated in the north. Traces of Dinaric blood, as
we have already seen, may likewise be found on the northern coast.
Negroid blood, introduced into Portugal through the medium of
freed slaves, has largely been absorbed. The liberated negroes settled
mostly in the cities, where negroes from the Portuguese colonies are still
to be seen in some numbers. The liberality of the Portuguese social
attitude toward persons of different race has prevented the retention, as
in Arabia and the United States, of a stigmatized negroid class. On the
whole, the absorption of negroes by the Portuguese has had no appreciable
effect on the racial position of the country. Portugal remains, as it
has been since the days of the Muge shell-fish caters, classic Mediter-
ranean territory.
(16) THE WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN ISLANDS
A study of the Mediterranean racial area in southwestern Europe
would not be complete without the inclusion of the Balearics, Corsica,
and Sardinia. The Balearic Islands contain a population taller than that
in most of Spain, but equally dolichocephalic; the settlement of megalith-
building Atlanto-Mediterraneans on these small islands in late Neolithic
and early Metal Age times has left a permanent imprint on the popula-
tion.127 The tall, long-faced type of Spaniard so frequently seen in the
Guardia Civil is common here. Corsica and Sardinia, although equally
popular with the megalith-builders, are larger islands and are extremely
rugged topographically, so that a more numerous pre-Megalithic Medi-
terranean element was enabled to survive, and to reemerge as the present
population.
Corsica is extremely mountainous, and the mountains rise directly out
of the water. The Corsicans of the interior part of the island have pre-
127 References which include the Balearic Islands are :
Oloriz y Aguilera, F., BSAP, ser. 4, vol. 5, 1894, pp. 520-525; BRSG, vol. 36, 1894,
pp. 389-422.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 499
.served a culture of early Mediterranean origin with little change; their
houses, their agriculture, their endogamous marriage system, their
predilection for the blood feud, and their insistence upon personal freedom
relate them ethnologically to the mountain Berber groups of North
Africa. In historic times Corsica has belonged to many nations, from the
Phoenicians to the French, but until the present her allegiance has been
in most cases nominal, and throughout many changes of masters, the
islanders have preserved their own character. The only actual immigra-
tion of outsiders recorded in recent times is that of 730 Greeks from the
Peloponnesus who settled in the town of Carg&se, on the west coast of
the island, in 1676. The descendants of these Greeks still preserve their
ethnic identity, and remain unabsorbed.
Anthropometric studies of living Corsicans 128 place them in approxi-
mately the same racial position as the Portuguese. * The stature mean
for the island is about 163 cm., the cephalic index, 76.6. Light or light-
mixed eyes are probably under 20 per cent, while the commonest iris
color is dark brown, or black. The hair color is black or dark brown,
more frequently the latter; shades ranging from medium brown to blond
include 1 5 per cent of the whole.
In general, the coastal population, particularly in the northern and
western parts of the island and in the towns, is taller and less long-headed
than that of the more isolated interior villages. The coastal people, from
Bastia to Ajaccio, have a mean cephalic index of 77; 76 is the mean for
the southern part of the island, and 75 for the interior. The Greeks
of Carg£se have a mean of 77.8. In Bocognagno, an isolated mountain
section, 38 per cent of the recruits summoned for military service were
rejected on the grounds of being shorter than 154 cm.
There is one exception to this rule that the inhabitants of the kernel
of the island are the shortest, longest-headed, and darkest, however —
that is in the inaccessible plateau region of Niolo, in the very center of
the island, where a tall, long-headed, and prevailingly blond group of
people has been found. They are apparently Nordics, not unlike Riffians
in appearance, and are a closely inbred local group. Whether they
represent the survival of an ancient blond racial stratum in the Mediter-
ranean area, or are the descendants of some early refugees to this mountain
128 Duckworth, W. L. H., ZFMA, vol. 13, 1910-11, pp. 439-504; PCAS, vol. 13,
(7 n. s.), 1909, pp. 267-279.
Fallot, A., RDAP, ser. 3, vol. 4, 1889, pp. 641-674; BMSA, ser. 6, vol. 2, 1911,
pp. 43-54.
Jaubert, L, J., BSAP, ser. 4, vol. 4, 1893, pp. 756-760.
Mahoudeau, P. G., REAP, vol. 16, 1906, pp. 177-195.
Mattei, A., BSAP, vol. 11, ser. 2, 1876, pp. 597-619.
Rocca, P., Les Corses devant ranthropologig.
500 THE RACES OF EUROPE
fastness, cannot be determined without a careful, modern survey of
Corsica. In view of present evidence it appears that the Gorsicans, like
the North Africans, Spaniards, and Portuguese, are a blend of different
Mediterranean strains, and that here, as in the more marginal Berber
groups and in Portugal, a small, very long-headed Mediterranean type
is both old and numerous, while later, taller, Atlanto-Mediterranean
forms are also present. The Nordic problem is a local puzzle which awaits
solution.
Culturally and historically, Sardinia resembles Corsica closely. The
same intense Megalithic activity, followed by Greek and Carthaginian
influences, and later by Roman rule, mark early Sardinian history.
In later times the Saracens obtained possession of the island, but were
expelled shortly afterward. Spain ruled Sardinia from roughly 1300
to 1700 A.D., and Spanish cultural influence is to be seen in most of the
cities. In Sassari a dialect is still spoken which includes Spanish elements.
In 1718 A.D., when Sardinia was given to the princes of Piedmont in
exchange for Sicily, the townsfolk of Sassari were considered Spanish,
and the country folk pure Sardinian. The language of the Sardinians,
like that of Corsica, is a form of Italian, but pre-Italic languages were
spoken on the island as late as the time of the Roman empire. These
may have dated back to the period when the Shardana appeared as one
of the western sea people attacking Egypt in Middle Kingdom times.
Anthropometrically, the Sardinians are a little better known than the
Corsicans.129 They are, on the whole, a little shorter than the inhabitants
of the more northernly island, with a stature mean of 162 cm., while
nearly identical in head form (76.5).130 The hair color is designated as
black in over half of the Sardinian groups measured, while hair blondism
attains the ratio of but 1 per cent. Mixed or light eyes run to about 1 5
per cent. As in Corsica, many irises are deep brown or black.
Measurements and indices of the head and face related the Sardinians
to the smaller Berber groups and to the Portuguese,131 and this resemblance
is confirmed by the study of modern Sardinian crania, which show that
the Sardinians are low-vaulted dolichocephals and mesocephals, with
short faces and skeletally mesorrhine noses. Among Sardinian crania
129 Duckworth, W. L. H., ZFMA, vol. 13, 1910-11, pp. 439-504.
Hawes, G. H., unpublished measurements on 12 Sardinian soldiers, measured in
Crete. Permission for use granted.
Livi, R., Anthropometria Militare.
Niceforo, A., ASRA, vol. 3, 1896, pp. 201-222.
d'Hercourt, G., BSAP, ser. 3, vol. 5, 1882, pp. 463-471.
130 Livi's cephalic index mean for Sardinia, 77.5, is apparently one unit too high. This
may be explained by his use of a craniometric frame, instead of calipers. See Duck-
Worth, W. L. H., ZFMA, vol. 13, 1910-11.
181 Detailed data are almost entirely limited to Hawes's small series.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 501
are a number which show a combination of prognathism, a primitive
condition of the lower border of the nasal aperture, and extreme dolicho-
cephaly.132 Regional studies within the island show that among the
living population the inhabitants of the more remote mountain villages
are shorter-statured, longer-headed, and more purely brunet than are
those living nearer the coast. The relatively great antiquity of the most
primitive small Mediterranean type is indicated, while at the same time
the Nordic nucleus found in Corsica seems to be lacking here.
Sardinia and Corsica were peopled at the beginning of the Neolithic
by a race of short-statured, dolichocephalic, low- vaulted, brunet Mediter-
raneans, coming probably from several quarters, including the adjacent
European coasts, North Africa, and the eastern Mediterranean. Subse-
quent immigrations of other Mediterranean peoples have affected the
racial composition of these islands but little.
(17) THE BASQUES
The last contiguous outpost of the Mediterranean world on the north
and west is the country of the Basques, which, since it straddles the
Pyrenees, forms a zone of transition into the brachycephalized world of
central Europe. The Basques are people who, although they lack political
identity, are, none the less, a nation. They number about 800,000, of
whom four-fifths live in Spain, and the remainder in France. Their
country is clearly delimited by a linguistic boundary, and their ethnic
solidarity is perpetuated not only by their language but also by a com-
munity of archaic cultural practices, by special political privileges under
the Spanish monarchy, by a distinctive headgear,133 and by the recogni-
tion of a characteristic physical type.
The Basque language, being an agglutinative non-Indo-European
form of speech, has attracted the attention of theorists in great, and of
linguistic experts in small, numbers. In its grammatical structure Basque
falls into the same class as many American Indian languages, as Georgian,
as Circassian, and as the Burushaski language of Hunza. Lexically no
valid comparisons have as yet been made between Basque and any other
language. Since Indo-European languages were unquestionably late
to arrive in southwestern Europe, and since Hamitic languages were
apparently not indigenous to northwestern Africa, it is not unreasonable
that some pre-Indo-European, pre-Hamitic language should survive
somewhere on either side of the Straits of Gibraltar. Basque is probably
the modern descendant of (a) a language or languages brought by food-
producing Mediterraneans into Spain during the Early Neolithic period;
» Duckworth, ZFMA, vol. 13, 1910-11.
133 Distinctive until adopted by tourists in the 1920*s.
502 THE RACES OF EUROPE
or (b) a language or languages brought from western Asia by seafaring
peoples in pre-Phoenician times; or (c) a blend of languages from both
sources. Other explanations seem, in the light of present knowledge,
fantastic.134 Basque is certainly Iberian, if by Iberian is meant all the
pre- Aryan languages of the Iberian peninsula.
There is historical evidence to indicate that in Roman times the Basques
lived farther south and east in Spain than at present, and that they were
later pushed northward by Gothic pressure. Between 580 and 587
A.D., some of them crossed the Pyrenees into France, and since that time
they have been advancing steadily northward at a slow rate. It is claimed
by French authorities that the Basques in France have preserved their
native culture better than have those in Spain, and that by the same token
the French Basques are the purer racially.
The Basques are people of moderate stature, with means of 164 cm.
in Spain and 166 cm. in France. They are lightly built, ideally with
broad shoulders and narrow hips, and a conical thorax. These general-
izations as to body build are the result of general observation rather than
of anthropometry. Nevertheless it is likely that they are, to a large
extent, founded on fact. The ideal Basque type, which is not merely an
artistic standard, but a reality, is chiefly identifiable by means of a com-
bination of facial features. The forehead is straight or but slightly slop-
ing, the browridges weak or absent, the nasion depression slight or absent,
the nose thin, often aquiline, with a thin tip, sometimes depressed; the
forehead is broad, the mid-face quite narrow, the mandible extremely
slender and narrow through the bigonial region, and the chin is narrow
and pointed. The Spanish Basques are mesocephalic, with a mean
cephalic index of 78, while the French Basques are sub-brachycephalic,
with a mean of about 82.
The French Basques are by no means all brunet; Collignon finds 22
per cent of blue eyes, 44 per cent of "medium,5' and 34 per cent of dark.
Black hair is found in 7 per cent of the group, brown in 77 per cent, and
light brown to blond in 16 per cent. Among the Spanish Basques the
incidence of blondism is somewhat lower, but the Basques are still light
when compared to most other inhabitants of Spain. The nasal profile
134 My predecessor, Professor Ripley, devoted an entire chapter of his Races of Europe
to the Basques; Chapter 8, pp. 180-204. His sources were the same as those available
today, with one important exception: Morant, G. M., Biometrika, vol. 21, 1929,
pp. 67—84. The reader is referred to Ripley's work for an otherwise complete bibliogra-
phy on this subject, as well as for an interesting exposition and discussion. See also
Montandon, G., UEthnie Fran$aise, pp. 125-137. The most important anthropometric
sources are, apart from Morant:
Aranzadi, T. de, El Pueblo Euskalduna.
Collignon, R., Les Basques, MSAP, ser. 3, vol. 1, 1894.
Oloriz y Aguilera, F., BSAP, ser. 4, vol. 5, 1894, pp. 520-525.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 503
is convex in some 49 per cent of French Basques, as compared to 43
per cent of Spanish ones.
The exact metrical position of the Basques may best be determined
by the study of their crania.135 Morant, in a study of 76 male crania
from Guipuzcoa, finds that the Basques are not unusual in the dimensions
and morphology of the cranial vault. A length of 186 mm., and a breadth
of 143 mm., are moderate in size, while the cranial index of 77 is meso-
cephalic. The basion-bregma height of 131 mm. is definitely low. The
Basque crania closely resemble those of the British Iron Age people and
of the seventeenth century Londoners. They conform metrically, in
other words, to a Keltic Iron Age type, which was a mixture of Nordic
with Dinaric elements.
Facially this resemblance to British skulls is even closer; but the Basques
attain or approach several European extremes. The mean bi-malar face
breadth, taken between the lowest points of the malar-maxillary sutures,
is 89.6 mm., a craniological minimum, and the nearest approach to it
is the dimension of 90.9 mm. for the Whitechapel English crania. The
mean breadth of the nasal aperture, 22.9 mm. is also an extreme, most
closely approximated by a Lowland Scottish series. The bizygomatic
diameter of 129 mm. is not extreme, for it is higher than that of both
Sardinian and Portuguese crania. The basion-alveon diameter, 91.9 mm.,
is the lowest mean known, and in combination with other dimensions
indicates an extremely orthognathous condition.
On the whole, these craniological data indicate three facts: (1) the
Basques are basically Mediterranean (in the wider sense) racially, with
some brachycephalic accretion.
(2) This accretion is for the most part Dinaric and only to a minor
extent directly Alpine. Morphologically the Basque crania show many
resemblances to those of Serbo-Croats and of some South Germans. Col-
lignon's comparison between French Basques and the southwestern French
makes this distinction clear.
(3) The Basques, through inbreeding, ethnic solidarity, and the pos-
session of a recognized national ideal type, have developed a character-
istic physiognomy, the essential features of which are nasal prominence
and a narrowness of the median sagittal facial segment, and of the man-
dible.
Gollignon believed, and Montandon follows him, that the French
Basques are freer from modern mixture than are the Spanish Basques.
This may perhaps be true, since neither the round-headed tendency
ia6 Morant, 1929. It is high time that someone should make a modern anthropometric
survey of living Basques in both France and Spain. Many of Collignon's measurements
on the living do not follow modern technical standards.
504 THE ItACES OF EUROPE
of the French Basques nor their relatively high incidence of blondism
can be wholly explained as local acquisitions. The Basques^ as a whole,
represent an ancient and subsequently specialized mixture of Mediter-
raneans and Atlanto-Mediterraneans with partially blond Binaries, and it
is just as possible that different Basque sub-groups differed originally in
amount of Dinaric blood as that the modern Spanish Basques have been
altered through Spanish mixture.
Both the Atlanto-Mediterranean and Dinaric elements mentioned
were present as early as the Copper Age in North Central Spain, where
they were partially identified with the early Bell Beaker culture. The
Keltic Iron Age racial type of Britain, which the living Spanish Basques
so closely resemble, was produced originally in southern Germany from
a combination of Nordics with Bell Beaker or other Binaries, and im-
ported into England where Mediterranean and Atlanto^Mediterranean
elements, as well as some Bronze Age Binaric factors, were already
present. The mixture of similar ingredients in different places produces
similar results. Seen in the light of modern physical anthropology, the
Basques are still interesting, and perhaps romantic, but no longer mysteri-
ous.
(18) THE GYPSIES
Within the greater confines of the Mediterranean race must be placed
one people of non-European origin, the Gypsies. The Romanies, the
Tziganes, the children of Little Egypt, are believed, on authoritative
grounds, to be the descendants of one or more pariah tribes of northwestern
India who for some unknown reason began to wander westward before
or about the turn of the present millennium, at about the same time that
Lief Erikson was discovering America. 136
They are believed to have travelled across Iran into Armenia, and
thence into the Asiatic territory of the Byzantine Empire, where they ar*
rived at some time between 1100 and 1200 A.D.; their first appearance in
Europe cannot be traced back earlier than 1300 A.D. A second wave
passed again through Persia and the Armenian highlands, but turned
southwestward into Syria, Egypt, and North Africa. The language of
136 See Gaster, M., article "Gipsies," Encyclopaedia Britannica, thirteenth edition.
Lebzelter, V., MAGW, vol. 52, 1922, pp. 23-42, contains an historical summary as
well as anthropometric data.
Other anthropometric sources include:
Gluck, L., WMBH, vol. 5, 1807, pp. 403-433.
Karpeles, B., MAGW, vol. 21, 1891, pp. 31-33.
Kopernicki, L, AFA, vol. 5, 1872, p. 267.
Mark, A., and MaCAuliffe, L., CRAS, vol. 172, 1921, pp. 49-50.
Pittard* E., Anth, vol. 13, 1902, pp. 321-328; vol. 15, 1902, pp. 177-187; BSAL,
vol. 22, 1904, pp. 207-217; Les Peuplu ies BMans.
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 505
the European Gypsies is basically Indian, a derivative of Sanskrit or
Prakrit, but it contains also words picked up in transit through Persia
and Armenia, Words of other languages, Greek, Rumanian, Magyar,
give evidence of passage through European countries. In each country
the Gypsy speech has adapted itself to the language of the non-Gypsy
inhabitants; in the far periphery, in England and in Spain, it has be-
come no more than a half-language with as many local as Romany words,
as any reader of George Borrow will recognize.137
In the Balkans and Hungary some of the Gypsies were made landed
serfs under the jurisdiction of nobles and churchmen, others were given
special charter to wander; these latter practiced the trades of tinkers,
wood carvers, gold panners, and minstrels, while their women exercised
from their first appearance their calling of sorceresses and fortune-tellers.
Although nomadic from the beginning, the Gypsies were not especially
concerned with horse breeding and horse trading in eastern Europe;
it was only in the west, where regulations and restrictions kept them on
the move, that this specialty was developed.
After about a century in eastern Europe, some of them began to wander
westward, and arrived in Germany in 1417, France in 1427, and England
in about 1500 A.D. Some passed on through the Basque Provinces into
Spain, others spread northward as far as Sweden and Finland. All said
that they came from "Little Egypt," and must go to Rome to expiate
some sin of their ancestors. At this time they already travelled in wagons,
whereas those in the east had arrived as dwellers in black tents. It is
possible that the spread of the Turks in southeastern Europe had impelled
this movement westward, but if so, the Gypsies rode into greater trials
and persecutions than those they were fleeing. From about 1600 A.D.
onward, their treatment in western Europe was often barbarous.
Counting Gypsies is the most arduous known form of census taking,
and no estimates as to their numbers can be accurate. There are perhaps
nearly a million of them in the world, allowing at least 100,000 on either
side for a probable error. Of these, over half a million are said to live in
Rumania and Hungary. Spain has about 40,000, Italy over 30,000, and
Russia nearly 60,000. Probably at least 150,000 live in Bulgaria, Mace-
donia, and Yugoslavia, while France has but 2000, Germany the same
number, and the British Isles about 12,000. The total outside Europe,
including Asia, Africa, America, and Australia, would perhaps amount
to about 200,000.
The eastern European Gypsies have for the most part settled down,
137 The reader, if he does not already know them, is invited to join the great company
of Borrovians by acquainting himself with The Romano Lavo-Lil, Lavengro, The Romany
Rye> and The %\b\e in Sjwin,
506 THE RACES OF EUROPE
and many have lost their language. In Hungary less than 10,000 are
still nomadic. In studying the racial characters of the European Gypsies,
it will be necessary to distinguish between the nomads, who have in some
countries preserved their original racial type with some degree of purity,
and the settled Gypsies who have mixed extensively with the non-Gypsy
population.
The most noticeable physical trait of the Gypsies, remarked every-
where from their first appearance to the present, is their dark pigmentation.
In skin color this is often so dark as to exclude them, in popular estima-
tion, from membership in the white race. Out of 52 Hungarian Gypsies
Weisbach found 38, or 73 per cent, to have brown or brownish skin
color; the others, light brown to yellowish. Gluck, in a group of 66 from
Bosnia, found 30, or 45 per cent, dark brown; 6, or 9 per cent, brown;
27, or 41 per cent, light brown; and only three light in a European
sense. Lebzelter, with observations on the skin colors of 36 from Serbia,
finds 6 brown, 29 yellowish, or yellowish-white, and one olive or brunet-
white. Nomadic Gypsies noticed by the author in Albania seemed to be
all or nearly all brown, nearer dark brown than light; the sedentary
Gypsies of Tirana are also, as a rule, brown-skinned, although light-
skinned individuals occur among them.
There can be little doubt that when the Gypsies arrived in Europe
they were all or nearly all brown-eyed; today some 90 per cent of Hun-
garian and Serbian Gypsies still have unmixed brunet irises, with the
majority dark brown to black. The head hair and the beard, as well,
are almost always black among pure Gypsies, fine in texture, very thick
on the head, and uniformly straight. Wavy hair seems to occur only
among Gypsy-European hybrids. In all groups studied in Hungary
and southeastern Europe, there are a few individuals with medium brown,
light brown, or even blond hair, but these may with little doubt be con-
sidered mixtures.
The purest nomadic Gypsy groups are all short-statured, with means of
161 cm. to 164 cm.; the Hungarian Gypsies are taller, with a mean of
166.5 cm.; the "black" Bosnian Gypsies, living in a country of tall people,
have a mean of 168 cm., while the "white" or palpably mixed Bosnian
Gypsies, with a mean of 173 cm., are nearly as tall as the Bosnians them-
selves. In France they attain a stature of 166 cm., as high as that for
Frenchmen, or higher; in England they are presumably nearly as tall
as the English, as are the Stanleys and Coopers who live in America.
The purer groups of Gypsies have head length means of 188 to 190
mm., and breadths of 145 mm. or slightly over; their cephalic index
means range from 76 among Black Bosnian Gypsies to 79 among those
of Hungary. In France it is also 79, extraordinarily low for people living
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 507
in so brachycephalic a country. The heads of the Gypsies are usually
low-vaulted, with a mean auricular height of about 120 mm.; their
faces are small, with a total face height mean of 120 mm., a bizygomatic
of 135 mm., and minimum frontal and bigonial means of 106 mm.
Their facial index, 88, lies on the border of mesoprosopy and lepto-
prosopy, and their nasal index, 63, is leptorrhine. Their nasal dimen-
sions, 52 mm. by 33 mm., are absolutely small. The nasal profile is, as
a rule, straight.
In all facial features, as well as in their metrical position, the unmixed
Gypsies are standard members of a small Mediterranean racial type;
they could not have acquired this constant racial character anywhere
between the Indus Valley and Hungary, since all Mediterranean forms
encountered on the way are different. The nomadic Gypsies of Hungary,
Rumania, and the Balkans, are still largely of this type; the sedentary
Gypsies are gradually merging into the populations that surround them.
In western Europe the Gypsy is a hybrid, growing less Indian as one
moves westward. The English Gypsies, in fact, to whose numbers have
been added vagrant Englishmen, are in many cases hardly to be distin-
guished from the latter. The English Gypsies of America, who have given
up horses for automobiles and who now sell the baskets made by Passama-
quoddy Indians, look in some instances little different from brunet
Yankees, although their English blood was accreted in England rather
than in America. We have also in our country, however, many families
of Balkan Gypsies, who retain their complete gypsy racial character, and
who still wear their colorful clothing and jewelry, although they sleep in
trailers rather than in caravans.
(19) CONCLUSIONS
The main conclusions to be drawn from the foregoing study of the
Mediterranean World, in its stretch, a quarter of the way around the
globe, from India to the Atlantic, may, be expressed simply and briefly.
In this zone the Mediterranean race is the one predominant human
genetic factor. It abuts on the Veddoid group to the southeast, the negroid
to the southwest, and the world of the descendants of hybrid Upper
Palaeolithic hunters on the north and on the west.
The Mediterranean race, excepting those partially depigmented
branches which escaped early to the north of the Mediterranean home-
lands and whose descendants we have already studied, is characteristi-
cally brunet, but in varying degrees, and when unmixed with Veddoids
or negroids carries a minor imitative tendency to blondism.
The early divisions of the Mediterranean race noted in the skeletal
material from as far back as the fourth millennium B.C. are still valid.
508 THE RACES OF EUROPE
These divisions may be separated on several bases; notably, stature,
degree of dolichocephaly, and facial cast, which is most easily expressed
in terms of the nasal profile.
The Mediterraneans living in Asia are characterized, in varying degrees,
by a prominence of the upper facial segment and by a convexity of nasal
profile; those in Africa and Europe by a straighter facial plane, and a
straight nasal profile. The Asiatic Mediterraneans tend to concurrence
of eyebrows and heaviness of beard; those in Africa and Europe to a
separation of the eyebrows over glabella, and a moderate beard and
body hair development.
Historically, short Mediterraneans seem to have preceded tall ones
in their wanderings out of typically Mediterranean territory. In view
of the known antiquity of the tall varieties, this must be interpreted
in terms of geographical position rather than of developmental se-
quence.
From the metrical standpoint the Mediterranean race is remarkably
homogeneous. Different branches of the Mediterranean race, widely
separated in time and space, may be identical or nearly identical in all
measurable characters, but may differ profoundly in such superficial
(in the literal sense) racial criteria as skin color, hair color, eye color,
and hair form. Pigmentation, within the wider Mediterranean groups,
is of little value in the estimation of long-range racial associations. The
pigment map of Europe is truly a map of glaciation, and the racial types
found within the inner zone of blondism have little in common other
than a paucity of melanin. The Corded element in the Nordic, as it is
isolated, is blue-eyed and brown -haired; its Asiatic counterpart is brown-
eyed and black-haired. The Nordic proper and the smaller Mediterranean
element in it which we call Danubian is ash-blond haired and gray- or
mixed-eyed; its Mediterranean counterparts elsewhere are brown-haired
and brown-eyed. Similarly the Atlanto-Mediterranean strain among the
Irish and Scots is blue-eyed, although the hair color remains in many
instances dark; here iris and skin depigmentation may have progressed
in advance of the non-functional hair pigment. What it is that has made
these races partially or fully blond, no one at present knows. But we do
know that some of the changes must have taken place within the last
five thousand years, since the separation of some of the blond branches
of the Mediterranean race from their brunet counterparts cannot go
back much farther.
The accretion of a small amount of negroid blood by the Mediterranean
stock causes a frizziness of hair form; a darkening of skin color, which
becomes extremely variable; a broadening of the nasal breadth; an in-
crease in interorbital and biorbital dimensions; and often an increase in
THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 509
facial and nasal lengths, as well as a tendency to nasal profile convexity.
Vault dimensions and body dimensions change little.
The accretion of Veddoid blood causes a reduction in the head size,
a tendency toward brachycephaly, an increase in browridges and in
bizygomatic breadth, a narrowing of the lower face, expecially of the
mandible, a narrowing of the nasal and orbital region, and a prominence
of the nose. Especially noticeable is the acquisition of thick ringlet
curls as an almost exclusive hair form.
The accretion of northern Palaeolithic blood of the Afalou variety
causes an increase in bodily bulk, in heaviness of bone, in relative trunk
size, and in head size. It causes a broadening qf the head and face, and
especially an increase in the size antd prominence of the mandible. It
causes the acquisition of a tendency toward blue-eyed, brown?- or rufous-
haired blondism, with freckling, A comparable action has already been
observed upon the Nordic branch of the Mediterranean race in northern
Europe and in Ireland.
What happens to the Mediterranean race when it is fused with central
European and central Asiatic Alpine strains, and with mongoloid strains
on the plains of central Asia, will be studied in the following chapter.
Chapter XII
THE CENTRAL ZONE, A STUDY IN
REEMERGENCE
(1) INTRODUCTION
With the present chapter we enter upon the last west-east drive in
our effort to deal systematically with the racial geography of living
white peoples. We enter at the same time upon the most complex and,
from the biological standpoint, the most difficult aspect of the white
racial problem. The history of Europe north of the Pyrenees and south
of the Baltic and of the Arctic fringe has been largely a matter of the
penetration of food-producing Mediterranean peoples into territory held
by food-gatherers of Mesolithic cultural tradition, the retreat and sub-
mergence of the food-gatherers, and their subsequent racial reemergence.
We have already witnessed the same process in the north, and in Britain,
especially Ireland. We have also witnessed a similar process in Morocco
and the Canary Islands.
In northern Europe and in Ireland, the reemergence was of full-sized,
unaltered Briinn and Borreby men; in North Africa of both reduced and
unreduced Afalou survivors. One suspects, in studying individual living
Irish, that the presence of occasional individuals of Alpine appearance
may be due to a minor tendency toward size reduction in the Briinn
stock, parallel to the reduction evident in some Riffians.
In central Europe, we shall deal with the Alpine race, a reduced
Upper Palaeolithic type, which in its pure form is a medium to short-
statured, laterally built, brachycephalic, short and broad-faced, short-
nosed, relatively large-jawed, human variety. The perfect Alpine looks
very much like the Germanic concept of a dwarf, the small men with
snub noses and long beards who live in the mountains and forests, and
who foster such poor unfortunates as the Princess Snow White.1
The thesis that the Alpine race is an in situ descendant of the Upper
Palaeolithic men of France still remains unproved. The Mesolithic is
a vast ten-thousand year gap in our knowledge of the racial history
of Europe, and it is still possible that the Alpine race entered central
Europe from the east during that time, or that it was reenforced by
1 The production of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs by Walt Disney in 1938 has made
this physical type familiar, by means of caricature, to almost the entire American and
western European public.
510
THE CENTRAL ZONE 511
migrations from North Africa. It is also possible, and in fact more than
likely, that the Alpine race represents a reemergence within a reemer-
gence; that with the post-glacial climatic changes the shorter-statured,
brachycephalic, short-faced, low-orbitted element within the heterogene-
ous Cr6-Magnon and Afalou stocks asserted its selective superiority
genetically over the taller, longer-headed and longer-faced elements,
and that the Alpine race as such existed in Europe by the end of the
Mesolithic; later it was pushed out and absorbed by the incoming Medi-
terraneans, through mixture with whom it subsequently made its second
reemergence. One difficult feature of this whole problem is that the Alpine
race, in combination with certain other elements, produces a number of
special mixed forms which help to complicate the racial picture.
A further complication is that the geographical frontier between the
region of Alpine reemergence and that of Borreby reemergence is not
clearly drawn; the two meet and overlap in the Low Countries and in
Germany. In the east, free from Borreby competition, the Alpines
follow the mountain chain into Asia Minor and southern Turkestan; on
the plains of Russia and Poland it is a Lappish or Ladogan element
which reemerges.
The Mediterranean race is a foreigner on European soil. Only in
Spain and Portugal, and the western Mediterranean islands, where the
large Briinn and Borreby hybrids were never important; only in Great
Britain, where geography yields little quarter to ancient survivors; and
in eastern Norway and Sweden, where the land was relatively empty
before their arrival, could Mediterraneans of either blond or brunet
pigmentation survive as unaltered major populations on European soil.
Europe owes her civilization to the Mediterraneans, but she owes her
blood and bone, to an equal if not a larger extent, to the people who
settled the continent during the last interglacial.
(2) FRANCE
The racial history of France is so integral a part of the racial history
of western Europe as a whole that there is little need to review its earlier
phases in detail. The Neolithic food-producers who first settled this
country came largely from the south, from Spain and also from Italy;
the Danubian invasions affected France little, if at all, in a direct racial
sense. Megalithic invaders paid considerable attention to the whole
western shore of France, and penetrated up the river valleys of the north,
while Brittany was their especial stronghold. They were not, however,
the first food-producers to arrive, as in Ireland, Scotland, and Denmark;
hence their influence upon the subsequent population was relatively
slight.
512 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Prance was a cultural backwash during the Bronze Age; the farmers
of Neolithic tradition tilled the valleys and plains, while hunters and
gatherers of Mesolithic inspiration still wandered about the infertile
uplands. Only in the northeastern part of France, adjacent to southern
Germany, was there a Bronze Age civilization of any importance. The
Iron Age brought with it invasions from the north of considerable magni-
tude; first the waves of Keltic peoples, and then of Germanic, culminating
in the establishment of Charlemagne's Frankish empire. These invasions
gave to the whole north of France a Kelto-Germanic racial cast, which
has penetrated many other parts of the country. The Nordic infusion
so produced has had a lasting effect upon the French racial composition.
Other movements of importance were the penetration of the Basques
northward, as recorded in the preceding chapter; the arrival of the
Northmen from Norway in what became, under their regime, Nor-
mandy; the earlier arrival of Saxons along the coast; and the settlement
of Cornishmen in Brittany. In more recent times the infiltration of Ital-
ians into the Riviera is a racial movement of some consequence.
The Romans established themselves more firmly and with greater
success in Gaul than in most of their colonies; the Romanized Kelts
gave up their language for a popular variety of Latin, as did the Aquita-
nians in the southwestern portion of the country, and the Ligurians in the
southeast. Greeks, Armenians, Jews, and other subjects of the Roman em-
pire established themselves in Gaul in considerable numbers. The Parisian
spirit of internationalism dates back to the Roman occupation. The sur-
vival of Romance speech through the blanket of Frankish German and of
Norse in Normandy is a tribute to the strength of the Roman imprint.
Throughout her history, France has absorbed more than she has
expanded; except for French Canada, she has never had a colony to
which Frenchmen have gone in numbers to settle. In the same sense
the territory of France is greater than her linguistic boundaries; on the
corners of her domain are border provinces in which new foreign tongues
have crept in, or in which older ones have long resisted absorption.
Italian^ in the southeast, is new; Basque and Breton date to the fifth
century of our era — of the two the former is increasing, the latter slowly
decreasing; Catalan in the Roussillon, so closely related to Langue
d'Oc, is apparently static; in the north, Flemish, reaching westward
from Belgium, is gradually on the decrease, as is German in Alsace.
Although French is spoken by thousands of educated persons outside
French territory as a second language, it is not an aggressive language
within France itself. The total number of persons of native French
citizenship within France whose mother language is not French is three
and a half out of forty- two millions. At the same time four other millions
THE CENTRAL ZONE 513
out of the forty-two are naturalized or unnaturalized foreigners. The
emigration of Frenchmen is negligible.
At the turn of the twentieth century, France was probably the best
documented of the larger European countries in an anthropometric
sense. Since that time, however, almost no further statistical information
has been collected; our sources are the same as those with which Deniker
and Ripley worked. The material consists almost entirely of detailed
studies of the distribution of a few characters, notably stature, the cephalic
index, and pigmentation. The only new contribution that one can make
lies in the field of interpretation.2
If we pass rapidly through the geographical distribution of stature,
the cephalic index, and pigmentation, we shall have covered most of
the existing information of an accurate nature. The mean stature of
the French is about 166 cm.,3 which is neither tall nor short, but inter-
2 The old material has been ably summarized and interpreted by Professor Georges
Montandon in UEthnie Frangaise. His volume contains a complete bibliography of the
older sources. Chief among those which have been used in the present section are :
Atgier, E. A., BSAP, ser. 4, vol. 9, 1898, pp. 617HS37; ser. 4, vol. 10, 1899, pp. 171-
199.
Aubert, RDAP, ser. 3, vol. 3, 1888, pp. 456-468.
Bouchereau, A., Anth, vol. 11, #6, 1900, pp. 691-706.
Bouchereau, A., and Mayet, L., BMSA, ser. 5, vol. 6, 1905, pp. 426-448.
Carlier, G., BSAP, ser. 4, vol. 4, 1893, pp. 470-476.
Carriere, G., Homme, vol. 2, 1885, pp. 334-337.
Garret, J., MDSS, vol. 21, 1883, pp. 1-108.
Chassagne, A., RDAP, ser. 2, voL 4, 1881, pp. 439-447.
Collignon, R., Anth, vol. 1, 1890, pp. 201-224; vol. 4, 1893, pp. 237-258. REAP,
vol. 7, 1897, pp. 339-347. BSAP, ser. 6, vol. 3, 1883, pp. 463-526; ser. 3, vol. 10, 1887,
pp. 306-312; ser. 4, vol. 1, 1890, pp. 736-805. MSAP, ser. 3, vol. 1, fasc. 3, 1894,
ser. 3, vol. 1, fasc. 5, 1895.
Debierre, C., BSAL, vol. 5, 1886-87, pp. 129-149.
Durand de Gros, J. P., BSAP, ser. 2, vol. 4, 1869, pp. 193-218.
Gamier, M., Anth, vol. 24, 1913, pp. 25-50.
Grilliere, BSAP, ser. 6, vol. 4, 1913, pp. 392-400.
Herv6, G., REAP, vol. 11, 1901, pp. 161-177.
Hovelacque, A., and Herve, G., MSAP, ser. 3/vol. 1, fasc. 2, 1894, pp. 1-256.
Lagneau, G., BSAP, vol. 6, 1865, pp. 507-511.
Lapouge, G. V. de, BSSM, 1897, vol. 4, pp. 235-243.
MacAuliffe, L., and Marie, A., Ethnographic, No. 5, 1922, pp. 41-48.
MacAulifTe, L., Marie, A., and Thooris, A., BMSA, ser. 6, vol. 1, 1910, pp. 307-311.
Manouvrier, L., BSAP, ser. 3, vol. 11, 1888, pp. 156-173.
Papillault, G. F., BMSA, ser. 5, vol. 3, 1902, pp. 393-526.
Pornmerol, F., BSAP, ser. 3, vol. 10, 1887, pp. 383-397.
Routil, R., ZFRK, vol. 5, 1937, pp. 177-181.
Topinard, P., RDAP, ser. 3, vol. 4, 1889, pp. 513-530; JRAI, vol. 27, 1897, pp. 96-
103; Anth, vol. 4, 1893, pp. 579-591.
France more than almost any other European country stands in need of a new and
complete anthropometric survey. The older surveys suffer in the technical sense as well
as in the paucity of criteria studied.
8 Figures for 1910.
514 THE RACES OF EUROPE
mediate in relationship to other European peoples. France is divided
into two principle stature zones by a slightly convex line which passes
diagonally from Cherbourg to Marseilles, with mean statures of 166
cm. to 168 cm. lying to the northeast, and those ranging between 161
and 165 cm. on the southwest. Aside from this general scheme, taller
people are found along the larger river valleys than in the hills, with one
principal exception — the inhabitants of the northern slopes of the Pyrenees,
from the Basques to the Catalan-speakers of the Roussillon, are taller
than the people immediately north of them. In the northeast, in the
taller region, there are stature modes of 164 and 168 cm.4 The centers
of relatively short stature in France are: the Maritime Alps, to the
east of the valley of the Rh6ne, which acts as a wedge of newer popu-
lation between the mountain nuclei on either side; the Massif Central,
the classic Alpine country; the Perigord-Limoges region, including the
Dordogne, which is the strongest outpost of dolichocephals in France; and
Brittany.
It is curious that the Keltic-speaking Bretons are among the shortest
people in France, and are, in fact, seven centimeters shorter than their
kinsmen the Cornish who live directly across the Channel. A detailed
stature map of Brittany by cantons shows that the jump from Cornwall
is not as abrupt as it appears; 5 around the coast extends a thin band of
maritime cantons with stature in the 164-165 cm. class, which gives way
rapidly through a zone of transition to an inner nucleus in which the
mean stature is 162 cm. This evidence, as well as that of the cephalic
index, indicates that Cornish speech has survived in Brittany among a
people to whom it is an adopted tongue, while it has died out in south-
western England whence it came.
Stature has increased to a certain extent in France during the last
century, as it has in other parts of western Europe; one of the most strik-
ing examples of this change is seen in the mountainous region of Savoie,
especially in the canton of Mt. Blanc.6 In the five year period from
1807-12, the mean stature of some 12,000 men was 158 cm. Within
this period, the stature seems to have been static. Between 1828 and 1837,
the recruits from this same region had attained the mean of 162 cm.,
and in the 1872-79 interval they had reached 165 cm. Unfortunately
there is no more recent data to trace the further history of this regional
group. In the rest of France, the changes have been much less marked; the
case of the Savoyards is apparently an example of diminishing isolation.
One of the most widely discussed subjects in French anthropology is
that of the so-called laches noires, the black spots upon the stature map of
4 Montandon, G., op. cit., p. 64. « Garret, J., MDSS, 1883.
6 Chassagne, A., RDAP, 1881.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 515
France. These are regions in which the people appear stunted, and whole
villages and whole cantons are characterized by stature means well under
160 cm. These dwarfed areas seem definitely linked with poor living
conditions and general retrogression. Broca, who studied such an area
in Basse Bretagne, attributed this stunting to mineral deficiency, since
it occurred mostly in regions of granitic soil.7 Collignon,8 who studied a
second such spot in the Limousin Hills, on the corner of the four depart-
ments of Greuze, Correze, Charente, and Dordogne, invoked general
poverty and misery. His proof that this stature reduction was environ-
mental is seen in a comparison of means between sub-samples of 83
recruits from the canton of St. Pierre de Chignac. Of these 83, 53 who
were born there and had always lived there had a mean of 159.5 cm.;
24 who were born in better country but raised in St, Pierre, 159.9 cm.;
15 who were born in St. Pierre and raised elsewhere, 163.7 cm.
Bodily proportions of the French are known to us only through two
general scries by Collignon.9 The French as a group are not notably
different from a general European mean; a relative span of 104 is greater
than a Mediterranean condition, and resembles that of the western Nor-
wegians, the East Baltics, and the Irish. The relative sitting height
mean of 52.4 is not excessive, nor are absolute shoulder and hip breadths.
On the whole, the resemblance is with northern Upper Palaeolithic
survivors rather than Mediterraneans, which is to be expected.
The data on the cephalic index of the French, while covering smaller
series than those for stature, are numerically fully adequate, and have
been frequently discussed. France is a brachycephalic country, one of
the most fully and intensely brachycephalic in the world. The mean
cephalic index for the nation is 83.6, according to Collignon, which
would be between 81 and 82 on the skull — in other words, it is about the
same as it was during the Neolithic, judging by the relatively abundant
cranial material reviewed in Chapter IV. Since most of the post-Neo-
lithic invaders of France, who came in considerable numbers, have been
dolichocephalic or mesocephalic, the present condition is evidence in
itself of a prodigious absorption and reemergence.
Two large zones in France are characterized by hyperbrachycephaly;
indices of 86 and over are found in Auvergne and in Burgundy. The
first center starts in Upper Gascony with the department of Gers, and
extends eastward and slightly northward through Tarn-et-Garonne and
Lot in the Guyenne, to Aveyron, Cantal, Loz£re, and Haute Loire. This
7 Thus anticipating Marett's work by half a century.
Broca, P., BSA, ser. 2, vol. 1, 1866, pp. 700-708.
8 Gollignon, R., MSAP, 1894.
9 Gollignon, R., BSAP, 1883; Anth, 1893.
516 THE RAGES OF EUROPE
is the famous Massif Central, the granite country, the refuge area of
Alpines in their least mixed form. This area of maximum brachypephaly
does not, however, correspond exactly with the center of short stature,
which lies farther to the north and west; nor does it entirely merit the
name "Auvergnat," because Auvergne forms merely the northwestern-
most extremity of its distribution. Furthermore, it cannot be exactly
correlated with any single geological or orographical phenomenon.
The second zone of hyperbrachycephaly lies to the east and north of
the first one; it is found in Savoie, eastern Burgundy, the Franche Comt6,
and Lorraine. The inhabitants of these regions differ profoundly from
those in the first area, however; the Burgundians and Savoyards are
much taller, and frequently blond.
Long-headed regional populations are scarce in France; true dolicho-
cephals, with indices of 77 or under, are numerous only in the immediate
region of Perigeux, in the Dordogne. Low mesocephals, with indices
of 78 and 79, cover a wider zone around Perigeux, between the rivers
V6zere and Dronne. Elsewhere relative long headedness, comprising
indices between 78 and 81, is found in a number of regions: (a) the
Channel departments, where Norman and Saxon blood is present, and
here and there on the coast of Brittany. The Norwegian invaders, with
a mean cephalic index of presumably 77, have pulled the regional mean
down to 80 and 81 in most of Normandy; in Brittany, however, the
Cornish invaders gave the inhabitants little beside their language, (b)
the corridor reaching from Orleans to Bordeaux, through Marche,
Poitou, and Berry; this has been a highway for invasions from the north
since early times, (c) the Catalan-speaking region of Pyrenees Orientales.
(d) the lower Rh6ne Valley, from Lyon to the Mediterranean, another
much frequented corridor.
The rest of France, consisting of about half of the country, represents an
intermediate condition in head form, with normal brachycephaly, the
mean indices being between 82 and 85. In view of the skeletal history
of France, and of the racial character of the living French, it is evident
that a moderate brachycephaly is not, in this country, a normal racial
condition, but an intermediate or mixed one, between end types which
are genetically capable of regmergence.
In France as in Norway, Denmark, and many other countries, there
is a tendency for the cities to contain longer-headed populations than
the surrounding country districts; in eight cities 10 the mean difference
10 Bordeaux, La Rochelle, Pau, Bayottne, Tarbes, Rodez, Milhau, and Lyon. Calcu-
lated from:
Bouchereau and Mayet, 1905; Collingnon, R., MSAP, 1894; Durand d« Gros, J. P.,
BSAP, 1869.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 517
between the two is 1.86 index points. Since the birth-rate in the cities
is low, and the cities drain the human surplus of the surrounding country
districts, there must be a process of selection at play, here as elsewhere,
which tends in the long run to raise the cephalic index mean not only
in the country districts, but also in the cities as well. This process is
particularly important in France where there has been since the beginning
of the Neolithic a highly brachycephalic hinterland population to draw
from. In Brittany the change seems to have been particularly profound,
since the Iron Age crania from this country in no wise give promise
of the present-day round headedness.11
Measurements of the head and face, and indices other than the cephalic,
are extremely scanty.12 Fortunately, however, they refer for the most part
to the more brachycephalic element in the French population, which
is of especial interest here. In the Alpine region par excellence, where
the cephalic indices run to means of 85 and over, the head length means
average about 184 mm., and the head breadth about 158 mm. The
vault height mean is about 126 mm. These heads, with a cephalic module
of 156 mm. (HL + HB + Aur. Ht. -7- 3) are of moderate size for white
people; they are much sfnaller than the heads of the Borreby brachy-
cephals in Scandinavia and northern Germany, and a little smaller than
one finds among brachycephals of equal index position in southern Ger-
many. They are, however, comparable in size to those of Dinarics in
the Balkans, and of Armenoids and Tajiks in Asia. Heads among all non-
Borreby brachycephals, from France to Turkestan, are approximately
equivalent in basic vault dimensions, whatever the differences in contours.
The French Alpine face, however, fails to maintain this level of similar-
ity. The foreheads and jaws are both moderately broad, with minimum
frontal and bigonial means of about 108 mm., as is the bizygomatic mean
of 140 mm. These lateral dimensions exceed those of any Mediterranean
group studied, and approach but do not equal the Borreby position.
The French Alpine face breadth is equal to that of Tajiks, but less than
that of some Dinarics in the Balkans, and of Armenoids.
» Vallois, M. H. V., Les Ossemmts Bretons de Kerne,
12 Three series are most useful :
(1) MacAuliffe, L., Marie, A., and Thooris, A., BMSA, 1910. A series of 100
French soldiers.
(2) Hawes, C. H., a series of 51 French soldiers, mostly from Lozdre, measured in
Crete in 1905. This series has not been published previously.
(3) Papillault, G., BMSA, 1902. A series of 100 cadavers measured in the Paris
morgue. This series is especially complete and accurate, but unfortunately there had
been some shrinking of soft parts, or else social selection was important here, for the
cadavers are smaller in many dimensions than living groups.
Aside from these three series, we have partial data on 22 other series, 17 by Collig*
non, and the others by Carlier, Carri£re, Grilli£re, and Debierre.
518 THE RACES OF EUROPE
The total face height mean seems to be about 121 or 122 mm.; 1S the
upper face height mean about 73 mm. These figures agree closely with
those of the Tajiks of Turkestan, who are also for the most part Alpines;
but fall far short of those for Binaries and Armenoids. The Borreby
brachycephals in the north do not have much longer faces. The French
Alpines are mesoprosopic and mesene. Their nose height mean is about
53 mm., and breadth about 34 mm.; the nasal index approximately 64.
Thus the noses are absolutely of moderate size, and moderately leptor-
rhine. They are, again, close to those of Tajiks, and much shorter than
those of Binaries or Armenoids.
To sum up this material, the Alpines of France, in the measurements
and proportions of the head and face, seem to be smaller replicas of
the Borreby people of northern Europe. They closely resemble the seden-
tary Iranian-speaking Tajiks of Turkestan, with whom we shall deal at
some length later, and thus have possible relationships with a similar
people far to the east. They furthermore differ greatly in facial dimensions
and proportions from Binaries and Armenoids in southeastern Europe
and in western Asia. They differ profoundly from any group of Mediter-
raneans studied, and show a manifest affiliation to the general Upper
Palaeolithic European group.
The one region of complete dolichocephaly in France, that of the
Bordogne country, is characterized by unusually large head diameters.
The mean head lengths of several cantons run as high as 196 and 197
mm., with the breadths at 150 mm. and greater.14 The vaults are relatively
low, being about 3 mm. lower than those of neighboring brachycephals.
The bizygomatic means of the long-headed cantons are about 137 mm.,
as compared to 140 mm. for the brachycephalic cantons. This unusual
head size, coupled with short stature, is unquestionably indicative of
an isolated local type; but it is too great to refer wholly to a normal,
small Mediterranean, Early Neolithic racial group. These dimensions
remind one of the Mesolithic people of Teviec; and Ripley may not
have been wholly wrong when he saw in the Bordogne dolichocephals
a survival from pre-Neolithic times. The Mesolithic is still a period of
uncertainty to the student of race, but the one thing that we do know is
that it was, like all others before or since, a period of complexity. The
Bordogne dolichocephals present a problem similar to that of the more
primitive of the brunet dolichocephals of Wales.
The pigmentation of living Frenchmen, like their stature and cephalic
18 There are no accurate total face heights available for France. I am basing this
figure on French Canadian convicts in American jails, who seem to be of basic Alpine
type. This material is taken from Hooton's extensive criminal survey.
14 Collignon, R., MSAP, 1894.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 519
indices, was subjected to extensive investigation during the last century,
and there is no modern scale material for use in determining absolute
standards. The most recent work, that of MacAuliffe and Marie on
6625 men from France as a whole,15 finds but 4 per cent of black and near-
black hair color, 23 per cent of dark brown, 43 per cent of medium brown,
14 per cent of light brown, 12 per cent of various degrees of blond, and
some 4 per cent of reddish- brown and red. The virtual absence of truly
black hair is notable, as well as the high degree of rufosity. The charac-
teristic French hair color is a dark to medium brown, which often has a
reddish glint; this color is typical of the Alpine race in its French mani-
festation.
The regional distribution of hair color in France follows closely that
of stature. Although the position of the French in regard to hair pig-
mentation is intermediate between blond and black, the diagonal line
from Mont St. Michel to Orleans, Lyons, and the Italian border divides
the country into a northeastern quadrant, in which the hair is somewhat
lighter than medium, and a southwestern, in which it is somewhat
darker. High ratios of black and very dark brown hair are found not in
the typically Alpine country, but along the slope of the Pyrenees, in
Catalan-speaking country, and on the Mediterranean seacoast. Blond
hair is commonest along the Channel, in regions settled by Saxons and
Normans, in Burgundy and the country bordering Switzerland, and down
the course of the Rhone. In northern France it seems to follow upstream
the rivers which empty into the Channel. The hair color of the depart-
ments occupied by Flemish speakers, and of others directly across the
Channel from England in Normandy, seems to be nearly as light as that
in the southern English counties; the coastal cantons of Brittany are
lighter than the inland ones, and approximate a Cornish condition.
In the same way, the northeastern French departments are probably
as light-haired as some of the provinces of southern Germany. Truly
light hair is uncommon enough, and so placed geographically that it
may be in large part attributed to the Keltic and Germanic migrations.
But the hair of the pre-Keltic inhabitants of France can by no means
have been wholly or even largely black; the intermediate brown hair
shade of the Alpines, with its rufous and incipiently blond tendencies,
must be ancient in France; it is comparable to the slightly blonder hair
color range of the Borreby type, with its tendency to rufosity.
Eye color observations on the French are equally abundant and equally
difficult to equate to standard shades and degrees of pigment.16 Pure
15 MacAuliffe, L., and Marie, A., Ethnographic, 1922. Older surveys which cover
France geographically are those of Topinard and of Collignon,
16 Most of the French observers use the terms "marron" and "chatain" to designate
520 THE RACES OF EUROPE
dark eyes are apparently found among roughly 25 per cent of French-
men;17 the departmental range runs from 14 per cent in Morbihan
(Brittany) to Basse Pyrenees and Gers, with 41 per cent and 42 per cent,
and thence to the very dark-eyed departments of Bouches du Rh6ne
(57 per cent), and Alpes Maritimes (59 per cent). Out of 87 departments,
49 have between 20 per cent and 30 per cent of "dark" eyes.
The distribution of eye color in France follows roughly that of stature
and hair color, but is less regular than either. Light eyes are especially
numerous in the northeast, in the region of Keltic and Germanic in-
fluence, and in northwestern France, along the Channel from Flanders
to Brittany. Topinard finds 25 per cent of blue eyes in these northern
and eastern departments. In the Pyrenean departments, and along the
Riviera, these blue eyes, which probably include light-mixed shades,
sink below 15 per cent, but never below 10 per cent. Even in the de-
partments where there is little historical or skeletal evidence of Nordic
influence, there is always a large minority element of eye blondism. On
the whole, the distribution of eye color differs from that of hair color in
one particular: light eyes are relatively common in western France,
especially in Brittany, in regions of dark hair color; while light hair is
commoner in eastern France than the ratio of light eyes would warrant
were the two strictly correlated. France repeats on a lesser scale the hair
and eye color disharmony of northern Europe, The reason is the same
in both areas; the eye blondism is partly Nordic, partly of Palaeolithic
or Mesolithic derivation, while the really light hair is largely Nordic.
The foregoing summary of the detailed regional distributions of somatic
characters among Frenchmen has made it clear that France, while more
than anything else an Alpine country, is differentiated into a number of
racial sub-areas. At the same time it is evident that in France as a whole,
a number of distinct racial types may be easily distinguished among
individuals. Starting on the regional basis, we have observed that the
northern part of France, including the Channel departments and those
stretching eastward as far as Burgundy, contains a population character-
ized by moderately tall stature, a variable but slightly fairer than inter-
mediate degree of blondism, and a variable, sub-brachycephalic or
brachy cephalic head form. This population obviously contains strong
vestiges of the Nordic invasions of Kelts and Germans, but in it fully
the commoner shades of brown eye color, presumably meaning dark brown and
light brown, although Topinard pointed out that the only "chatain" that resembled a
human eye color was one with a worm in it. Topinard ant! others observed eye color
by standing at a distance and observing the total tone, although Bertillon advocated an
accurate system which took into account the anatomy of the iris.
17 This figure is obtained by combining MacAuliffe and Marie's "chatain" and
"marron pur"; Topinard's "dark" class gives the same figure.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 521
qualified Nordics of Keltic or Germanic aspect are rare. They are much
commoner, however, in French Flanders, and in Normandy. Portrait
material indicates that the Nordic element was especially strong among
the old French nobility.
In northeastern and eastern France, in the region where relatively
tall stature, relatively light hair and eye color, and extreme brachycephaly
coincide, this partial Nordicism passes into a Dinaric or Dinaric-like
condition. Here the cephalic index is as high as in the central Alpine
country; the heads, furthermore, are no larger, and a Borreby element can-
not be induced to explain the difference in stature and pigmentation. We
must remember, however, that in the Neolithic period the stature of ex-
treme brachycephals in this region was moderately tall, and that the accom-
panying Mediterranean crania were associated with much shorter stature.
It would seem that the infusion of Nordic blood produced by the Keltic
and Germanic invasions helped to maintain this original stature level,
or to reenforce it, while at the same time adding considerably to the
local blond increment. A study of Savoyards on the basis of head form,
head size, stature, and pigmentation18 demonstrates that in a local
group with a mean stature of 170 cm., there is no evidence of Borreby
head size, and that two related elements seem to account for almost all
of the sample; a Dinaric and a Noric, the latter being a blond brachy-
cephal of general Dinaric morphology. The unavoidable inference is
that the original Alpine type has absorbed not only Neolithic Mediter-
ranean factors, but also Iron Age Nordics, in such proportions that the
Alpine cephalic index level has been preserved, but that the facial char-
acters have to a certain extent been taken over from the Nordics. In
other parts of northern France, in the Seine and Marne valleys, for ex-
ample, the Alpine element has not been strong enough to produce such
a phenomenon consistently, although it has done so with individuals.
If the tall, relatively light-pigmented hyperbrachycephals of north-
eastern France have absorbed some Nordic blood without change of
cephalic index, then it is possible that the shorter, darker ones of south-
central France have absorbed various quantities of Mediterranean,
since Mediterraneans have been present in this region since the begin-
ning of the Neolithic, if not earlier. Among the French Alpines convex
noses are common, and an approach to the Dinaric facial appearance;
one wonders if this is not partly due to the absorption of Mediterranean
blood. Alpine facial types of the classic variety, with a straight or con-
cave nasal profile, combined with the Alpine abundance of beard growth,
and the stiff but wavy, unruly Alpine hair, are by no means found among
all Frenchmen who are metrically Alpine.
» Routil, R., ZFRK, vol. 5, 1937, pp. 177-181.
522 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Here and there one sees a Frenchman of general Alpine type whose
facial features, due largely to peculiarities of nose form and to malar
prominence, approach a Lappish or mongoloid condition. The same
may be seen occasionally in North Africa among Berbers. This must be
attributed not to mongoloid invasions, but to the relationship between
Lapps and other incipient mongoloids and Upper Palaeolithic Europeans
in the Pleistocene. Ainu-looking Alpines are commoner than incipiently
mongoloid ones.
Montandon, a keen observer of the French racial scene, proposes the
following racial proportions for the French nation: Nordic, 1 per cent;
Sub-Nordic, 30 per cent; Dinaric-like, 15 per cent; relatively pure
Alpine, 30 per cent; Small Mediterranean ( I bero- Insular), 10 per cent;
Atlan to-Mediterranean (Litoral), 10 per cent; Basque type, 1 per cent;
others, 3 per cent. Although the Alpine increment receives only 30 per
cent, it must be remembered that in the Sub-Nordic as in the Dinaric-
like category, there is a strong Alpine element; furthermore, the Atlan to-
Mediterraneans of the Pyrenees and the Riviera are strongly tinged
with Alpine. If Collignon's head diameters are correct, then the small
Mediterraneans of the Dordogne are not pure Neolithic descendants,
but have absorbed a much older non-Alpine racial entity.
The final conclusions derived from this survey are as follows. France,
notwithstanding her brilliant contributions to civilization and the inter-
national character which she, as a great cultural center, has assumed,
was a culturally retarded, marginal area from the end of Mesolithic times
until the Iron Age. At the same time, it has remained, since the end of
the Pleistocene, a marginal or refuge area from the racial standpoint
also, since the invasions of brunet Mediterraneans and of Nordics have
together been less important here than in most European countries. In
France the Alpine race, a smaller-sized and less blond replica of the
northern Borreby race, has reemerged as the principal racial element
and can be seen in a relatively pure form. France is essentially an Alpine
nation.
(3) BELGIUM
Belgium, with its 11,755 square miles, is a small country, but it is one
which is important in European history as the meeting place of the Ger-
manic north and the territories whose cultures and languages have been
determined by contact with Rome. With 686 persons per square mile,
it is one of the most thickly populated countries of Europe — its total
population of 8,092,004 persons (1930 census) being much greater than
those of many sovereign states many times its area.
This population has more than doubled in the last century; for in
THE CENTRAL ZONE 523
1831 it was 3,785,814. This increase was due not to immigration, but
wholly to internal reproduction. Belgium is, of course, one of the most
highly industrialized countries of Europe — her soil is rich in natural
resources, and heavy industries dependent on the abundance of mineral
wealth are especially developed here. Industrialism is, however, nothing
new to Belgium, for during the Middle Ages and succeeding centuries,
Flanders was the textile center of Europe.
Belgium has only 42 miles of seacoast, which consists of sandy beach
and dunes, with the shore going off so shallow that there are no natural
harbors — all older seaports, such as Antwerp, Ghent, and Bruges, having
been located inland on waterways. At the back of this sandy shore is a
belt of flat country which is for the most part flush with the level of the
sea or only a little above it; but for the natural barrier of the dunes and for
man-made reinforcements, large parts of this land would be inundated
at every exceptional equinoctial tide. This flat area is the plain of Flanders,
famous for centuries as the battleground of Europe. Here the Romans
fought Belgae and Germans; here the Spaniards and Austrians struggled
in their time for possession of the Low Countries; here Napoleon met his
Waterloo, which has a good Flemish name; and here, during the World
War, Flanders suffered its latest, but probably not its last, invasion.
In the time of the Romans, the plain of Flanders was a swamp, im-
penetrable save to those who lived or sought refuge in it; it could never
have held a large permanent population. During the Dark and Middle
Ages a systematic drainage of the land and the building of dykes, com-
bined with the natural action of the wind and waves blowing off the
North Sea, made it a fertile plain eminently habitable by man. Its
intensive settlement, therefore, dates largely from the last centuries of
the first Christian millennium.
Bordering the plain of Flanders, on drier ground, there stood in Roman
times a dense forest which served to reenforce the barrier of tidal swamps
and salt marshes. This forest, called Sylva Carbonaria by the Romans,
was an extension of the Ardennes Forest of northern France, and served
as a barrier between those few Belgae who lived in moist freedom on
the marshes, and the upland-dwelling Belgae and Gauls who adopted
Roman speech, and became Walloons — the word Walloon being a cognate
of the German Welsch, or English Welsh, a word which the early Germanic
peoples applied to all strangers, much as the Greeks used the word
barbaroi. The Walloon country is topographically differentiated from
the Flemish plain; although its highest elevation is 2200 feet, it is covered
with many hills and small valleys, and is forested, while the plain is
almost treeless.
The Romans first learned of the Low Countries in the time of Caesar,
524 THE RAGES OF EUROPE
who found Keltic-speaking peoples in possession of all regions south
and west of the Rhine, as far as Gaul, and this Keltic country thus in-
cluded all of Belgium and much of the modern Netherlands. In 15 A.D.
this country became, by imperial decree, Romanized Gallia Belgica.
About 300 A.D. the Franks began swarming over the Rhine into Roman
territory, and gradually worked their way southward and westward.
They took over the land as they went, except for the coastal strip north
from the Scheldt to the Ems, which became Frisian property. The
Frisians were allies of the Saxons, who had given the Franks the urge to
migrate by driving them out of their former homes; hence the Frisians
and the Franks were enemies.
Modern Flemish, the permanent linguistic heritage of the Prankish
invasions of Belgium, is a branch of the west-Germanic language group,
which includes three main divisions: (1) English (2) Frisian (3) Modern
German dialects. The third category includes, as well as modern Platt-
deutsch, both Flemish and Dutch.19 In the sixth century certain sound
shifts took place in German, starting in the mountains to the south and
spreading north. The dialects which took over these shifts became High
German, while those which retained their old form are Low German.
Owing to this conservatism, the latter are closest to Frisian and to English.
Flemish is a modification through Saxon and Frisian influences of Low
Franconian, the speech brought into Belgium by the Franks. When the
Franks entered the plain of Flanders, they found it nearly empty of people,
hence it is no wonder that their speech took root there. In the then more
populous Walloon country Latin soon reemerged at the expense of Frank-
ish, and has survived in the medium of an archaic Langue d'Ouil dialect.
When the comparative tranquillity of the Middle Ages arrived,
Flanders, drained and populous, the most important of all the Low
Countries, then included some of what is now northwestern France, the
Belgian provinces of East and West Flanders, and the Dutch province
of Zeeland.
Mediaeval Flanders was important because of its chartered towns
with their skilled craftsmen, whose fame was renowned all over Europe.
The most important of these towns were Ghent, Bruges, and Ypres —
those which arose in Antwerp, Brabant, and Limburg were later, as were
the Dutch towns. During the thirteenth century these Flemish towns had
an industrial population of 100,000 to 200,000 people, most of whom
were supported by weaving. There was a strong trade connection with
England, whence they obtained their wool. In 1400 A.B. Flanders was
the richest spot in Europe and probably in the whole world, and it is no
19 Priebsch, R., "German Language," Encyclopaedia Britannica, thirteenth edition,
vol. 11, pp. 778-783.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 52$
wonder that it excited the greed of foreign princes, who were willing to
spill much blood in order to seize its fat revenues.
This picture of a fertile, prosperous, and populous Flanders accords
ill with our previous portrayal of a swampy refuge, such as it was at the
time of the Roman arrival. Although Flanders is much less affected by
floods than are the Netherlands proper, still these have been of importance
in Flemish history. Dykes had to be built before Flanders could be
fully occupied, and even these dykes could not insure permanent safety.
The twelfth century was an especially evil period in both Holland and
Flanders; there were great disasters in both regions, and in 1111 A.D.
many Flemish families moved to England to reside permanently and
comfortably above high water. It was during the century after this
series of inundations that Flanders attained its peak of prosperity.
During the sixteenth century. Protestantism spread into the Low
Countries out of Germany, and became common in what is now the
Netherlands, whereas it failed to dislodge Catholicism in the present
Belgium. The attempts of Charles V and Philip II of Spain to suppress
the heresy merely served to spread it; the gentle ministrations of the Duke
of Alva and his executioners killed thousands, but there were many
thousands more who survived. These inquisitorial activities had the
effect of drawing a sharp line between a Protestant North and a Catholic
South where the present boundary separates Holland from Belgium.
It was not geography, nor a difference in culture or in language, but an
accident of religion consolidated by persecution that caused the separa-
tion of Flemish Belgium from the Netherlands. Since the time of Caesar
we have witnessed a southward movement of political and linguistic
boundaries; in 57 B.C. both were identical with the Rhine. Migrations
and gross population shifts have pushed the Germanic-Romance lin-
guistic frontier southward to a natural barrier, where it has remained
constant for many centuries.
The skeletal prehistory of Belgium, for all practical purposes, starts
with the Neolithic and concerns itself almost entirely with the Walloon
country. Here there was a strong brachycephalic concentration during
the Neolithic, and some low-vaulted, short-statured Mediterranean groups
as well; on the whole, the concentration of brachycephals was greater
in Belgium than in most of France. The Neolithic brachycephals of the
Walloon country were as large-headed as the Ofnet people, and thus
approached the Borreby type in vault dimensions, but their faces were
smaller than those of the latter. The Belgian Bronze Age and the pre-
Frankish Iron Age are practically unknown skeletally, but the Franks
are well represented. They belonged almost uniformly to a low- vaulted
mesocephalic Nordic type, identical with that of the Iron Age Kelts.
526 THE RACES OF EUROPE
A cranial series of modern age, not mentioned in the earlier chapters,
is of particular interest. This is the Saaftingen series of 56 male and 38
female skulls,20 taken from a Flemish cemetery on an island which is now
submerged at high tide. The date of this cemetery is roughly 1500 A.D.
The crania are uniformly brachycephalic, with a cranial index range of
79 to 92 for the male specimens, and 77 to 92 for the female. The mean
cranial index for the males is 85.7. In size and in vault conformation they
may readily be identified as pure Borreby type skulls. This identification
extends to the facial dimensions and indices; the orbits are low, the nose
mesorrhine, the face (136 mm.), and the jaw (104 mm.) wide. The problem
of the racial character of the few inhabitants of the Flemish marshlands
from Neolithic to Frankish times is perhaps solved; the swampy shores were
apparently the home of a southwestward extension of the Danish Borreby
people, who merged with Alpines in the highlands, and who, on their
own marshes, maintained their racial identity in isolated spots until almost
modern times.
Data on living Belgians are limited for the most part to the conventional
surveys of stature, head form, and pigmentation, as in France. The
Belgians as a nation are men of medium stature,21 and the same is true
of both the Flemings and the Walloons. In the 1880-82 conscript classes,
Houz6 found a mean stature of 166.1 cm. for Flemings, and of 164.8 cm.
for Walloons. In those years the linguistic boundary was also a stature
boundary, since the tallest Walloon province was shorter than the shortest
Flemish province. In the 1902-07 classes, this difference had largely dis-
appeared, since the mean for Flemings was 166.2 cm., and that for
Walloons 165.8 cm. Belgian convicts measured in 1920 had a stature
mean of 167.4 cm. for Flemings, 167.3 for Walloons. Thus regional stature
differences in Belgium have been largely obliterated during the last half
century,
Since the present stature level is about that of the Neolithic Belgian
brachycephals and of the Belgae and Franks, any increase must be con-
sidered in the light of a return to an earlier level after an intervening
period of depression, as in Scandinavia. Flanders was for centuries a
recruiting ground for soldiers. Furthermore, adverse industrial conditions
have been endemic there longer than in any other European country.
Both factors may have tended, during the Middle Ages, to lower the mean
stature both environmentally and by selection. On the whole the present-
day Belgians are a little taller than Frenchmen, shorter than English
20 DePauw, L., and Jacques, V., BSAB, vol. 3, 1884, pp. 191-260.
21 Sources on Belgian stature are :
Houze, E., BSAB, vol. 6, 1887, pp. 278-304.
Vervaeck, L.} BSAB, vol. 28, 1909, pp. 1-60; vol. 34, 1920, pp. 50-90.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 527
and Dutchmen, and about the same as southwestern Germans. Both
Flemings and Walloons are moderately thick-set in bodily build ; 22 their
shoulders are broad, and their relative sitting height (53.5) great. Their
arms, however, are not long, and their relative span, 103, is of an average
European position.
The cephalic index seems to follow the linquistic cleavage to a greater
extent than does stature.23 In the Flemish-speaking country the mean
index of Limburg, the easternmost province, is 78.9; this rises regularly
from east to west, reaching 80.5 in West Flanders. In the Walloon coun-
try the lowest mean is 80.7 for Namur; Liege and Hainaut have means of
81.1 and 81.4; Walloon Brabant of 82.3. The province of Luxemburg, the
southeasternmost of the kingdom, has a mean of 83.4. In the Flemish
country, the lowest indices are those nearest Germany; the highest are
near the coast, where prc-Frankish brachycephalic populations have
been absorbed. The mean cephalic index of all Flemings is 79.4; of all
Walloons 82. 0.24 The Flemings are on the whole mesocephals, the Wal-
loons, except for the Luxemburg people, sub-brachycephals; the last
named are the only true brachycephals.
The heads of all these people, except for the Luxemburg sample, are
extremely large. The mean head length of Flemings is 194 mm., for
Walloons 191.4 mm. Only the Luxemburg group has a mean of under
190 mm. If one selects the individuals from the different provincial
samples with cephalic indices of 82 and over, so as to eliminate the in-
fluence of dolichocephals and mesocephals, and seriates for head lengths
and breadths, one finds mean lengths of 190-192 mm. for all provinces
except Luxemburg, where the mean is 186 mm.; the mean breadths of
these selected heads are 160 mm. and over, except for Luxemburg, where
the mean is 157 mm. The significance of this exercise is clear. Among
both Flemings and Walloons, the major brachycephalic element is of
Borreby size, while in Luxemburg only is truly Alpine brachycephaly
in the French sense predominant. The head length and breadth means
of the major group are nearly as great as those of the Baltic island of
Fehmarn, the modern Borreby concentration point, while those of Luxem-
burg are similar to the dimensions of French brachycephals. The modern
Walloons retain in unaltered form the cranial characters of their brachy-
cephalic Neolithic ancestors. Today as during the Neolithic, they form a
22 Vervaeck, L., BSAB, vol. 34, 1919, pp. 138-144.
MacAuliffe, L., and Marie, A., CRAS, Paris, 1921, vol. 172, pp. 284-286.
*3Hous6, E., BSAB, vol. 7, 1888, pp. 177-205; vol. 16, 1897, pp. 78-89.
MacAuliffe and Marie, loc. cit.
Provincial means cover series of 26 to 61 individuals, and are too small to be com-
pletely reliable.
24 All available series have been pooled, making 362 Flemings and 366 Walloons.
528 THE RACES OF EUROPE
southwestern periphery of the Borreby racial area, the center of which
lies actually well to the south of Denmark.
The pigmentation map of Belgium 25 follows the same general pattern
of the stature and cephalic index distributions. The Flemings are fairer
than the Walloons, but not by much. Beddoe found 54 per cent of Flem-
ings to have light eyes, as against 50 per cent for Walloons; dark eyes
totalled 33 per cent among the former, 37 per cent among the latter. Both
are well on the light side of intermediate in eye color. The Flemings have
52 per cent of medium brown hair, and 1 8 per cent of lighter shades, as
against 37 per cent of brown and 13 per cent of light among the Walloons.
The difference is not great, but it is consistent, and both groups are again
of intermediate pigmentation. Among schoolchildren who still show their
infantile dominance of light hair, 50 per cent or over in every province
show both hair and eye blondism; in the Walloon provinces the ratio
falls under 55 per cent, in the Flemish provinces it ranges between 55
per cent and 68 per cent. Since latent blondism may be detected more
easily among children than among adults, the conclusion is that the Bel-
gians of both linguistic groups contain both blond and brunet genetic
factors; with the former slightly more important in the case of the Wal-
loons, and considerably more in the case of the Flemings.
The Flemings are as light as most of the regional English populations;
the Walloons on the whole are lighter than most of the French.26
An individual study of the inhabitants of a small, isolated Flemish
village, Mendonck, in the canton of Lochristy in the province of East
Flanders, shows us that local concentrations of the lowland Borreby racial
type, as seen at Saaftingen, have not yet been completely dissolved. The
mean stature of 60 males is 170.3 cm.; the cephalic index 81.2, with head
lengths and breadths of 192 mm. and 156 mm. The bizygomatic diameter
is 139 mm. These men are thus tall, sub-brachycephalic, and broad-
faced; in pigmentation, 74 per cent have light skins which will riot tan or
have not tanned, having turned red on the exposed parts, like many
English integuments. The eyes are 15 per cent blue, 73 per cent mixed,
and 12 per cent brown; since Houze followed Bertillon's method, these
figures may be considered accurate. The hair is listed as blond, 63 per
cent; light brown, 6 per cent; dark brown, 31 per cent. In other words,
they are intermediate in hair and eye color, but on the light side. Occip-
25 Beddoe, J., The Races of Britain.
Claerhout, J,, BSAB, vol. 29, 1910, pp. 1-55.
Houz6, E.? BSAB, vol. 16, 1897, pp. 78-89.
MacAuliffe, L., and Marie, A., Ethnographic, vol. 5, 1922, pp. 41-48.
Vanderfcindere, L,, BSRB, vol. 3, 1879, pp, 409-449.
28 Direct comparisons may be made between Flemish and English through Beddoe's
work, between Walloons and French through that of MacAuliffe and Marie.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 529
ital flattening is common; the nasal profile is usually straight, and the
nasal tip often snubbed.
Houze"'s regressions make it clear that there are, in this Mendonck
population, two clearly distinguishable types, a Prankish Nordic, with a
stature of about 167 cm., and leptorrhine; and a Borreby type with a
stature of 171 cm., and a messorrhine tendency. The tall brachycephals
have a heavy body build, a broad face, a deep, heavy jaw, short upper
facial segment, and heavy browridges. The Nordic type runs more to
prominence and length of nose and upper face, and less to bony eminences
in general. It is a more delicate, less massive type.
The conclusions derived from this study are not that the Flemings are
Nordics and the Walloons Alpines, as has been frequently stated. The
Flemings are, in fact, a people who are largely Nordic, and who derived
their Nordic blood from their linguistic ancestors, the Franks. The Nordic
sub- type of the Franks is that of the Keltic Iron Age. They have absorbed,
especially in western Flanders, a certain amount of Borreby blood by
intermarriage with the earlier inhabitants of the Flemish plain, who lived
there in small numbers before this plain had been dyked and drained.
The Walloons are the descendants of the large-headed highland popula-
tion of the Neolithic, which was of mixed Alpine and Borreby derivation.
To this has been added a Nordic accretion, and the actual metrical differ-
ences between Flemings and Walloons, while consistent, are not great.
Only the inhabitants of the province of Luxemburg may be called Alpines
in the strict sense, and their relationship is clearly with Lorraine and
Burgundy.
(4) THE NETHERLANDS AND FRISIA
In the days when the country south of the Rhine was Keltic, those por-
tions of the present kingdom of Netherlands which lie north of that river
were occupied, along the coast and on the islands, by Frisians, and to the
east of the Zuyder Zee by a Frankish tribe, the Batavii. Farther to the
north and east lived the Saxons, south of whom was the main home of the
Franks. Troubles between the Saxons and Franks impelled the latter to
cross the Rhine and dislodge the Belgae; at the same time some of the
Saxons settled in the northern Netherlands, in the Groningen country.
Thus the northern half of the Netherlands had been Germanic territory
since the earliest settlement of Germanic peoples in the country between
the Rhine and the Elbe, which dates back to at least 500 B.C.; 27 the
southern half shares its Germanic history with Flanders.
Linguistically the Netherlands is divided into two parts, the greater
area, in which modern Dutch, a Frankish derivative closely related to
Flemish, is spoken; and the lesser area in which the idiom is Frisian.
37 Reche, O., VUR, vol. 4, 1929, pp, 129-158, 193-215.
530 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Frisian is a waning language, since it is not official in any country. It
once, however, was spoken all along the North Sea coast from western
Flanders to Denmark, /ft present it is spoken only on the Frisian Islands
and in the Dutch province of Friesland, as well as in a small section of
Schleswig-Holstein. The Frisian Islands belong partly to the Netherlands,
and partly to Germany. In the present section we shall overstep political
frontiers in order to treat the Frisians as an ethnic unit.
The geography of the Netherlands has not, in historic times, been static;
Dutch history has been an endless struggle between the inroads of the
sea over gradually sinking land and human ingenuity. 28 Before the Nether-
landers undertook the task of dyke-building, their ancestors made use of a
less effective engineering device, the terp, or artificial habitation platform.
The Iron Age farmers built these flat mounds out on land subject to
flooding; on the terps they erected their houses, and in them buried their
dead. At the times of the two semi-annual equinoctial floods, they crowded
their livestock and all their perishable belongings on the tops of these
edifices.
Although the terps would withstand ordinary floods, every now and
then came an inundation which swept over their tops and destroyed much
life and property. One such flood, dated by historians at 350 B.C., is
believed to have isolated the West Frisian Islands from the mainland, and
to have let the sea into the erstwhile fresh-water lake, which from then
on became the Zuyder Zee. The Cimbri, the first Germanic invaders of
Italy, are supposed to have migrated en masse from the Low Countries
after this great flood, and their account of it greatly impressed the Romans.
From then on disasters of this kind continued until the building of ade-
quate dykes during the Middle Ages. Of all the Lowlanders, including
the Flemings, the Saxons, and the Frisians, the Frisians have taken the
greatest losses, and have had much of their land washed out from under
their feet.
The total of pre-Iron Age skeletal material from the Netherlands is
small,29 but from what there is, coupled with a general knowledge of local
archaeology, we may deduce that in the Neolithic period the southern
provinces of Limburg and North Brabant were culturally and racially
connected with Belgium, while in the northern and coastal provinces the
Danish and North German cultures found a southern extension. Later
the Bell Beaker people used the mouth of the Rhine as a route of entry into
southern Germany, and also as a point of departure for Britain. It is
likely that some, at least, of the Borreby blood which the Bell Beaker
people absorbed before their departure for England came from this
28 Van Over-loop, M., BSAB, vol. 6, 1887, pp. 35-53.
» Van den Brock, A. J. P., MEM, vol. 6, 1930, pp. 401-417.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 531
source. With the expansion of the Germanic peoples into the portion of
the Netherlands lying north of the Rhine, the coastal fringe of Borreby
people broke into isolated groups, and many of these early inhabitants
were absorbed.30 The arrival of the Germanic settlers, and the erection of
the terps, which date from about 500 B.C. to 800 A.D., provided the first
real skeletal evidence of consequence.31
There are two main areas in which terps were built; along the coast of
Friesland and along that of Groningen. The two areas are not contiguous,'
being divided by the inlet known as Lauwers Zee. The former is called
Friterpia, the latter Groterpia. The crania from both these regions are
typically Nordic in the early Germanic sense; the Friterpians, with a
mean cranial index of 73.7, were slightly longer headed than the Groter-
pians, whose mean is 75.4. Both of these skeletal groups are moderately
high-vaulted, with mean basion-bregma Jieights of 136 mm.; in this
dimension as in those of the face, they resemble very closely the crania
of the early Anglo-Saxons who invaded England. Some of the Friterpian
skulls are very low-vaulted, and show evidence of deformation; this is
still practiced on the island of Marken in the Zuyder Zee, where the
picturesque head-dress so admired by tourists is said to be the effective
agent.32 In both groups most of the individual skulls are of classic Ger-
manic type; some, however, are mesocephalic, and incline morphologi-
cally in the direction of the Briinn race, or of the Borreby. These latter are
commoner in Groterpia than in Friterpia. Part of this Palaeolithic strain
may have been brought in by the Germanic ancestors, part absorbed
locally.
During the Middle Ages the cranial form of the inhabitants of Groterpia
and Friterpia, who had by now come down off their terps, changed
gradually. The West Frisians from Friterpian country grew less dolicho-
cephalic, until their mean cranial indices rose to 77 ; the Groningen people
retained their lead of a single index point, with 78. These changes in-
volved the vault almost entirely, and had little effect on the face.
A series of crania from Zuid Beveland, the largest island of the province
of Zeeland, comes from a section of the island which was swamped by
floods in 1530 and 1532; they date from the period immediately before
this disaster. These skulls are markedly brachycephalic,38 and support
80 The evidence for the early existence of a coastal fringe of Borreby people reaching
from Denmark to Flanders consists largely of survivals. Owing to the subsidence of the
land along this shoreline, much of the early skeletal evidence must lie under water.
81 Folmer, H. C., AFA, vol. 26, 1900, pp. 747-763.
Nyessen, D. J. H., The Passing of the Frisians.
Reche, O., VUR, 1929.
n Barge, J. A. J., PIIA, session 3, Amsterdam, 1927, pp. 63-71.
»3 Sasse, A., AFA, vol. 6, 1873, pp. 76-83.
532 THE RAGES OF EUROPE
the evidence of Saaftingen that the Scheldt region was a pocket of sur-
vival for round-headed coastal people well through the Middle Ages.
The living Netherlanders, as is to be expected, belong more to a Nordic
type than to any other, while large-headed brachycephals form an im-
portant minority. The stature of Dutch conscripts has increased from
164 cm. in 1863-67, to 171 cm. in 1921-25. 34 At its present level Dutch
stature shows marked regional values; Limburg, which extends southward
between Belgium and Germany as a Dutch appendage, has a mean of
168 cm., comparable to that of Flemings. North Brabant's mean is 169
cm., and Zeeland's 170 cm. The coastal provinces north of the Rhine
are taller than those inland; the tallest being Friesland, with a mean of
172cm.
The mean cephalic index of the Netherlands is 80.3. The regional
variation is slight, but geographically significant; the West Frisian Islands
have indices of 79, and in general the northern coast is the longest-headed
part of the country, while the southern and eastern provinces have higher
means.35 The general picture of the Dutch as a predominantly Nordic
people who have absorbed a certain amount of Upper Palaeolithic
European blood is substantiated by a detailed study of 70 Netherlanders
measured both at home and in America.36 This group, with a mean
stature of 173 cm. and a cephalic index of 79, fits almost exactly into the
metrical category of the British and of Americans of British descent.
The dimensions of the head and face are definitely Nordic, with a sug-
gestion of the Palaeolithic strains in a number of measurements, notably
the bigonial mean of 108 mm.
The pigmentation of the Dutch as a group is predominantly blond; the
inhabitants of the provinces north of the Rhine may be included in the
lightest zone of Europe.37 South of the Rhine, brown and dark-mixed
eyes, which are rare in the north, rise to 30 per cent and over of the popu*
lation, and are especially numerous in Zeeland and Limburg. The com"
monest hair color among the Dutch is brown, of light to medium shade,
but golden blondism is common in the north, especially in Frisian country.
The Frisians have been studied in more detail than the rest of the
34 Van den Brock, A. J. P., KAWA, vol. 30, #6, 1927, pp. 685-694; PUA, session 3,
Amsterdam, 1927, pp. 211-215.
«6 Barge, J. A. J., MEM, pp. 284-285.
Van den Broek, A. J. P., MEM, vol. 6, 1930, pp. 401-417.
Sasse, J., BNAV, 1913, pp. 8-11.
The recent government survey of the C. I. in the Netherlands should soon make it
possible to treat this subject with greater clarity.
36Steggerda, M., AJPA, vol. 16, 1932, pp. 309-337.
87 Beddoe, J., The Races of Britain, p. 203.
Bolk, L., BSAP, ser. 5, vol. 5, 1905, pp. 578-586.
Reche, O., VUR, vol. 4, 1929, pp. 129-158, 193-215.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 533
Netherlander; the consideration of this group leads us outside Dutch
territory, however, for the Frisians, like the Basques, are an ethnic unit
but not a nation, They differ from their neighbors not only in language,
but also in a number of cultural traits which they possess in common.
There are three groups of Frisians; the West Frisians, who occupy the
province of Frisia in the Netherlands and the islands from Texel to Rot-
turneroog, which stretch between the point of North Holland and the
mouth of the Ems; the East Frisians, who live on the islands lying between
the Ems mouth and the Weser, from Borkum to Wangeroog; and the
North Frisians, who live partly on the mainland of Schleswig-Holstfein>
between Tdnder, which is now in Denmark, and Husum, and partly on
the islands of Norstrand, Pell worm, and the Halligen. The islanders of
Sylt, Fohr, and Amrum are only half Frisian; their dialect contains Saxon
elements, and the islanders consider themselves more Saxon than Frisian.
The earliest known home of the Frisians was the island chain of the
present West and East Frisia, and the adjacent portions of the mainland.
The North Frisians migrated to their present location about 800 A.D.,
partly taking over abandoned country, and partly absorbing the earlier
inhabitants, the Ambrones, whose name has been preserved in that of the
island of Amrum. All of the Frisian Islands have suffered from sinking
and erosion; many islands have disappeared and others undercut to
fractions of their earlier area.
The Frisians were important historically for a few centuries between the
Anglo-Saxon invasion of England and the reign of Charlemagne, to whom
they submitted in 785 A.D. During this period they were far-wandering
seafarers, and engaged in trade with all the countries bordering on the
North Sea, and were especially active in the slave trade. The development
of the Viking sea power farther north began only after the collapse of the
Frisian hegemony.
All three Frisian groups have been subjected to careful anthro pome trie
study; in North Frisia the Wiedingharde and Bokingharde mainlanders,38
in East Frisia the Spiekeroog islanders,39 and in West Frisia the Terschell-
ittg islanders,40 have been thoroughly investigated. In all three, the anthro-
pornetric results are much the same. They are all tall, with mean statures
of 170 cm. or over; all groups run long-legged, with relative sitting height
means of 51, broad-shouldered and wide-spanned, with relative spans of
106 and 107.
They are very large-headed, with mean head lengths of 194 mm. to
198 mm., and breadths of 155 mm. to 159 mm. The West and East
88 Sailer, K,, JNVH, vol. 16, 1929, pp. 119-139.
39 Ruhnau, K., ARGB, vol. 16, 1925, pp. 378 ff.
40 Sasse, J., BNAV, 1913, pp. 8-11.
534 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Frisians are mesocephalic, with mean cephalic indices of 79.5; the North
Frisians are sub-brachycephalic, with means of 81.5. The vault heights
run from 123 to 125 mm., moderate in view of the great length and breadth
dimensions. The faces are large, with minimum frontal diameter means
of 108-112 mm., bizygomatics of 140-143 mm., and bigonials of 108-110
mm. The faces are quite long (125-130 mm.) in the West and East Fri-
sian samples, and shorter (120-124 mm.) in North Frisia. Noses are large,
and extremely leptorrhine. The nasal profile is straight or wavy in about
half the individuals; concave in 15 per cent, and convex in 35 per cent.
The hair is blond to medium brown, especially the latter (Sailer-Fischer
chart A-O), in over 60 per cent, except for the North Frisian parish of
Bokingharde, where it is darker; red hair runs as high as 7 per cent on
Spiekeroog. The eyes are pure blue or light-mixed in 70 per cent to 80 per
cent of instances. The Frisians are among the blondest people in the world.
Metrically and morphologically, the Frisians belong for the most part
to a well-marked type, which is very Nordic in the usual sense of the word,
but which, in the sense employed in this book, is something different.
The Germanic Nordic element is without doubt strong, but the excessive
size of head and face, and particularly the facial breadths, make it clear
that the old Upper Palaeolithic elements, Briinn as well as Borreby, have
been incorporated in quantity. In view of the great facial lengths and
the ruggedness and angularity of the facial profile typical of Frisians, and
of their spare body build, one is led to postulate an excess of Corded fac-
tors as well.
The West and East Frisians conform most frequently to the ideal Frisian
form, a long, angular, large-boned type with large hands and feet, a large,
bony head and face, with a prominent jaw, thin lips, a long, straight nose,
heavy browridges, and a high forehead. In late middle age the features,
sharply cut in youth, tend to grow coarser, and the body heavy. In North
Frisia, where the Frisian settlement is younger than elsewhere, shorter,
smaller-framed men, hook-nosed, with retreating foreheads, and often with
darker hair and eye color, form a second type, which is palpably Dinaric
and may be a survival of the Bronze Age. In all Frisian countries, but par-
ticularly in North Frisia, a third type is found as a minor element, a familiar
Borreby derivative; it consists of tall, heavy men, whose bodies tend to
fat, with round, red faces, and noses which are often snubbed or concave.
This type is frequently very blond, and fairer-haired than the more usual
Frisian type. In North Frisia its especial frequency is attributed to Jutish
infusion from the North.41
The study of the Frisians leads us to the conclusion that the survival of
overgrown Upper Palaeolithic types in quantity is not confined to Norway
41 Lehmann, O., VUR, vol. 1, 1926, pp. 7-19.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 535
and Ireland, but is equally in evidence along the Dutch and German shores
of the North Sea. In all of the so-called Nordic racial area of northwestern
Europe, a relatively complex racial situation is encountered in which
classical Nordic elements are rarely found in as stable a form as in eastern
Norway and in Sweden. Among Frisians, at least, there is evidence that
the Briinn and Borreby elements, and the Corded as well, have tended
to reemerge and to form local recombinations. The study of the Frisians
will serve as an introduction to the racial problems of northern Germany.
(5) GERMANY
The racial history of Germany is long and complicated, and Germany
in its present geographical form (even before the annexation of Austria
and the Sudetenlands), has never been a unit in the racial sense. In the
political sense its unity dates back only to Frederick the Great and Bis-
marck; its modern social solidarity only to Hitler. Its Palaeolithic racial
history is inseparable from that of the rest of Europe, its Mesolithic history
limited to the discovery of the brachycephalic crania of Ofnet and Kauf-
ertsberg, and of the Borreby-type skulls dredged from the Baltic clay and
peat. During the Neolithic, racial and cultural influences came to Ger-
many from many quarters; the Michelsberg culture in the Rhineland was
a northern Schweinhirtenkultur periphery, while in Saxony and Thuringia
Danubian pioneers pushed their clearings to the west. Silesia and north-
eastern Germany later became great Corded headquarters, while under
the combined Corded and Megalithic tutelage, the "Nordic" culture arose
in all of northern Germany, and its influences spread to the Danube.
With the arrival of metal, or before it, the Corded people had become im-
portant in Saxo-Thuringia, and the Bell Beaker people appeared soon after
on the Rhine. Thus before the onset of the Bronze Age the German stage
already held a full complement of dramatis personae, some of whom were
destined to give curtain calls, and others to be thrus^into the wings before
the end of the first act.
The cast included members of the following racial types: a small, low-
vaulted Mediterranean of North African provenience, commonest in the
upper Rhineland, where it still appears sporadically; the ordinary Danu-
bian Mediterranean, the Megalithic Atlanto-Mediterranean, the Corded,
the Borreby, probably the Alpine, and the Bell Beaker Dinaric. Further-
more, a considerable trace of the Briinn race remained in solution in the
northwestern part of the country. Before the appearance of the full
Bronze Age, the Corded and Danubian elements had taken the center of
the stage on the plains, while Dinaric, Borreby, and Alpine brachycephals
occupied the northern slopes of the Alps. During the Bronze Age the
Corded people became particularly important in Saxo-Thuringia, while
536 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Aunjetitz Nordics were the principal people farther east, and the descend-
ants of the Bell Beaker people were in control of the upper Rhine. Eastern
Germany, along with much of Poland and parts of Ukraine, became the
center of the Urnfields cultures, and at the same time a Nordic center,
from which cremation spread in the Late Bronze Age.
In the early Iron Age Hallstatt Nordics spread into southern Germany;
in Wurttemburg, Bavaria, and the Bavarian Palatinate are many Nordic
skulls in association with the brachycephalic crania of the earlier inhabi-
tants. Throughout the Hallstatt Iron Age, however, the highland zone of
southern Germany, despite Nordic infusions, clung to its brachycephalic
population, although on the plains farther north, pure long heads held
complete sway, In the Hallstatt cemeteries of Switzerland, the majority
of the crania are brachycephalic, while in Austria, a Hallstatt Nordic
nucleus, the mountain regions kept, even at the height of the Hallstatt
efflorescence, a strong basic population of Dinaric brachycephals.
The Kelts, who arose in southwestern Germany and who spread thence
during the La Tene Iron Age, may have come originally from the Urn-
fields country during the Bronze Age, but their acquisition of a round-
headed element took place in Germany. The Helvetii, the principal
Keltic people of Switzerland, bore the brachycephalic head form of their
pre-Keltic predecessors.
Following the northward movement of some Nordic people in a late
Bronze Age or Hallstatt stage of culture, and under Hallstatt inspiration,
the Germanic racial and cultural amalgam arose, with its center in
Scandinavia, and its southern periphery including the lowlands which
stretch from the mouth of the Elbe across to the southern Baltic shore.
The Germanic Nordic type which occupied this southern area, and which
was well exemplified by the Anglo-Saxons and Frisians, was a combination
of ordinary Iron Age Nordics with Briinn and Borreby elements, and with
a larger ratio of Cowded than the original Nordic formula required. It
was a heavier, coarser type than the Nordic which took root in eastern
Norway and in central Sweden, but perhaps not at that time quite as
much so as that which developed in western Norway, and which it most
closely resembled. We have already studied its closest living representa-
tives in both England and Frisia.
The Germanic peoples who participated in the Volkerwanderung were
divided into two groups, both on the basis of language and on that of
chronology; the East Germans, including the Goths, Vandals, Gepidi,
and Burgundians, expanded early in the Christian era and moved well
beyond modern Germanic borders, and hence do not concern us here.
The West Germans, including the Angles, Saxons, Frisians, and the
Germans proper, were later to spread and were less theatrical, but pro-
THE CENTRAL ZONE 537
duced more lasting results. It was the Germans proper in particular, the
Franks, the Chatti, whose descendants are the Hessians, the Bajuvars or
Bavarians, the Alemanni, and the Thuringians, who settled most of
modern Germany. Those Franks who did not push on to Belgium and
France occupied southwestern Germany, the Chatti settled in the modern
Hesse, the Alemanni went to Switzerland and Austria, the Bajuvars to
Bavaria, the Thuringians to Thuringia and Bohemia. The Germanic
settlement of Austria was a complicated process, involving Alemanni,
Bajuvars, Lombards (who were West Germans), and Goths, as well as
some Huns and Slavs.
The Chatti and the Thuringians preserved their original Nordic head
form for some time in their new territories, but the Bajuvars incorporated
a number of indigenous brachycephals into their ethnic body, while the
Alemanni, both in Baden and Switzerland, early lost their Germanic
racial identity by physical absorption into the previously Keltic-speaking
local populations. We have already seen that those Franks who moved
to Belgium kept, in Flanders, much of their Nordic character.
The Slavs, who for a few centuries after their westward expansion
occupied much of the lowland country of central and eastern Germany,
were at that time dolichocephalic or mesocephalic for the most part, and
resembled the earlier Kelts in their usual physical type, while falling into
the general Nordic category. For this reason the subsequent brachy-
cephalization of much of this area cannot be attributed, at least wholly,
to them.
The movement of the Saxons southeastward into the present Saxony
and onward to the Sudetenlands was a later phenomenon than the Volker-
wanderung, but really an extension of it. The same is true of the eastward
expansion of Germans beyond Germanic borderlands, which began about
the twelfth century. The Drang nach Osten is an ethnic movement of some
antiquity, caused by vital demographic forces, and not a modern political
affair. The linguistic map of central and eastern Europe is spattered with
patches which designate German villages and whole German sections,
in Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary, Jugoslavia, Rumania, and the
Ukraine, and reaching as far as the Volga German colony on the border
of Asia. Place names such as Leipzig, Worms, and Neu Danzig give ample
evidence that these colonies had their origins in different parts of Germany.
These German exiles remain unabsorbed in their new countries, and their
fidelity to German speech and German culture presents a difficult political
problem.42
In view of the history of Germany, it is not surprising that the modern
42 See Keiter, F., Russlanddeutsche Bauern,
Hermann, A., Die deutschen Bauern des Burgerdandes.
538 THE RAGES OF EUROPE
German people should be divided regionally on a racial basis. Since the
only part of the Reich which is old Germanic country is the extreme north-
west, one should expect to find early Germanic racial types in the numer-
ical ascendancy in that region alone, but their occurrence as individuals
is to be expected everywhere, and is so found. The tremendous slaughter-
ing of Saxons by the Franks, the devastating wars which took place in
Germany during the Middle Ages, the Thirty Years War and the Hun-
dred Years War, the campaigns of the Swedes and of Napoleon, the con-
stant drainage of German manpower as mercenaries in armies far afield,
have, when added together, formed a selective force of great magnitude.
In many campaigns whole villages have been destroyed, whole populations
massacred and replaced. Germany, especially the German plains, has
suffered much from war, and this suffering has given the older elements in
the population, those socially least affected by war in the sense of survival,
full opportunity to reemerge, an opportunity of which they have availed
themselves. The temporary ascendancy of North German Nordics in
most of Germany during the centuries which followed the settlement of
the West Germanic tribes was not of long duration.
The problem of South German brachycephaly is a part of the general
racial problem of the Alpine highland region, and cannot be separated
from a consideration of the same subject in Switzerland and Austria.
Cranial collections from Bavaria, from Switzerland, and from the Tyrol
all show the same characteristics in varying proportions. All are pre-
dominantly if not wholly brachycephalic, with cranial index means ranging
from 82 to 86; all fall metrically into the moderate vault Alpine-Dinaric
class, and all contain both planoccipital and curvoccipital skulls.43 There
43 The literature on this subject is exhaustive, and only a few references can be given
here. Some of the most important works are :
Frizzi, E., MAGW, vol. 39, 1909, pp. 1-65. KDGA, vol. 41, 1910, pp. 5-8.
Hofler, M., RAUB, vol. 4, 1881, pp. 85-97.
Holl, M., MAGW, vol. 14, 1884, pp. 77-116; vol. 15, 1885, pp. 41-76; vol. 17, 1887,
pp. 129-152; vol. 18, 1888, pp. 1-24.
Muhlmann, W. E., ZFMA, vol. 30, 1932, pp. 382-405.
Pittard, E., REAP, vol. 8, 1898, pp. 86-94, pp. 223-231; vol. 9, 1899, p. 186; vol. 10,
1900, p. 136; vol. 20, 1910, pp. 24-27.
Pittard, E., and Reverdin, L., ASAG, vol. 4, 1920, pp. 107-127, 287-330.
Ranke, J., BAUB, vol. 5, 1884, pp. 53-205; vol. 12, 1897, pp. 127-164.
Reicher, M., ZFMA, vol. 15, 1913, pp. 421-562.
Ried, H. A., BAUB, vol. 18, 1911, pp. 1-112.
Rutimeyer, L., and His, W., Crania Helvetica.
Shapiro, H. L., APAM, vol. 31, 1929, pp. 1-120.
Tappeiner, F., ZFE, vol. 31, 1899, pp. 201-236.
Toldt, C., MAGW, vol. 40, 1910, pp. 67-100, 197-230.
Wacker, R., ZFE, vol. 44, 1912, pp. 437-524.
Wettstein, E., ^iir Anthropologie und Ethnographic des Kreises Dissentis.
Zuckerkandl, E., MAGW, vol. 14, 1884, pp. 117-128.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 539
can be no other interpretation of this material, which covers several
thousands of well-documented crania, than that they are the skulls of
Alpines and of Binaries, two variant brachycephalic racial types which
formed the predominant population of the Alpine mountain system before
the Germanic migrations and which have survived all invasions to which
they have been subjected. The series of South German crania of varying
date show that this reemergence has taken place gradually and consistently
from the time of the Frankish conversion to Christianity to the present.
One exception to this rule that the principal cranial types are Alpine
and Dinaric is found in a series of skulls of sixteenth to eighteenth century
date from various cemeteries in Baden.44 These are brachycephalic, with
a mean cranial index of 83, but possess the great cranial length of 189 mm.
Other measurements and indices show that these crania are broad-faced
and low-orbitted, and belong for the most part to a Borreby category.
One will recall that the brachycephaly of this same region during the
Bronze Age was also partly of a Borreby type, in mixture with Beaker
Binaries. Baden is on the northwestern periphery of the Alpine world.
Modern anthropometric research on the living in Germany has taken
the form of intensive studies of small, often isolated villages and districts,
rather than large, sweeping surveys. Since the villages and districts
studied have been selected so as to represent the most varied populations
in Germany, a review of some of the most distinctive will suffice to show
the racial character of the principal divisions of the country. 45
Before starting this review, however, it may be advisable to point out
that in all parts of Germany the mean cephalic index is 80 or higher, with
two exceptions; among the East Frisians already studied, and among the
Hessians and the occupants of the eastern bank of the Rhine in Rhenish
Prussia as far north as Busseldorf . 46 In both these regions the mean is 79.
Along the southern Baltic shore, from Mecklenburg to East Prussia, the
mean is 82, 47 so that no Nordic population in a strict sense may be said
to exist there. The lowest cephalic indices in Germany are western in
distribution, rather than northern, and are contiguous with the relatively
long-headed populations of Flanders and the Netherlands.
Tall stature is characteristic of most Germans; it is concentrated, how-
ever, in the northwestern, western, and southern parts of the country, and
u Miihlmann, W. E., ZFMA, 1932.
46 Anthropometric research in Germany has been so extensive since the World War
that it is impossible to give a complete or even representative bibliography. Perhaps
the most notable contribution has been the series of monographs entitled Deutsche Ras-
senkunde, edited by E. Fischer, and published by Gustav Fischer in Jena. The series
was started in 1929; at the time of writing, 16 volumes had appeared.
«Huck, M,, Anth, vol. 29, 1918-19, pp. 459-504.
47 Parsons, F. G., JRAI, vol. 49, 1919, pp. 20-35; Klenke, W., Die Deutsche und ihre
Nachbarvolker.
540 THE RACES OF EUROPE
is less marked in the center and east. Briinn, Borreby, and Dinaric statures
are all tall, and the local form of Alpine, like that of northeastern France, is
not short. Moderate statures come largely from eastern European sources.
The Germans as a nation are blond or of light-mixed pigmentation.
There is a decrease in blondism from north to south, culminating in the
mountains of Bavaria where the hair is characteristically dark and the
eyes mixed. From the distributional standpoint the most remarkable
thing about Germany in a racial sense is the large head size typical of
much of the country, and of the north and west in particular.
The samples studied in northwestern Germany may be divided into
two groups, Fehmarn Island48 and all others.49 The island of Fehmarn,
lying in the Baltic south of the Danish archipelago, some fifteen miles
across the Fehmarn Belt from the Danish island of Laaland, is separated
from the Schleswig-Holstein mainland by a narrow sound. The popula-
tion of Fehmarn is derived from an old Wendish element, dating from the
time of the Slavic expansion, to which have been added Low Saxons and
immigrants from Dithmars, the southwestern coast of Schleswig-Holstein,
just south of North Frisia. There is also without doubt a considerable
survival of genetic factors from the pre- Wendish occupants. In modern
times the Fehmarn people have been moderately isolated, enough so to
have developed and preserved a local type of their own.
This type, in brief, is the nearest living approximation to the Borreby
race of the Mesolithic. The Fehmarners are very tall (173.6 cm.), broad-
shouldered, wide-spanned, but at the same time long-legged; their heads
are of prodigious size, with a mean length of 194 mm., breadth of 162
mm., and heights of 129 mm. Despite the great length, which exceeds
that of long-headed Nordics, the cephalic index mean is 83.6, fully
brachycephalic. The face is as large proportionately as the vault; the
three principal breadths, minimum frontal, bizygomatic, and bigonial,
being respectively 110 mm., 145 mm., and 112 mm. In view of these
excessive diameters, the total face height of 122 mm. is relatively short,
and the facial index is euryene. The nose is moderately large (56.5 mm.
by 35.3 mm.), and the nasal index leptorrhine (62.4). It is safe to predict
that no regional population of any numerical size will be found on the
continent of Europe which will exceed the cranial and facial dimensions
of the Fehmarners.
Fifty per cent of the Fehmarn males studied were thick-set and heavy-
bodied; a lateral or somatic constitutional type is common here. One-
48 Sailer, K., Die Fehmaraner.
49 Keiter, F., Schwansen und die Schlei.
Klenke, W., and Scheldt, W., Niedersachsische Bauern*
Sailer, K., Suderdithmarsische Geestbevolkerung*
Scheldt, W., and Wriede, H., Die Elbinsel Finkenwdrder.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 541
fourth of the group has a straight, presumably flattish occiput, despite the
great vault length; a planoccipital cranial form is a strong minority trait.
Half of the noses have straight or wavy profiles; 30 per cent have convex,
and 20 per cent concave. The photographs indicate that heavy brow-
ridges and exceptionally sloping foreheads are common.
The hair is brown as a rule among adults; 54 per cent could be classed
as dark brown (Fischer #27, 4-7); the rest are divided between golden and
ashen shades of light brown and blond. The hair as a rule darkens steadily
throughout life; at the onset of senility, 80 per cent of all non-white hair
observed was dark brown, as against 7 per cent at the age of 6 years. By
contrast, the eyes are very light; less than 3 per cent have brown or dark-
mixed shades (Martin #1-6); 78 per cent have eyes which are pure light
or almost entirely so (Martin #13-16). This combination of very light
eyes with brown hair is typical of Palaeolithic survivors in northern
Europe, rather than of Nordics.
The Fehmarners, although quite variable individually, cannot readily
be divided into distinct sub-types, since the prevailing Borreby strain has
permeated the small, endogamous population thoroughly. Correlations
indicate the presence in small numbers of a more brachycephalic element
characterized by darker eyes than the total group, and by a convex nasal
profile; this may be a Bell Beaker Dinaric survival, but if so it is almost
completely absorbed. There seems to be little evidence of a classical
Nordic type in this large-headed, coarse-featured group; what Nordic
blood has entered into the blend has been recombined or bred out.
The other northwest German groups which have been intensively
studied include the Low Saxon farmers living between the mouths of the
Weser and the Elbe, the southern Dithmars population which occupies the
North Sea coast between the Elbe mouth and North Frisia, the inhabitants
of Finkerwarden Island in the Elbe, and the population of the Schwansen
district and of the neighborhood of the Schlei, the inlet connecting the city
of Schleswig with the Baltic. These four groups are very much alike; they
all resemble the Frisians, as described in the last section; they are, how-
ever, less dolichocephalic, and fall in general between the Frisians on the
one hand and the Fehmarn islanders on the other. They are lighter-
haired than the latter, and somewhat smaller in facial breadths. In bodily
build they run to less extreme constitutional types, being less frequently
thick-set than the Fehmarners. As among the Fehmarners, however,
there is a tendency for a shorter-statured, rounder-headed, smaller-headed,
darker-pigmented, more frequently concave-nosed and more leptorrhine
element to segregate itself. This type, which is Dinaric, may in part have
been introduced by general population movements in modern times
from South to North Germany. In Schleswig, the farmers tend to a
542 THE RACES OF EUROPE
longer-legged, longer-headed type than the fishermen on the Baltic coast
who resemble more closely the Fehmarners.
Northwestern Germany, therefore, from the Dutch border to Denmark
and the Baltic, is the home of a medley of racial types in which the Briinn
and Borreby races seem most prominent, with the latter concentrated in the
island of Fehmarn and among the fishermen of the Baltic shore of Schles-
wig. The Nordic race was once important here, as was its component the
Corded, but both have been largely absorbed into the earlier types, which
never yielded ground strongly, even in the time of the early Germanic
efflorescence.
Before turning to South Germany, let us examine two rural populations
from central Germany, one from the Vogelberg in Upper Hesse,50 the
other from a group of villages inhabited by the so-called Keuperfranken,
in Middle Franconia,51 who derive their name from the red marl of the
district in which they live, just southwest of Niirenberg.
The Vogelbergers are tall men, with a mean stature of 169 cm. and at
the same time brachycephalic, with a mean cephalic index of 82.8. Their
district lies off the edge of the relatively long-headed section of Hesse. In
general metrical character, they are intermediate between the north-
western Germans already studied and the people of the southern mountain
country.
Their heads are both long and broad, their vault heights great, and the
facial breadths are as great as in most of the North German series with
the exception of Fehmarn. In their pigment character they arc likewise
intermediate. The hair color is for the most part light brown to medium
brown, with a high incidence (4 per cent) of red; the beards are said to
be very frequently rufous. The eyes are for the most part light-mixed,
with 10 per cent of pure browns. The skin is freckled in 15 per cent of all
men examined, and among 66 per cent of children; heavy freckling is an
infantile character which decreases regularly with age. Here freckles are
linked with red hair, and are more often associated with blond hair than
with brown. Sixty per cent of the Vogelberg seems to possess blond or
light-mixed complexion, while only 9 per cent can be called completely
brunet
These Vogelbergers belong to a number of different types common else-
where in Germany. Some of them are apparently standard Nordics, but
the heavier, coarser featured types of North Germany are commoner, and
there is a strong minority of South German-looking Dinarics. Eighteen
per cent of straight occiputs indicates the presence of this group clearly.
Members of the second central German group, the Keuperfranken of
middle Franconia, are shorter, with a mean stature of 166 cm. Their
80 Richter, B., Burkhards und Kaulstoss. n Sailer, K., Die Keuperfranken.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 543
heads are smaller, and their cephalic index higher (mean C. I. = 84.8).
Their faces are shorter and narrower; whereas the bizygomatic mean of
the Vogelbergers is 143 mm., a dimension suggestive of northern Germany,
that of the Keuperfranken is 140 mm., more nearly an Alpine or Dinaric
dimension. The pigmentation is darker here than in the Vogelberg region,
with nearly 20 per cent of brown eyes, and a great majority of dark brown
and brown head hair.
Middle Franconia lies definitely south of the Borreby-Brunn racial
frontier; its inhabitants belong mostly to the Alpine and Dinaric races,
with many intermediate forms. The Noric type, a blond brachycephal
with incipiently Dinaric facial features, seems to be relatively common,
and is probably a Nordic brachycephalized through Alpine and Dinaric
mixture. A few individuals, not numerous enough to influence the mean
of the group statistically, seem to have retained a completely Nordic
appearance. These are commoner among the Protestants than the Cath-
olics of the district; the Protestants are taller, longer-headed, narrower-
nosed, more frequently convex-nosed, lighter-eyed, and blonder-haired;
they are newer in the region than the Catholics, and have not yet been
completely modified or absorbed.
The population of the Alpine borderlands of southern Germany may
be studied by reference to three special examples; the farmers from Reich-
enau Island in Lake Constance, and the nearby mainland villages of Woll-
mattigen and Dettingen; 62 the villagers of Genkingen in the Swabian
Alps; 53 and Bavarians from Miesbach, some twenty miles south of
Munich in Upper Bavaria.64
The first two of these groups are descendants of the Alemanni and
preserve evidence of this ancestry in their dialects and culture. The Lake
Constance farmers, representing the westernmost of the South German
mountain peoples, have a mean stature of 169 cm., placing them in the
same height category as the Vogelbergers, but are somewhat shorter than
most of the North Germans. Their ,heads are moderately long, with a
mean length of 189 mm., and a cephalic index of 82, which, while brachy-
cephalic, is low for southern Germany. These people are for the most part
dark brown or brown-haired, with a very small minority of hair blondism.
Their eye color is predominantly mixed, and pure dark eyes are found in
18 per cent of the group. They are long-faced, with a mean facial index
of 91, and the very leptorrhine mean nasal index of 59. They seem to be
largely Dinaric, with a minor element of Alpine and a few big, thick-set
Borreby-like individuals. The latter may well be remnants of the old pre-
62 Scheldt, W., Alemanische Bauern.
88 Breig, A., Sine anthr apologise 'he Untersuchung einer, schwdbische Alb.
64 Ried, H. A., Miesbacher Bevolkerung.
544 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Bronze Age populations, or remnants of the North German invasion, more
permanent than the accompanying Nordic element.
While the group just mentioned lives in the Rhine Valley, on a high-
road of migration, the Swabians of Genkingen live in an isolated mountain
environment. They are almost exclusively Dinaric and Noric, especially
the former; there are few individuals who are typically Alpine, and only
two men out of 208 investigated were dolichocephalic. Seventy per cent
have convex nasal profiles, 48 per cent have steep, flattened or uncurved
occiputs. Since the planoccipitals comprise nearly half the group, the
Dinaric character of this population is manifest. The more typical Bi-
naries have pronounced naso-labial folds, heavily built chins, high orbits as
shown by a great palpebral opening, and, of course, the expected nasal
character. Their stature is above that for the mean of the group, and their
body build lean and spare. The relative span of the whole group is 107,
the relative sitting height 51.8. The blonder Noric sub-group is not as
tall as the more brunet Binaries proper, and does not show an equal
accentuation of nasality and of the accompanying facial features. About
36 per cent of the Genkingen people is estimated to belong to this Noric
class, which is rounder-headed (C. I. = 84.5) than the total population
(C. I. « 83.0). Typical Alpines, of intermediate pigmentation, are in the
minority, as they are in all Binaric populations — no Binaric or Armenoid
group has ever been found without them.
Genkingen was settled by the Alemanni, but before that it was already
occupied by a settled population; the Alemanni gave it its name and
Germanic character. The Alemanni were Germanic Nordics, as skeletal
remains from local graves amply testify. When standard additions to the
cranial means are made to allow for soft parts, the restored Alemanni are
some 7 mm. longer-headed, 9 mm. narrower-headed, 5 mm. narrower
in minimum frontal breath, and 5 mm. narrower-faced than the present
Genkingen people. Genkingen is a typical Alemanni street village, with
all the houses built along one main thoroughfare; the house type is purely
Alemannic, the dialect, the customs, and local cultural peculiarities are
typically Alemannic. The Alemanni were established there in the fifth
and sixth centuries, and never moved out; no one else has ever moved in,
in the sense of an invasion or migration. Yet the means of the Alemanni
head and face dimensions barely fall within the ranges of the living
population.
The answer to this apparent enigma lies in three facts, the failure of the
Alemanni to exterminate the earlier population, which was presumably of
a Keltic Iron Age type, the gradual penetration of new family lines from
over the mountains, and the transformation by mixture of Nordics into
Norics. At present there are 24 family names in the village; of them, 3
THE CENTRAL ZONE 545
first appeared in the sixteenth century, 8 in the seventeenth, 5 in the
eighteenth, 7 in the nineteenth, and 1 in the twentieth. Although some
of the names may have been brought from neighboring villages, it is
said that most of them came from the south. Since only one-eighth of
patrilineal lines present in Genkingen were there before 1600, and since
the newcomers were mostly from an Alpine and Dinaric racial center, the
problem of the change in head form in southern Germariy ceases to be
perplexing, especially when one remembers that Genkingen is one of the
most conservative, most stable villages of southern Germany. The Nordic
element has been partly bred out, partly absorbed, and in absorption it
has taken the Noric form, which is actually an element of importance in
the population.
The third group, that of the Upper Bavarian Miesbachers, is descended
not from Alemanni, but from Bajuvars. Its history is presumably similar
to that of other South German villages. The modern inhabitants are tall,
with a mean stature of 170 cm., very brachycephalic, with a mean cephalic
index of 85, and of medium head size. Their faces are broader and shorter
than those of the modern Alemanni, and their noses less leptorrhine.
Dark brown hair is predominant, blond hair is in the small minority, and
the eye color is brown in 30 per cent of the group, while the skin color is
a brunet-white in over 50 per cent. These people form one of the most
brunet populations in Germany.
These Bavarians are mostly Alpines and Binaries, with a little Nordic
admixture; individually, a number of Atlanto-Mediterranean dolicho-
cephals or mesocephals may be observed. On the whole, the Bavarians
are more Alpine, both metrically and morphologically, than most of the
population of the eastern Alps; they resemble, in their facial characters,
some of the French Alpines more closely than they do the Swiss or Austrians.
Southern Bavaria must be considered a minor nucleus of the Alpine race
in central Europe.
In Saxony, Thuringia, and throughout eastern Germany, the racial
situation is somewhat different. As an example of a relatively conservative
Saxon population, we may study the inhabitants of Questenberg, a village
located in an isolated valley of the southern Harz Mountains of Saxony.55
The Questenbergers have a mean cephalic index of 82.4, which is low for
eastern Germany, and the head size is intermediate between that of the
South Germans and of those in the northwest. Compared to the southern
Germans, these Saxons are very light in skin, hair, and eye color; the pre-
dominant hair color is a medium brown while the eyes are mostly pure
light or light-mixed, and dark eyes are limited to about 5 per cent. The
noses of the Questenbergers are as a rule high and narrow, and frequently
66 Grau, R., Die Qitestcnberger*
546 THE RACES OF EUROPE
convex. These Saxons fall as a group into the Noric racial type; brunet
Binaries are rather uncommon here, as are morphologically typical
Alpines. It seems most reasonable to regard these people as the descend-
ants of Iron Age Nordics who have been partially brachycephalized by
Alpine and Dinaric admixture.
Turning farther east to Silesia, we encounter a comparatively new
German population. Silesia, overrun by the Slavs, was resettled by Ger-
man colonists in the thirteenth century, and the colonists were mostly
Thuringians and Upper Saxons, with a few from the Upper Rhine
country. 66 They came from a region which is today largely Noric, Dinaric,
and Alpine, but which at the time of their exodus was still considerably
Nordic.
A sample drawn from Friedersdorf in the Sudeten lands of German
Silesia may be taken as typical of this eastern German population.57 The
stature is only moderate, with a mean of 166 cm.; the head is of Alpine or
Dinaric size and definitely smaller than those of North or West Germans,
while the cephalic index of 86.5 is hyperbrachycephalic. The facial and
upper facial indices are too low for Dinarics, and fall into an Alpine
category; the noses, like those of the Bavarians, are usually straight in
profile, and only moderately leptorrhine (N. I. = 67). Like the Saxons,
these people are not infrequently blond. Medium brown hair is the
commonest color; 20 per cent of eyes are brown, while most of the others
are light and light-mixed.
The racial diagnosis of these people shows them to be largely Alpine
in type, with a number of brachycephalized Nordics, a few Dinarics, and
an important minority of snub-nosed eastern European-looking brachy-
cephals. The presence of these last indicates that in Silesia we have already
entered the eastern European racial area.58
Northeastern Germany, from Mecklenburg over to East Prussia, is a
region of great blondism, in which northwestern German types, especially
the Borreby, gradually merge into the racial forms found in Lithuania and
White Russia. Von Hindenburg, an East Prussian par excellence, was an
ideal example of a Borreby-East Baltic combination typical of his own
class and country.
To summarize the data on the physical anthropology of Germany it
seems necessary to stress the relative absence of conventional Nordics
comparable to those found in eastern Norway, in Sweden, and in England.
Such Nordics may be seen almost everywhere in Germany as individuals,
but nowhere as a large element in the population. The Northwest Ger-
66 Klenke, W., ZFRK, vol. 3, 1936, pp. 56-68.
67 G6llner, H., Yolks- und Rassenkunde der Bevolkerung von Friedersdorf ".
M See Klenke, ZFRK, 1936.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 547
mans represent for the most part a reemergence of Briinn and Borreby
types which have absorbed the Iron Age Nordic group almost completely,
as well as the old North German Corded concentration. The southwestern
Germans are the most nearly Nordic of all, but have strong Briinn and
Borreby accretions. The southern Germans, from southern Baden to
eastern Bavaria, are basically Alpine, with strong, often predominant,
Dinaric tendencies, and a large purely brunet minority. In central
Germany an intermediate condition between the North German and the
South German extremes is found. In southeastern Germany, from Saxony
to Silesia, while the head form is extremely brachycephalic, the pigmenta-
tion is usually light, and the head size small in comparison with the north-
ern and western parts of the country. The racial type which is most
characteristic here is the Noric, a blond Dinaric form resulting from a
brachycephalization of Iron Age Nordics through direct or indirect Alpine
admixture. In Silesia, to the same elements may be added a broad-faced,
snub-nosed, brachycephalic strain which we have already observed among
Finns and Baits, and which will be studied in further detail in Poland and
Russia. The northeastern Germans are for the most part blond brachy-
cephals, varying in type from Borreby to East Baltic, and especially the
latter.
Germany, by and large, is a country in which a variety of pre-Mediter-
ranean racial types have experienced a maximum reemergence, and in
which Mediterranean and Nordic elements have experienced a differential
alteration in response to Alpine mixture. In its blended Noric form, the
Nordic has survived in greater numbers than the low percentage of the
unmixed form would indicate.
(6) SWITZERLAND AND AUSTRIA
To the south of the South German ethnic region lie Switzerland and
Austria; the former contiguous to Baden and the latter to Bavaria.
Northern and central Switzerland form an extension of the Alemannic
settlement area already studied in Baden and the Swabian Alps, while
western Switzerland is old Burgundian territory. The southeastern cantons
lie on the periphery of the Germanic advance, and contain linguistic and
cultural vestiges of the old Romanized Rhaetians.
In a geographical sense, Switzerland is almost entirely composed of
three great valleys, forming the head waters of the Rhine, of its tributary
the Aar, and of the Rh6ne. Each of these rivers includes a large lake in
part of its course; the Rh6ne has Lake Geneva, the Aar Lake Neuchatel,
and the Rhine Lake Constance. The main chain of the Alps lies on the
southern Swiss border; thus most of the country is open only to the north-
ward and westward. However, part of the Grisons empties into the Danube,
548 THE RACES OF EUROPE
and the canton of Ticino lies in the drainage of the Po. The waters of
Switzerland, therefore, empty into the North Sea, the western Mediter-
ranean, the Adriatic, and the Black Sea; Switzerland truly forms the
nucleus of the continent of Europe.
Four languages are spoken in present-day Switzerland, of which three —
French, German, and Italian, have long been official. The fourth, a
provincial Latin derivative, spoken by the descendants of the Romanized
Rhaetians, includes the dialects of Ladin and Romansch, and has only
recently acquired its legal status.59 Other groups speaking this language
live in the Tyrol and in northeastern Italy. Of the four million Swiss, 71
per cent speak German, 21 per cent French, 6 per cent Italian, and slightly
more than 1 per cent speak Ladin and Romansch. French predominates
in the west, in the cantons of Vaud, Neuchatel, Geneva, Freiburg, and
Valais; Italian in Ticino; and German elsewhere. Ladin is spoken in the
Engadine, and Romansch in the Bunder Oberland, both in the canton
of Grisons.
The country is likewise divided on a religious as well as linguistic basis,
with 58 per cent of Protestants, and the rest mostly Catholic. Protestants
are most numerous in the north and west, Catholics in the south and center.
In general, the French-speaking territory is prevailingly Protestant, the
Italian-speaking territory Catholic, while both persuasions are evenly
partitional among the German speakers. There is no clear correlation
between language and religion. Divided by language and by religious
belief, the Swiss likewise preserve strongly differentiated local cultural
traits, which vary greatly from canton to canton. Despite these differences,
Switzerland, owing to geographical and historical causes, remains a very
closely integrated nation. As Montandon has remarked, its very diversity
in these respects has without doubt done much to inculcate in the Swiss
their neutral and international character.60
The present-day Swiss are also divided to a certain extent in a racial
sense. Those living in the northern and western valleys resemble the
populations found in southwestern Germany, where a combination of
moderately tall stature, low brachycephaly, and moderately light pig-
mentation indicate a Nordic survival of racial elements in Alpine-Dinaric
racial territory. The southern and eastern Swiss, on the other hand, are
darker and rounder-headed and show less of this northern lowland
influence.61
w In June, 1938. See Lansel, Peider, The Raeto-Romans,
80 Montandon, G., DEthnie Fran$aise, pp. 182-195. This contains an excellent sum-
mary of the physical anthropology of the living Swiss.
61 An extensive survey of Swiss recruits carried on between 1927 and 1932 under the
direction of Dr. Otto Schlaginhaufen has at the time of writing received only prelimi-
nary publication. The survey covers 35,000 recruits from all parts of Switzerland, and
THE CENTRAL ZONE 549
The mean stature of 35,000 recent Swiss recruits is 168.6 cm., a figure
comparable to that of southern and western Germans. It has risen greatly
in recent years, since the mean for the 1884-91 period was 163.5 cm. There
are three areas in which tall stature is commonest; the country around
Geneva and Lake Neuch£tel, and western Valais; the very north, from
Basel to Lake Constance; and the eastern Grisons. Elsewhere local
variability is great; the shortest stature occurs in parts of Bern, and in
Appenzell-Innerrhoden in the northwest. In the 1880's the stature in the
two Appenzells was at the 160 cm. level; by 1930 it had risen to 165 cm. in
Appenzell-Innerrhoden and to 166 cm. in Appenzell-Ausserrhoden. Areas
of depression, laches noires in the French sense, seem to have been ironed
out; low stature in Switzerland is directly environmental and not racial.
In the 1927-32 survey the mean cephalic index of 81.3 was found for
all of Switzerland. This low figure comes as a surprise to the majority of
anthropologists, who have long considered Switzerland to be the center
and homeland of the Alpine race in Europe. The Alpine race, however, is
much more concentrated today in France, in northern Italy, in Bavaria,
and in southern Albania than it is in Switzerland. The cantons range from
79.6 in Basel city to 83.7 in Ticino; in general a line drawn from the
western end of Lake Constance to the eastern end of Lake Geneva will
divide the mesocephals and near-mesocephals of the northwest from the
sub-brachycephals and brachycephals of the southeast.
One reason why the discovery that the Swiss as a nation are only sub-
brachycephalic is so surprising is that most of the published cranial
series have mean cranial indices varying from 82 to 87. With few excep-
tions these are drawn, however, from the southern and eastern cantons,
from small local populations in the roundest-headed part of Switzerland.
Still, Pittard's total mean for several hundred crania from Valais is 84.5,
as contrasted with a cephalic index of 82.2 on the living. This discrepancy
may be partly technical and partly due to regional selection,62 but one is
tempted to believe that the great increase in stature in recent times has
been accompanied by a lowering of the cephalic index.
The mean cranial and facial diameters of the living Swiss strongly
suggest that the non-Alpine, non-Dinaric elements in the population are
Nordic and Mediterranean, especially the former, and not Briinn or
Borreby, as in northern and much of western Germany. The mean head
includes detailed measurements and observations. Its final publication should supplant
all previous studies of a general nature. Preliminary notices which present summaries
and portions of these data include: Schlaginhaufen, O., BSGA, vol. 13, 1936-37, pp. 7-
11; BIKB, 1936, pp. 507-511.
62 As one moves up the Rhdne Valley within the canton of Valais, the mean G. I. on
the living increases, from 80 at Sion to 83 higher up. Bedot, M., BSAP, ser. 4, vol. 6,
1895, pp. 486-494; ser. 4, vol. 9, 1898, pp. 222-236.
550 THE RACES OF EUROPE
length for Swiss males is 189 mm., the breadth 154 mm.; the total face
height is 122 mm., the bizygomatic 137 mm. The facial index mean is 89,
that of the nasal index 63. 63 Fifty-eight per cent have straight or wavy
nasal profiles, 16 per cent concave, and only 25 per cent convex. Thus
the Alpine and Nordic nasal forms outweigh the Dinaric.
The Swiss are on the whole as blond as most West and South Germans,
and less so than North Germans. About 50 per cent of recruits have dark
brown hair (Fischer #4-5) while the rest have for the most part medium to
light brown shades. Brown and dark- mixed eyes are found in one- third
of the group.64 On the whole central and northern Switzerland are the
blondest, and in these regions small localities may be extremely blond;
light pigmentation is geographically associated with German speech.
Italian and Romansch-speaking centers are the most brunet, while the
French-speaking cantons are intermediate. In the northern cantons ash-
blond hair (Fischer #22-26) is common, and is largely identified with
Noric and sub-Nordic types.65
The principal results of this survey of Switzerland are: the discovery
that the Alpine-Dinaric racial complex is centered to the south and to
either side of the Republic; the determination that a large Nordic element
has survived here in solution, only partly brachycephalized by Alpine and
Dinaric mixture; the further determination that Switzerland has been
entirely or almost entirely free from Briinn-Borreby intrusion.
Austria, which lies to the east of Switzerland, and which is now politi-
cally a part of Germany, is almost wholly contained within the drainage
of .the upper Danube. Vorarlberg, however, forms part of the uppermost
segment of the Rhine basin, while the southern Tyrol, at present under
Italian sovereignty, lies over the Alpine watershed in the drainage of the
Adige. Austria in the political sense is entirely Germanic in language, ex-
cept for the presence of a few Slovenes in the Biirgenland; in the Italian
Tyrol there are German, Italian, and Ladin-speaking communities. Like
Switzerland, Austria faces northward, with the Alpine watershed at her
back; this northward exposure is largely* 'responsible for the retention of
Austria's Germanic character from the days of the Volkerwanderung.
While Switzerland's face is turned more specifically to the northwest than
to the true north, Austria's orientation is rather to the northeast; thus in a
sense the two upland areas, with the Rhine-Danube watershed between
M Regional data will be found in :
Schwerz, F., NDSN, vol. 45, sec. 2, 1910.
Zbinden, F., AFA, vol. 38, 1911, pp, 280-317.
« Schlaginhaufen, O., BSGA, vol. 3, 1926-27, pp. 21-36.
66 Zbinden, F., AFA, vol. 38, 1911, pp. 280-317. I am using Usub-Nordic" here in
Montandon's sense, to designate a Nordic partially brachycephalized by Alpine ad-
mixture.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 551
them, are isolated from each other. While the first Neolithic civilization
of Switzerland came up the Rh6ne from the western Mediterranean and
Spain, that of Austria was derived from the east by way of the Danube.
These differences have been obscured by some subsequent events, and
strengthened by others; still the ultimate distinction remains.
The present Austria consists of seven provinces; Vorarlberg, Tyrol,
Salzburg, Carinthia, Styria, Upper Austria, and Lower Austria; to these
will be added for present purposes the Trentino, or Italian Tyrol. All
of these regions have been subjected to anthropometric study, and the
racial situation in Austria may be stated without ambiguity.
Lower and Upper Austria, which are both situated directly in the
Danube Valley, and both of which include the southern foothills behind
the alluvial plain, stand on a highroad of migration and occupy one of
the most fertile and desirable areas of Europe. They lie within the prob-
able area of development of one branch, at least, of the Nordic race;
Danubians, Corded people, Bell Beaker folk, all contributed to the racial
amalgam of the ages of Bronze and Iron; the Germanic and Slavic invasions
of the present era have furnished additional increments. Slavic influence
has been greater in Lower than in Upper Austria, but secondary to the
Germanic in both.
The population of the two Austrias belongs, with that of Switzerland,
in an Alpine-Dinaric-Nordic category.66 The mean cephalic indices of
the various districts range from 80.8 in Hernals, just west of Vienna, to
84.8 in Waidhofen, also in Lower Austria. In general, the districts lying
north of the Danube in both provinces have higher means than those on
the southern bank; they approach the higher brachycephaly of Bavaria and
of Bohemia. Lower and Upper Austria form a relatively long-headed
interlude between the brachycephalic nucleus just mentioned and that
of the Tyrol.
The stature of these two provinces, Lower and Upper Austria, ranges
about the mean of 167-168 cm., with little regional variation. Brown
hair occurs in over 40 per cent of the group, and one-third have been
classed as blond. Eyes are for the most part blue or gray with accompany-
ing mixtures, and browns account for some 24 per cent of the total. Pair
or light-mixed complexion types are commoner than brunet ones. The
ash-blond hair with gray or mixed eyes combination is frequent, and is
associated not only with a few pheno typically pure Nordics, but also with
the much commoner Noric form. The Dinaric type emerges, in sorting,
as the tallest but not the most brachycephalic element. Of the four most
easily recognizable types in these provinces, Noric, Alpine, Dinaric, and
« Brezina, E., and Wastl, J., MAGW, vol. 59, 1929, pp. 19-38, 311-322.
Weisbach, A., MMSC, vol. 11, 1892; MAGW, vol. 24, 1894, pp. 232-246.
552 THE RAGES OF EUROPE
Nordic, the first is probably the commonest. Thus altered and unaltered
Nordics must account for well over half the population. The Nordic
element must be derived as much from a local Hallstatt as from a Germanic
source.
In the three provinces of Salzburg, Carinthia, and Styria, the racial
situation is much the same as in Lower and Upper Austria.67 In Salzburg
there are fewer brown eyes (20 per cent) and the Noric element appears
particularly important; unaltered Nordics are common only in Lower
Austria. In South Styria and in Garinthia the stature approaches the
170 cm. level, blondism slightly decreases, and a Dinaric type becomes
commoner.
On account of its reputation as a Dinaric racial center, the Tyrol has
been the subject of many special investigations.68 The Tyrol in the geo-
graphical and ethnic sense includes the upper valley of the Inn, which
served historically as a highroad of Germanic invasion over the Alps,
and the smaller mountain valleys on either side of the Alpine chain. A
branch of the Inn, the river Wipp, leads directly to the Brenner Pass and
down into Italy. The Tyrol was not settled until the Metal Age; the first
inhabitants who came in any numbers were Atlanto-Mediterraneans from
northern Italy, and Binaries both from southern Germany and from
Italy. In Hallstatt times, however, the population increased, and the
Rhaetians, later to become Romanized, developed as an ethnic unit under
Hallstatt cultural tutelage. The Ladin speakers of the side valleys of the
Italian Tyrol are today in most respects good representatives of the pre-
Roman Rhaetians, while the Germanicizing and Italicizing of the others
has been only partial in all respects other than in language. The Dinaric
racial type has had, in the Tyrol, a complete continuity from the Bronze
Age to the present.
The living Tyrolese are moderately but not extremely tall; valley means
range from 167 cm. to 172 cm. They are brachycephalic, with means
varying between 82 and 87. On the whole the Italian speakers are the
least brachycephalic, and the Ladin speakers and some of the German
67 Keiter, F., MAGW, vol. 43, 1933, pp. 293-319.
Ploy, H., MAGW, vol. 38, 1908, pp. 324-347.
Weisbach, A., MAGW, vol. 25, 1895, pp. 69-84; vol. 28, 1898, pp. 195-213; vol. 30,
1900, pp. 79-99.
88 Principal works on the living includes:
Knobl, G., MAGW, vol. 43, 1933, pp. 320-325.
Lebzelter, V., MAGW, vol. 59, 1929, pp. 209-228.
Tappeiner, F., Studien zur Anthropologie Tirol$> Innsbruck, 1883; ZFE, vol. 12, 1880,
pp. 269-288.
Toldt, C., MAGW, vol. 21, 1891, pp. 69-78, also Supplement. .
Much more has been done on the craniology of the Tyrolese than on the living popu-
lation.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 553
speakers the most so, while the greatest brachycephaly lies on the Italian
side of the divide. The Tyrolese are typically intermediate in pigmenta-
tion; brown hair is commonest, although on the German side a large
minority is blond; among Italian speakers black hair rises to over 20
per cent. Among German speakers brown eyes run to roughly 20 to 30
per cent; among Italian speakers they approach 40 per cent. The Ladiner,
who are among the roundest-headed, are definitely the darkest; with over
45 per cent of dark eyes, and over 75 per cent of black and brown hair.
There is, in all the Tyrol, a strong minority of brunet or swarthy skin color,
which rises to 50 per cent among the Ladiner.
The cranial and facial dimensions of the Tyrolese 6e resemble those of
the Swiss, except that the vault lengths are shorter and the facial breadths
greater. The head length mean for brachycephals with a mean cephalic
index of 85.8, is 185 mm., the breadth 159 mm.; the minimum frontal,
bizygomatic, and bigonial diameters are 109 mm., 142 mm., and 109 mm.;
the face height is 126 mm., and the nasal dimensions are 58 mm. by 36
mm.; the facial index 87, the nasal index 63. The only real differences
between the Tyrolese and the rest of the Austrians He in a shorter head
length mean and a broader jaw.
Toldt,70 in a study of 710 modern Tyrolese crania, of which 83 per cent
are brachycephalic, finds 47.5 per cent of the whole, or over half of the
brachycephalic specimens, to be planoccipital; the ratio for the different
valleys inhabited by German and Italian speakers varies from 23 per cent
to 54 per cent, but it rises to 70 per cent in the crania from the Ladin-
speaking districts.
Planoccipital Tyrolese crania differ from their curvoccipital neighbors
in but a few measurements, although the morphological differences are
greater. In the planoccipital crania, the distance from glabella to inion is
nearly as great as the maximum length; in curvoccipital skulls the differ-
ence between these two diameters is considerable. In the planoccipital
crania, the mean post-auricular length is 75.9 mm.; the mean for the
curvoccipital crania is 82.4 mm. An index between the nasion-basion
length and the post-basion base length of the skull is approximately 60 to
70 in the planoccipital, and 88 to 100 in the curvoccipital, crania. Thus
the differences between Alpine and Dinaric skulls lies not so much in total
vault diameters or in facial dimensions as in the measurements which
indicate that the ear hole and foramen magnum lie to the rear in the
planoccipital crania, and that, owing to the steepness of the occipital bone,
lambda stands relatively forward. The metrical peculiarities of the Binaries
are more easily determined on the crania than on the living.
89 Frizzi, E., MAGW, vol. 39, 1909, pp. 1-65.
*» Toldt, C., MAGW, vol. 40, 1910, pp. 67-100.
554 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Before leaving Austria we may mention the racial position of the in-
habitants of the Walserthal in Vorarlberg, a high valley draining into
the Rhine.71 The Walserthal is the scene of a Germanic thrust directly
from the north, of the same nature as those which affected Switzerland;
the living Walser, who are blonder than the Tyrolese, are metrically
comparable to the populations already studied in Baden and the Swabian
Alps, rather than to the Alpo-Binaric group in its purer form.
(7) ITALY
Italy, one of the most clearly demarcated geographical units in Europe,
is a country of considerable racial variability. Although the Mediter-
ranean race is strongly represented in it, Italy belongs only partially to
the Mediterranean world, for much of it is more typically Alpine racial
territory. Unfortunately, it is impossible to trace the early prehistory of
the Alpines in Italy, since our knowledge of the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic
periods there is still obscure. The primary racial impulse of the early
Neolithic, however, is known. This was the immigration of small Mediter-
raneans in great numbers, coming largely if not entirely by sea; these first
food-producers were followed by more competent navigators, Atlanto-
Mediterraneans, who settled chiefly in the north and in the islands, and
Binaries from the eastern Mediterranean in search of metal. Some of these
Binaries penetrated the Alpine Valleys while others settled in the Po
Valley and in central Italy. The movement of highly cultured peoples
from the east into Italy continued into historic times, and included the
settlement of the Etruscans in Tuscany, and of the Greeks in Sicily and in
the southern end of the peninsula.
As early as the Bronze Age there were, however, counter-movements
from the north, including the invasions of the early Italici, ancestors of
Oscans and Umbrians, Latins and Faliscans, and also the arrival of
Illyrian tribes in northern and eastern Italy. Whereas the movements by
sea had brought in Mediterraneans of different kinds, some short and some
tall, some straight-nosed and others beaked in a Near Eastern manner, as
well as Binaries, the movements from the north introduced Nordics of two
varieties; the classic Hallstatt type, and the Keltic Iron Age type which
was later to form the basic racial element among the Roman patricians.
Further invasions from the north, of Kelts and of Germans, had only
local influence.
More important perhaps than many of these invasions was the effect
of the Roman industrial system, which relied on involuntary labor, and
which necessitated the introduction of slaves of all known races and
71 Wacker, R., ZFE, vol. 44, 1912, pp. 437-524.
Weidenrcich, F., BSGA, vol. 4, 1927-28, pp. 5-6.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 555
countries by the thousands. Although some of these slaves were prevented
by ill usage and by segregation from propagating, the majority without
doubt reproduced, and with their emancipation under Christianity
blended readily into the local populations. Other strangers who were not
slaves moved to Italy in great numbers; as traders, craftsmen, soldiers, and
visitors attracted to the center of civilization. Thus through her r61e as
mistress of the world Rome accumulated and assimilated a heterogeneous
population.
That this population was by no means purely or even predominantly
Mediterranean is shown by the study of the skulls of Pompeiians,72 victims
of the eruption which turned their city from a metropolis into a museum.
These crania, with a mean cranial index of 80, represent a population
which had acquired a racial character of its own despite its mixed origin,
and in which the Alpine element was the most important. The vaults are
of moderate size, as are the faces; the mean nasion-menton height of 119
mm. is too low to suggest a strong Dinaric element, which the mesorrhiny
typical of the group also precludes. A series of 100 modern crania from
Bologna,73 with a mean cranial index of 83.5, is almost purely Alpo-
Dinaric, with the latter element in a position of prominence. The Dinaric
race is common in northern, but not in southern Italy, and this distinction
has been true since the Bronze Age.
Our knowledge of the physical anthropology of living Italians is based
largely upon the work of Livi,74 who measured some 300,000 recruits of
the classes of 1859-63. In using this material it must be remembered that
it is over half a century old, and that Livi's head measuring technique was
not in accordance with modern standards. Thus the Italians are without
doubt taller now than in Livi's day, and they are from one to two points
less brachycephalic. Despite these corrections, Livi's work is of great value.
It has established the main facts of regional distribution in Italy beyond
question. These are that stature increases as one goes northward from
Sicily and the toe of Italy; that the cephalic index increases in thl* same
manner, as does blondism. In northern Italy the tallest men are longer
headed than the mean; in southern Italy the shortest men are longer
headed. Blondism is everywhere correlated with a relatively high cephalic
index.
In other words, the southern Italians are a blend for the most part of
Alpines and small Mediterraneans, while among the northern Italians the
nost important dolichocephalic strain is the Atlanta-Mediterranean. The
"Nicolucci, G., APA, vol. 12, 1882, pp. 143-178.
Schmidt, E., AFA, vol. 17, 1888, pp. 189-227.
73 Calori, C. L., MASS, ser. 2, vol. 8, 1868, pp. 205-234.
Schwerz, F., AFA, vol. 43, 1917, pp. 181-195.
74 Livi, R.j Antropometria Militare.
556 THE RACES OF EUROPE
association of relatively great blondism with brachycephaly merely in-
dicates that both Alpines and Binaries are characteristically mixed or
intermediate in pigmentation. The few unaltered Nordics still found in
northern Italy and in aristocratic families elsewhere are far outnumbered
by Atlanto-Mediterraneans.
The mean stature for the recruits of 1859-63 was 164.5 cm., that for the
classes of 1907-09 was 165.5 cm.75 A better figure for the present would
probably be 166 cm. The present provincial range would probably run
from 164 cm. in the south, to 168 cm. in Piedmont and Veneto, as well
as in the Trentino. The mean cephalic index of Livi's recruits was 82.7;
that of the 1907-09 class 80.8. The reduction of two index points is
largely technical, but may be partly due to stature increase. Despite this
difference, the northern Italians, the Piedmontese particularly, are very
brachycephalic, more so than the Swiss <jr Austrians, and the Piedmont
forms a continuation of the southwestern French zone of Alpine racial
concentration.
Special studies of southern Italians and Sicilians have been made in
America, where several millions of these people live.76 Although some
selection may have taken place in the determination of who should come
to America and who should stay at home, they probably fall near enough
to the total mean for present purposes. This group is not short, but slightly
under medium in stature; the present mean is about 165 cm. A relative
span of 102, and a relative sitting height of 53.3, strongly indicate a short-
legged, short-armed, and long- bodied condition, while a mean weight of
150 pounds is heavy for this stature level. Although slender, delicately
built Mediterraneans are found among these people, the great majority
are thick-set, short-necked, short-fingered, broad-handed, and heavy-
torsoed. They incline to corpulence in middle age, and few of the women
remain slender past the period of child-bearing.
The mean cephalic index for this group is 79; there is, however, a
great range, and many are typical brachycephals. The head size stands
in accord with the body bulk; a mean head length of 191 mm., and breadth
of 151 mm., indicate a larger vault than is usual among Mediterraneans
of the same stature. The facial breadths again exceed Mediterranean
figures; the minimum frontal mean is 106 mm., that of the bizygomatic
76 Gini, C., CIPP, ser. 1, vol. 5, 1934, pp. 589-607.
Gini's figures cover exactly the same territory as Livi's, and do not include recruits
from the provinces acquired by Italy since LivFs day.
76 Boas, R, Materials for the Study of Inheritance in Man; ZFE, vol. 45, 1913, pp. 615-
626.
Davenport, C. B., and Love, A. G., Army Anthropometry.
Hooton, E, A., The American Criminal.
Hrdliclca, A., The Old Americans.
Willoughby, R. R., HB, vol. 5, 1933, pp. 690-705.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 557
140 mm., and of the bigonial 108 mm. These dimensions fall suggestively
into the Alpine category, while at the same time resembling those of
coastal groups from Portugal. The mean total face height is 121 mm,, the
upper face height 70 mm. Facial and upper facial indices are mesopro-
sopic and mesene. The nasal dimensions (54 mm. by 36 mm.) are moder-
ately long and broad, the nasal index mean of 67 leptorrhine, but in a
Mediterranean and Alpine rather than Nordic or Dinaric sense.
The skin color is as a rule dark; over 50 per cent of unexposed shades
are definitely light brown or olive-colored, while the exposed skin often
tans to a distinctive reddish-brown. Ten per cent are freckled. About
30 per cent have black hair, and 48 per cent dark brown; reddish brown
shades, or dark to medium brown with a reddish glint, account for somfe
16 per cent, while the remaining 6 per cent have light brown or blondish
colors. Pure dark eyes are found among 44 per cent of those studied; mixed
eyes among 50 per cent, and pure light eyes among 6 per cent. The high
ratio of reddish shades in the hair and of mixed eyes reflects the strong
Alpine strain in this population, as does the large minority of non-brunet
skin colors and the presence of freckling. Of the mixed eyes, the majority
are dark-mixed, and green-brown combinations are three times as common
as blue-brown and gray-brown put together.
The southern Italians depart from a Mediterranean standard in the
development of the pilous system; over 80 per cent have medium to heavy
beards, and the body hair is heavier than among any other European
group studied.77 The hair is rarely fine, usually coarse to medium in
texture, and is curly in 10 per cent of this group, while wavy forms are
usual. The forehead is of medium height and slope, as a rule, and the
browridges medium; their typical development is Alpine rather than
Mediterranean. The eyebrows are usually heavy, in 57 per cent concur-
rent. The nasion depression is medium to deep, the nasal root of medium
height, and frequently broad. The nasal bridge is usually quite high,
and broader than among most other Europeans; the profile is variable,
with large concave as well as convex categories; several types are present
in this respect. The nasal tip is as a rule thicker than the European stand-
ard, and the wings as often flaring as compressed. In 35 per cent the tip
is depressed. The lips vary considerably in thickness, but more fall into
the thick category than in most European groups; well over a third show
a visible degree of facial or alveolar prognathism. The chin is frequently
prominent, and the gonial angles frequently flaring; prominent malars are
much commoner than compressed ones.
The southern Italians, as this survey will indicate, are a distinctive
77 That is, in Hooton's American criminal material, drawn directly from all parts of
Europe.
558 THE RACES OF EUROPE
group of people who do not fall into any one recognized racial category.
Besides conventional Mediterraneans and Alpines there are two special
types which are particularly common, and will be familiar to anyone
living in Italian sections of the United States, as well as to anyone who has
visited southern Italy. These are: (1) a coarse Mediterranean, short-
statured, thick-limbed, mesocephalic, possessing a narrow forehead, wide
malars, heavy browridges, a short, broad, straight or lightly concave nose
with upturned tip, a strong jaw, and some prognathism; (2) a local
approximation to an Armenoid, short-statured, especially thick-set and
short-necked, with a flattened occiput, dome-shaped lateral vault profile,
heavy browridges, a high-rooted, high-bridged, thick-tipped and depressed-
tipped nose, and an especially prominent jaw.
The coarse Mediterranean mesocephal has counterparts in Spain and
Portugal, as well as North Africa, and goes back at least to the time of the
shell-heap burials of Muge. It seems, however, especially prevalent among
South Italians. The local Armenoid may be partly descended from Near
Easterners brought to central and southern Italy in imperial times, but
it is more likely that it is to a greater extent a local combination of Alpine
with various Mediterranean elements, through the mechanism of differ-
ential inheritance.
Observational data on the population of the neighborhood of Bologna 78
permits, by contrasts to the foregoing, a study in some detail of a North
Italian population, one with a mean stature of about 168 cm. and a mean
cephalic index of about 83 or 84. The skin color of the face is about
equally divided between light brown and pinkish-white; the hair is black
in 25 per cent, dark brown in 60 per cent, and light brown to blond in the
rest of cases. Twenty-five per cent of eyes are dark brown, 38 per cent
light brown or dark-mixed, and 27 per cent light-mixed or light. The
pigmentation is lighter than in southern Italy, but still prevailingly brunet.
There is a slight linkage between the lightest hair and eye colors and
dolichocephaly, indicating that a Nordic type has preserved its identity
as a minor element here.
The development of the pilous system is less marked here than in the
south; body and beard hair are of normal European thickness ; furthermore,
only 14 per cent have concurrent eyebrows. These actually go more with
the dolichocephals than with the brachycephals. The noses are convex
in 32 per cent, straight in 58 per cent, and concave in 8 per cent of the
group; convex noses are slightly more frequent among the long heads.
Nasal tip thickness is usually medium, and lips are frequently thin. The
thin nose and thin lip combination, which takes the form of a positive
correlation, is again linked with dolichocephaly.
78 Frasetto, F., Note Antropologiche Sulla Popolazione del Bolognese.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 559
In the population of the Bolognese there is a strong prevalence of Alpine
and Dinaric types, especially the former, but approximately one- third of
the population is long-headed or nearly so. Among this third, Nordics are
not uncommon, but the most important element is a tall, slender, brunet,
long-faced type, with a thin, straight or convex nose, and thin lips. It is
a variant of the Atlanto-Mediterranean, with some of the Cappadocian
facial features brought from western Asia by early navigators, including
the Etruscans. Associated with this type is a frequent obliquity of the
eye slits, which are very long; highly arched eyebrows and full malars.
The beauty of Bolognese women is proverbial, and the type described
above is to a certain extent responsible for this reputation. It is com-
mon elsewhere in northern Italy as well, and was often portrayed
by Renaissance painters. This type is also found as a minor element
in the Tyrol, where it seems to form a basic part of the Dinaric racial
complex.
No country in Europe in which one language and one cultural tradition
prevail shows a greater diversity of race between its southern and its
northern extremities than does Italy. The binding element which is com-
mon to all sections is the Alpihe, which has reemerged from obscure be-
ginnings through a superstructure composed of Dinaric, Nordic, and
various kinds of Mediterranean accretions. Italy stands on the fence
between the Alpine and Mediterranean worlds.
(8) THE LIVING SLAVS
(a) Czechs and Wends
Owing to the geographical distribution of living Slavic-speaking peoples,
it seems advisable to divide them into four groups, to be treated separately
and, as nearly as possible, seriatim. These are the central and western
Slavs, including the Czechs, Slovaks, and Wends; the northern and eastern
Slavs, from the Poles across Russia to Siberia; the southern Slavs, living
almost entirely in Jugoslavia, and the Bulgars, who will be treated with
other peoples of the Balkans. It will be recalled that the Slavs, the last of
the great Indo-European-speaking peoples to expand, were, like all of the
others who had preceded them, primarily Nordic in race. Like all of the
others they were destined to lose in varying degrees this original racial
identification.
The republic of Czechoslovakia, with its pre-Munich population of
some 15,000,000 was, until the events of October, 1938, one of the most
ethnically varied of the post-war nations of central and eastern Europe.
Only 50 per cent of its population was Czechish, and the other half was
composed as follows: Germans, 23 per cent; Slovaks, 16 per cent; Mag-
yars, 5 per cent; Ruthenians, 4 per cent; and Jews and all others, the
560 THE RAGES OF EUROPE
remainder.79 The Czechs themselves are confined largely to Bohemia and
Moravia. They are descendants of the early Slavic immigrants who
pushed aside or absorbed earlier Keltic and Germanic settlers, and who,
in the shelter of their mountain-hemmed plain, have resisted the Ger-
manic thrust to the east, which began in the twelfth century and which
since has almost surrounded them. Owing to this Germanic contact and
to their isolation from the rest of the Slavic world, the Czechs are cul-
turally western European, at least in outward respects, and have developed
into a highly industrialized modern nation.
The pre-Christian Slavic grave material from Bohemia is almost
entirely dolichocephalic. Although the principal racial type represented
is Nordic, the early Bohemians, like the rest of the Slavs, included a
minority of broad-nosed, low-or bitted individuals. Some of their crania,
furthermore, were unusually large and heavy.80 Very few centuries passed,
however, before the racial character of the Christianized Bohemians began
to undergo a radical change.81 Only in the sixth century A.D. was the
Slavic settlement of Bohemia complete; by the ninth the mean cranial
index of the Czechs had risen from 75 or 76 to 77; by the eleventh or
twelfth century it had reached 78. In the early sixteenth century it had
reached only 80 or 81, but after the great plague of 1520 it began to climb
rapidly, so that in the seventeenth century it had risen to 83.5, and in the
eighteenth to 85. This complete alteration of head form in Bohemia is
one of the most marked and best-documented phenomena of its kind in
the racial history of the world. Most of it happened in modern times, under
the eyes of writers and historians, but it remained virtually if not entirely
unnoticed until the central European craniologists, well within the last
fifty years, brought it to light. As in southern Germany, the change in-
volved not merely the shape of the cranial vault, but facial and nasal
measurements as well. There can be little doubt that the same causes
and the same mechanisms operated in both regions.
The living Czechs are, in a metrical sense, typically Alpine, and the
Alpine race is, by the observation of individuals, seen to be the commonest
79 Census of 1930. It is too soon after the Peace of Munich to obtain accurate figures
on the population components of what remains.
80 See Chapter VI, section 7, for an exposition of early Slavic racial history,
si Czekanowski, J., AnthPr, vol. 10, 1932, pp. 200-207.
Hellich, B., Praehistoricke lebky v &chfoh ze Sb'irky Musea Krdlovstvi fieskeho.
Maty, J., AnthPr, vol. 3, 1925, pp. 156-176.
Matiegka, J., MAGW, vol. 23, 1893, pp. 93-94; CrarAa Bohemica; AnthPr, vol. 2,
1924, pp. 183-210; vol. 4, 1926, pp. 163-219; RCA, vol. 2, 5, #42, 1896; also review in
AFA, vol. 25, 1898, pp. 150-154.
Niederle, L., MAGW, vol. 22, 1897, pp. 82-85.
Pexiederova, M. R., AnthPr, vol. 9, 1931, pp. 276-319.
Szombathy, J., MAGW, vol. 52, 1922, p. 20.
MAP , 14
LANGUAGES OF EAST-CENTRAL EUROPE AND OF THE BALKANS
This map illustrates in a general way the distribution of linguistic groups in the most
complex section of Europe in the linguistic sense. The distribution of Germans, Poles,
Rumanians or Vlachs, Turks, etc. outside their national boundaries is in each case
schematic; owing to the facts that villages are interspersed, and that families within
villages scattered, it is impossible to make a map of this size even approximately accu-
rate without color. An added difficulty is that the sources from which it has been com-
piled differ greatly, and it is impossible in many areas to obtain reliable information.
For the Dobruja district of Rumania, where the racial and linguistic medley is more
confusing than elsewhere, no attempt has been made at stippling. The so-called Tatar
district farther north is also extremely varied and has also been left white.
561
562 THE RAGES OF EUROPE
single type among them.82 They are little different in bodily build and in
head and face dimensions from Bavarians. The mean stature of the Czechs
is approximately 167 cm.; the mean cephalic index about 84. The com-
monest hair color is a medium brown, which includes some 47 per cent of
the population; only 17 per cent have dark brown hair, and black hair is
exceptional. Of the light brown and blond shades, the golden is commoner
than the ashen. Some 38 per cent of the eyes are listed as brown, but
light brown is commoner than dark brown; pure blue eyes are found
among 18 per cent, and the rest are mostly light-mixed. The Czechs are
as fair as most southern Germans. While Alpines and Norics are common-
est in Bohemia, there is a strong concentration of Binaries in Moravia,
especially among the miners, who seem to form a special group with both
racial and occupational peculiarities.
The snub-nosed, broad-faced, blond type commonly associated with
Slavs is occasionally seen among Czechs, but is numerically rare. It seems
to be commoner among Slovaks, although the Slovak-speaking population
of Moravian Wallachia, in central Czechoslovakia, being composed of
the Slavicized descendants of Rumanian Vlach colonists, is partly Dinaric.83
As far as one can tell, the Slovaks in general seem to be shorter than the
Czechs, and smaller-headed, while equally brachy cephalic. Their relation-
ship seems to lie with the eastern Slavic world rather than with Bohemia.
Before turning to Poland, let us study for a moment the Slavic island of
Wends who live in the Spreewald district of Mecklenburg.84 In the period
between the eighth to twelfth centuries, at the time of the maximum
Slavic expansion westward, and before the Germanic counter-thrust
eastward, the Wends occupied much of present-day Mecklenburg. They
were a long-headed people, with a mean cranial index of 76.6, mostly
Nordic, but rather short-faced and mesorrhine. They resembled the
contemporary Slavs in Bohemia, West Prussia, and Pomerania, and in
subsequent centuries underwent a parallel brachycephalization. The
modern Wends, inhabiting but a fraction of their former territory, have
now a mean cephalic index of 84, and a stature of 167 cm. They are little
82 Ehrich, R. B., unpublished measurements on Bohemians and Moravians.
Matiegka, J., Cl» vol. 1, 1891, pp. 429-437, 533-540. See MAGW, vol. 22, 1892,
"Sitzungsberichte," pp. 18-82.
Rehak, J., AnthPr, vol. 1, 1923, pp. 284-297.
Schneider, L., MAGW, vol. 27, 1897, pp. 45-46.
Suk, V., SPFM, #124, 1933.
Weisbach, A., MAGW, Suppl. 2, 1889.
Willoughby, R. R., HB, vol. 5, 1933, pp. 690-705.
83 Suk, V., and Augusta, K., SPFM, #175, 1933.
84 Asmus, R., AFA, vol. 27, 1902, pp. 1-36.
Merkenschlager, F., %ur Volks und Rassenkunde des Sprecwaldes. See V. Lebzelter's re-
view in MAGW, vol. 44, 1934, p. 178.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 563
different from the surrounding German-speaking population. Influences
which have affected them have affected all in their neighborhood; the
Wendish problem is no different from that of the rest of eastern Germany.
(9) THE LIVING SLAVS (Continued)
(b) Poland and Russia
The study of the living Slavic-speaking peoples of Poland and Russia
should, at this point, be a comparatively simple matter, since we have
already reviewed early Slavic history (Chapter VI, section 7), and have
studied the physical anthropology of the Finno-Ugrian peoples, whom the
Slavs, in their eastward expansion, have largely absorbed, as well as that
of the near relatives of the Slavs, the Baits. Although Poland and Russia
between them occupy approximately half the land area of the continent
of Europe, it would be difficult to deal with their Slavic-speaking popula-
tions as two units divided by political boundaries, since between the two
there lies no natural frontier, geographic, linguistic, or racial.
Poland, although largely Slavic, is a nation without ethnic or linguistic
unity. The Poles themselves, who are the most numerous single group,
occupy most of the western half of the country, interspersed by hundreds
of small German islands; the eastern half is divided between Ukrainians
in the southern quadrant and White Russians in the northern, with
thousands of Lithuanians living in the region of Vilna. In the Ukrainian
section the Poles themselves are scattered in small communities as a
minority population. (See Map 14.) Poland, and especially Galicia, is
the home of the largest body of Jews in Europe; these Jews will be treated
in a separate section later.
From the geographical standpoint, Poland resembles Germany. The
bulk of the country is a vast, low plain, for the most part exceptionally
fertile, separated from the Baltic everywhere except at the Polish Corridor
by East Prussia and Lithuania. Toward the south the land gradually
rises, until the crest of the Carpathians forms a natural border, comparable
to the Alps farther west. Thus, like Germany, Poland is blocked from the
south but open to the north and to either side. From West Prussia to
Poland to Russia is a natural progression, in which the racial transition is
as gradual as the geographical. But from the north to the south of Poland
the change is more rapid and more significant, since, while the plain is
the home of typical Poles in the racial sense, the Carpathians hold an
Alpine-Dinaric population comparable to that of southern Germany.
This latter must derive part, at least, of its ancestry from the Bell Beaker
people who wandered into the mountains in search of minerals, far to the
north and east of most of their fellows.
The plain of Poland was a great center for the Corded people, who
564 THE RACES OF EUROPE
hindered the expansion of the earlier agriculturalists, and whose physical
type was predominant there until the adoption of cremation. When burial
had once more become fashionable, Poland was largely a Nordic country,
as it remained until after the rise and spread of the Slavs, when the old
Danubian peasant stock broke through its Corded and Nordic chrysalis
and reemerged.85 Throughout its history, however, Poland has contained
minor incidences of a flat-faced brachycephalic racial type, the Ladogan,
whose home lay in the forests and swamps to the north, and which was
initially associated with the Kammkeramik hunting and fishing culture.
In the living population of Poland, this element has assumed a position of
considerable, if secondary, importance.
No nation in Europe has shown greater activity in studying the physical
anthropology of its people than has Poland; detailed surveys of many
thousands give accurate data on every province, including every village
in the Republic. As in parts of Germany and of Russia, we are embarrassed
with a plethora of information, to all of which it is impossible to do justice.
Our method will be to review the general surveys, and then to study some
of the regional populations, including White Russians, Ukrainians, and
Carpathian Mountaineers, which overlap the Polish frontiers.
The mean stature for Poland is about 165-166 cm.,86 medium for
Europeans, and close to that of Lithuanians and Carelian Finns. It is
tallest (166-167 cm.) in the west, in the provinces of Poznan and Pomorz,
in the region of maximum German settlement, including the famous
Polish Corridor; this relatively tall stature may not, however, be entirely
due to German influence, since the Polish tribes who settled there were as
tall as that in the beginning. Shortest statures (164-165 cm.), are found
especially in the southeast, in Ukrainian territory; in fact, nearest the
supposed Slavic home-land, and in Lodz in central Poland.
The mean weight for Polish recruits is about 140 Ibs., moderately
heavy for their age and stature. The heaviest live in the eastern part of the
country, in White Russian and Ukrainian regions. The bodily proportions
of the inhabitants of Poland are similar to those of Lithuanians; the relative
span of 105 or more, and the relative sitting height of 53, indicate long
arms and long bodies in relationship to leg length. Both shoulders and
86 It should be stated at the start that Czekanowski's 0 or pre-Slavic type is to be iden-
tified with our Neo-Danubian. Czekanowski correctly considers this to be the basic ra-
cial element in Poland, and to have entered the eastern European plains in Neolithic
times. Czekanowski, J., Polish Encyclopedia, vol. 2, pp. 42-59, Geneva, 1921.
w Mydlarski, J., Kosmos, vol. 50, #2-3, 1925.
Schwidetsky, I., ZFRK, vol. 1, 1935, pp. 76-83, 136-204, 289-314. Schwidetsky's
work contains an excellent survey of the subject of Polish anthropology, especially val-
uable for those who cannot read Polish.
Talko-Hryncewicz, J., AFA, vol. 28, 1903, pp. 399-402.
Zakrzewski, A., ZWAK, vol. 15, Part 2, pp. 1-39.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 565*
hips are, as a rule, broad. The western Poles show less of these lateral
features than do the others,87 Similarly, the northwestern Poles are the
flattest chested, the Ukrainians the least so.88
Social differences in these characters are greater than regional differ-
ences, however; among the upper classes the stature rises to over 170 cm.,
and the relative span falls to the Nordic level of 102-103. Selection, which
is responsible for this differentiation, has also played a great part in the
migration of Poles to America; Polish immigrants in the United States
have a mean stature of 170 cm., and a relative span of 103.89 Since social
and economic stimuli can so readily segregate different size and bodily
form elements in the Polish population, it is not surprising that submerged
racial types have reappeared during the course of centuries.
The cephalic index goes down to means of 80 and 81 in various sections
of North and West Poland, and up to 85 in Galicia and Ruthenia. The
common level for the nation is between 82 and 83. A rise of about 5
index points has taken place since the Slavic settlement, as we have also
observed in Bohemia; but the brachycephalizing agents in the two countries
are not entirely the same.90
The mean head lengths of Poles are about 186 mm., and do not attain
or surpass 190 mm, regionally except in selected upper class series; 91 the
inhabitants of the northern and western districts of Poland are absolutely
longer headed than those of the south and east. The breadth means range
from 154 to 157 mm., with a national mean of about 155.5 mm.; the
87 Baranowska-Malewska, Z., MAAE, vol. 14, 1914, pp. 86-109.
Maciesza, A., ANAW, vol. 3, 1923, #1.
Mydlarski, Kosmos, 1925.
Olechnowicz, W., ZWAK, vol. 17, 1893, pp. 1-40; vol. 18, 1895, pp. 29-46; MAAE,
vol. 2, 1897, pp. 1-31.
Rosinski, B., Kosmos, vol. 48, 1923, pp. 302-560.
Rutkowski, L., MAAE, vol. 8, 1904, pp. (3)-(68), vol. 13, 1914, pp. 64-95.
Talko-Hryncewicz, J., TVMA, vol. 2, 1897, pp. 259-298. Also R€sum6 in AFA,
vol. 26, 1899, pp. 203-205.
Wrzosek, A., and Wrzoskowa, M., MAAE, vol. 14, 1914, pp. 29-85.
Zejmo-Zejmis, S., PAn, vol. 4, 1929-30, pp. 105-108.
88 Mydlarski, Kosmos, 1925.
89 Davenport, G., and Love, A , Army Anthropometry,
HrdlKka, A., The Old Americans.
Rosinski, B,, PAn, vol. 8, 1934, pp. 42-44.
90 Frankowska, M. z R., Czaszki z Lwowskiej Katedry Lacinskiej z XVII i XVIII w.;
Kosmos, vol. 50, 1925, pp. 649-736.
Haika, S., PAn, vol. 9, 1935, pp. 47-54, 139.
Maciesza, A., ACIA, 33me sess., Amsterdam, 1927, pp. 227-231.
Olechnowicz, W., MAAE, vol. 3, 1898, pp. 3-21.
Talko-Hryncewicz, J., MAAE, vol. 7, 1904, pp. 3-43; vol. 9, 1907, pp. 87-138.
Wrzosek, A., PAn, vol. 8, 1934, pp. 56-60.
« Rutkowski, L., MAAE, 1904, 1914.
Olechnowicz, MAAE, 1895.
566 . THE RACES OF EUROPE
broadest are in the south, especially in Galicia. The head size of the Poles,
as of the Ukrainians and White Russians, is too small to be derived in any
considerable measure from an unreduced Briinn or Borreby source; it is
also too small for living Nordic populations, and is about equal to that of
the Danubian agriculturalists, and of the Alpines and Binaries. It is at
the same time comparable to that of non-Baltic Finns, and of most
Lithuanians.
The facial breadths, minimum frontal, bizygomatic, and bigonial, are
approximately 108 mm., 143 mm., and 110 mm.; too wide for Nordics or
for pure Danubian survivors, and necessitating Alpine, Dinaric, or Lado-
gan influences, or all three. The menton-nasion face height, with means
as low as 118—120 mm. in central and eastern Poland, rises to the full
Dinaric height of 127 mm. in Galicia and Ruthenia. Except for these
mountainous southern regions, the facial index is uniformly eury- to
mesoprosopic. The noses are leptorrhine in most of Poland but approach
mesorrhiny in the south and east; there is a progression from means of
about 63 in the Polish Corridor and Poznan to 68-70 on the opposite side
of the country.
There is abundant evidence to show that all but the southern section of
Poland, along the Carpathian foothills, falls within the blondest pigment
area of Europe.92 The skin is almost uniformly light, except in the south;
the commonest hair colors are medium to dark brown, and a dark ash-
blond. The incidence of truly fair hair is as great here as in Scandinavia,
while the eyes are predominantly light-mixed, with gray shades common.
Brown eyes seldom exceed 10 per cent except in the very southern moun-
tain sections. With these same exceptions, Poland is too blond a country
for Alpines or Dinarics to be present in any numbers. The pigmentation of
the population, by and large, is Nordic in shades and in intensity; the
virtual absence of rufosity argues against the presence of many Palaeolithic
survivors of the types found in western Europe.
Although complete sets of morphological observations on Poles are not
common, there is an abundance of data on the form of the nose; the profile
is most commonly straight, with a large concave minority, and few in the
convex category. The nasal root is usually medium in breadth, the wings
medium or slightly flaring; the tip is either horizontal or inclined upward,
and, in a large minority of cases, snubbed in a manner highly suggestive
of Lapps and eastern Finns. Beard and body hair growth are often on the
92 See Map 8, Chapter VIII, pp. 270-271.
Sources are those already listed and :
Bochenek, A., MAAE, vol. 7, 1904, pp. (101)-(113); vol. 8, 1906, pp. (69)-(76).
Bryk, J., Kosmos, vol. 55, 1930, Zesz. I-II.
Dershinsky, J. E., AFA, vol. 32, 1906, pp. 234-237.
Talko-Hryncewicz, J., MAAE, vol. 13, 1914, pp. 3-63.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 567
light side of the European norm, which fact again precludes a strong
Alpine increment.
The facial features which typify the Polish peasantry are quite different,
as a rule, from those found among the nobility and the upper classes in
general. The noblemen have less blond and less really dark hair; fewer
dark eyes, and fewer instances of brunet skin color, than the peasants;
their noses, however, present their greatest distinction; these are not only
longer and narrower, but also frequently convex in profile, with concave
forms reduced to a minimum. Old Corded and Nordic tendencies segre-
gate themselves, at least in stature, bodily build, pigmentation, and facial
features, in this superordinate class, as do Danubian and Ladogan tenden-
cies among the peasantry.
Contemporary Polish anthropologists have studied the population of
their country by dividing it into types, and plotting the proportions of
these types by regions.93 These types include what would in our present
terminology be Nordic, Neo-Danubian, Lappish, Ladogan, Alpine, and
Dinaric, as well as Armenoid, and both tall and short Mediterraneans. The
last three, however, are admittedly much in the minority, if they are present
at all. The Nordic element is strongest in the Polish Corridor, where East
Baltic factors, unusual in Poland in our definition of the term,94 are also
found.96 The Nordic element is also strongest on the German border, and
elsewhere it is concentrated along main water courses, the highroads of mi-
gration in pre-Slavic Gothic times, as well as later. Its identity with a social
and economic upper level, however, is probably stronger than its geograph-
ical differentiation. The Neo-Danubian element, which has probably
gained in stature through its Nordic interlude, is as blond as the Nordic, on
the whole, and this fact leads one to the conclusion that the pre-Corded
peasants of eastern Europe, as of the Danube Valley, were already partly
blond. The combination of ash-blond hair with gray-mixed eyes seems
to be a Neo-Danubian specialty.
Members of the early forest types with their incipiently mongoloid facial
features have seeped in everywhere north of the Carpathians, but more
in the east than in the west. They too were probably partly blond from
the beginning, but not as blond as the Danubians with whom they have
become thoroughly blended. Dinarics, commonest in the Carpathians,
are found in solution throughout Poland, and the same is true of the
Alpines. The rare brunet Mediterraneans noted by the Polish authors
»3 Bryk, J., Kosmos, vol. 55, 1930, Zesz. I-IL
Czekanowski, J., Polish Encyclopedia, 1921.
Mydlarski, J., ATNL, vol. 3, 1924, 78 pp. R6sume by Sailer, K., in AAnz, vol. 2,
1925, pp. 26-27.
M See Chapter IX, section 12, p. 292.
*6 Modrezewski, L. T., PAn, vol. 8, 1934, pp. 25-28.
568 THE RACES OF EUROPE
are probably related to the commoner brunet long heads of southern Rus-
sia, of Bulgaria, and of the Caucasus, with whom we shall deal later.
The territory occupied by the White Russians is divided between north-
western Poland and the U.S.S.R., with more than half lying on the Russian
side. Here it includes not only the White Russian S. S. Republic, but
also adjoining districts in the Ukraine, in Smolensk, and to the north.
The White Russians have as their neighbors Great Russians, Ukrainians,
Letts, Lithuanians, and Poles; although they are Slavic in speech and in
tradition, they are physically almost identical with the Lithuanians.96
They are slightly smaller headed than the Lithuanians, slightly wider in
the distance between the eyes, and slightly less leptorrhine; their noses are
a little more often concave in profile, up-tilted, and snubbed; their eye
openings are more frequently narrow, their lips a little thicker, and their
body and beard hair considerably less abundant. Their skins are a little
darker, their hair and eyes less frequently blond. In hair color, the Fischer
numbers 4, 5, 8, and 26 are the commonest, indicating a prevalence of
dark to medium brown and dark ash-blond hair. In eye color, the White
Russians have less than 20 per cent pure light, and no more than 10 per
cent pure brown. The majority are light-mixed, as with most Slavs and
Baits.
The identity or near identity of the White Russians with the Lithuanians
makes it very possible that the former were at one time Baits who suc-
cumbed to Slavic influences, just as the East Prussians were Germanicized
Baits. But the fact is that all of these people, Baits who have been sub-
jected to a minimum of local influences on the Baltic shore, and Slavs
who have not been Germanicized, Dinaricized, or influenced by Finns,
are so much alike that it is dangerous to postulate specific relationships.
The White Russians, with a mean stature of 166 cm., a cephalic index of
82, a nasal index of 69, and a moderate to small head size, are simply
the descendants of the Neolithic peasants, an original Mediterranean-
Ladogan blend, which has reemerged through a Corded and Nordic
upper crust, so that a Neo-Danubian residue is left. Among individual
White Russians Nordics can be found, and semi-mongoloid-looking
Ladogans, but the majority follow the Neo-Danubian pattern most closely.
The territory occupied by the Ukrainians is much larger than that of
96 Hesch, M., Letten, Litauer, Weissrussen.
Other sources are :
Eichholz, E. R., Doctor's dissertation in publications of the Voenno-meditsinskafil
akademiid, St. Petersburg, 1895-96. R6sum£ in AFA, vol. 26, 1899, pp. 166-170.
Rodjestvensky, A. N., RAJ, vol. 9, 1902, pp. 49-57.
Sobolski, K., Kosmos, vol. 50, 1925, pp. 1166-1225.
Talko-Hryncewicz, J., ZWAK, vol. 17, pp. 51-172; TPNW, 1926. Resum6 in
AnthPr, vol. 6, 1928, pp. 90-92.
Zdroevski, A., RAJ, vol. 6, 1905, pp. 127-151.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 569
the White Russians; it includes, beside the whole southwestern quadrant
of Poland and the eastern end of Czechoslovakia (the Ruthenians and
Goral mountaineers are linguistically Ukrainians), the large Ukrainian
Republic of the U.S.S.R., which extends over much of southern Russia
to the northeastern end of the Sea of Azov, and large areas outside the
Republic in southeastern Russia and the foothills of the Caucasus. Next
to the Great Russians, the Ukrainians are the most numerous and most
important people in the Soviet Union.
The racial history of the Slavic peoples may largely be interpreted in
terms of the previous inhabitants of the countries in which they have
expanded. The White Russians are linked with the Baits, and the Great
Russians with Scandinavians and Finns, especially the latter; the Ukrain-
ians, in their eastward expansion over the plains of southern Russia, must
have absorbed the remnants of the Iranian Scyths and Sarmatians, of the
Black Sea Goths, of the Greek colonists of the Euxine shore, as well perhaps
as of the mysterious pre-Scythic Cimmerians. It was, furthermore, the
Ukrainians who, of all the Slavs, came into the closest relationship with
the Turks and Tatars of southern Russia during the Middle Ages. In
the Crimea and points east, Ukrainian and Tatar territories are still
contiguous. Mixture between Russians and Tatars was not, however,
frequent or important in the early days of the Tatar hegemony, when the
Slavs kept for the most part to their own farming environment and the
Asiatic nomads to their pastures; it has taken place in greater measure
during the last few centuries, in consequence of the more recent Slavic
expansion eastward over Tatar territory into Siberia and Turkestan.
As is to be expected of a numerous people covering a wide stretch of
territory, the Ukrainians are regionally variable in a racial sense. The
Ukrainian-speaking mountaineers of southern Poland and eastern Czecho-
slovakia are more brachycephalic than the others; they will be dealt with
presently. The southeastern Ukrainians, in the country just north of the
Black Sea, are tall, with regional stature means as high as 170 cm.; while
those in the Volhyn, a district lying between Lwow in Poland and Kiev in
Russia, are much shorter, with a mean of 165 cm. Since these Volhynians
occupy basic Slavic territory, and since they have been subjected to care-
ful measurement and analysis,97 they will be treated in some detail here.
"P6ch, H., MAGW, vol. 55, 1925, pp. 289-333; vol. 56, 1926, pp. 10-52.
Other sources on Ukrainians include :
Beloded, F. S., AFA, vol. 34, 1907, pp. 221-223.
Chubinski, P. P., TESE, vol. 1-7, 1872-78. R6sum6 in AFA, vol. 12, 1880, p. 398.
Krasnov, A., RAJ, vol. 1, #2, 1900, pp. 12-22.
Nosov, A., ZGTK, vol. 1, #3, 1932, pp. 37-79.
Talko-Hryncewkz, J., MAAE, vol. 2, 1897, pp. 1-60; ZWAK, vol. 14, 1890, pp. 1-
61.
Tka£, M, AntrK, 1929, vol. 2, 1928, pp. 70-103.
570 THE RAGES OF EUROPE
In general, the Volhynians resemble the White Russians closely, and
differ from them in the same direction that the White Russians differ
from the Lithuanians. As one moves southeastward from the Baltic to the
Black Sea there is a progressive change from a most Nordic to a most
Danubian extreme, within a relatively small anthropometric range. The
mean stature of the Volhynians is 164.6 cm.; the relative span of 106
indicates the usual arm and body proportions. The bodily build is thick-
set to medium, and corpulence, especially with the women, is not uncom-
mon. The mean cephalic index is 82.2, the head length 184 mm., the
breadth 151 mm., and the vault height 125 mm.98 The bizygomatic,
139 mm., is not especially great; the bigonial, 108 mm., comparatively
wide. The total face height is 120 mm.; the facial index, 86.6, or meso-
prosopic; while the upper facial index is 51.1, mesene. The nasal diameters,
52.5 mm. by 35.5 mm., yield a mean index of 66.5. The moderation of
the lateral diameters of the head and face indicate that the Ladogan ele-
ment, which is so common in other eastern Slavic groups, is at a minimum
here. The Neo-Danubian base of the Volhynians is metrically more
Danubian than elsewhere.
Most of them have the expected white skin, ranging on the inner arm
from von Luschan #7-12, while roughly one-eighth are darker, with
brunet-white or light brown shades (von L. #13-16). Vascularity is as
common as among most Nordics, and the women, working outdoors,
are often red-cheeked. The hair color usually changes with age, as in all
prevailingly blond populations; between the ages of 21 and 30, medium
brown (Fischer #5, #8) and ash-blond (#26) shades are most frequent;
later these darken in many cases. There is little or no truly black hair,
and rufosity is almost absent. The beards are as a rule lighter than the
head hair, and over 50 per cent of adult males have face hair which is
light-blond (Fischer #12-20). About 15 per cent have pure light eyes
(Martin #15-16), and 6 per cent pure brown. The commonest shades are
light-mixed, however. As is usual in light-mixed eye color populations,
the eyes often lose their brown pigmentation progressively with advancing
age. On the whole, the Volhynians are a light-mixed pigment group,
with the emphasis on ash-blondism and gray-mixed eye shades. Compared
with other Ukrainians, they are blonder as well as shorter in stature.
In the morphology of the face, the Volhynians are for the most part
typical Neo-Danubians. Median eyefolds, indicative of a low orbit and
a heavy fatty deposit in the upper lid, are found among 38 per cent; the
nose is concave in 25 per cent of the group, and snubbed in 20 per cent.
A heavy deposit of fat on the malars is common, especially among the
women; in this type it seems to assume the nature of a secondary sex
98 The vault height is estimated from Nosov's data.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 57!
character. Round faces and plump cheeks are typical. There is, however,
a minority which shows Dinaric or Arrnenoid features; a convex nasal
profile, present in 1 7 per cent of the group, indicates this, as do other nasal
and facial characters. This minority Dinaric strain is connected geo-
graphically with the population of the Carpathians immediately south-
west of Volhynia.
The Ukrainians who live farther east, along the northern shore of the
Black Sea, are not only taller than the Volhynians, but also darker in hair
and eye color. They are longer faced, but no different in head form,
except that in the region of Kiev they are more brachycephalic, with mean
indices of 83 and 84. There is a strong Dinaric element in the central and
eastern Ukraine, which often in combination with the Nordic and Neo-
Danubian takes on a Noric or approximately similar form. Tall, moder-
ately blond, brachycephalic and thin-faced men, are not uncommon here.
Individual variation in southern Russia is great; it is easy to pick out,
beside the western Ukrainian forms already described and the composite
type mentioned, Nordics, Dinarics, and patently mongoloid Tatar hybrids.
This variability increases as one proceeds eastward into what is actually
Tatar territory.
Before turning to the Great Russian population, we may consider the
Slavic-speaking mountaineers of the Carpathians whose territory extends
from Galicia to Rumania. These people, whether they live in Poland,
Czechoslovakia, or the Bukovina section of Rumania, are known as Ru-
thenians, and speak dialects of Ukrainian. In southern Galicia they are
known as Gorals, or " Mountaineers"; in the southeastern corner of Poland
as Huzuls. These people are the descendants of Slavic pioneers who moved
into the mountains from the plains to the north and northeast, as early as
the eighth century; through isolation and the retention of a relatively
primitive way of living they have developed a distinctive culture. Many
of them are shepherds, others small farmers."
In the western part of their territory, the mountain people do not differ
greatly in most metrical characters from Galicians; they have a mean
stature of 164-165 cm., and cephalic indices of 83-84; they are, however,
99 Sources on the Carpathian mountaineers include :
Demianowski, A., ANAW, vol. 1, 1922, #8.
Diebold, V., Ein Beitrag zur Anth. der Kleinrussen.
Himmel, H., MAGW, vol. 18, 1888, pp. 83-84.
Kopernicki, I., ZWAK, vol. 13, 1880, pp. 1-54.
Majer, J., and Kopernicki, I., ZWAK, vol. 9, 1885, pp. 1-92.
Suk, V., Anthropological Notes on the Peoples of Carpathian Ruthenia.
Talko-Hryncewicz, J. R6sum6 in ZBFA, vol. 16, 1911, p. 205; also AFA, vol. 24,
1896-97, pp. 380-385.
Volkov, Th., BMSA, ser. 5, vol. 6, 1905, pp. 289-294.
Weisbach, A., MAGW, vol. 33, 1903, pp. 234-251.
572 THE RACES OF EUROPE
leptoprosopic with a mean facial index of 90, and face heights of 126 and
127 mm. They are also considerably darker than their equally brachy-
cephalic northern neighbors, with brown or dark brown hair, and eyes
which are predominantly mixed, often dark-mixed, in iris pattern. Fully
40 per cent or more seem to have dark eyes, and pure light eyes are excep-
tional. The skin is definitely brunet-white in over half these people.
The Huzuls differ from the others in the possession of tall stature
(170 cm.) and a higher cephalic index (85). They are also noted for their
long-limbed, spare bodily build, and the gaunt, high-nosed Dinaric
quality of their facial features. The Ruthenians as a whole belong to the
Alpine-Dinaric racial group, with the Dinaric factor predominant among
the Huzuls; the Slavicization of these mountaineers was more a linguistic
than a racial phenomenon. On the other hand, the mutual influences
between the early Dinaric inhabitants of the Carpathians and the Slavs
have tended in the opposite direction; the strong Dinaric element in the
lowland Ukrainian population may be due to a northward infiltration
from the mountains.
The Great Russians, the most numerous of the Slavic ethnic groups, are
also the easternmost Slavs, and the most recent to spread into their present
homes. It was they who pushed northward up the streams of central and
eastern Russia, thrusting aside and absorbing the Finnish tribes, until they
reached the White Sea; it was they who, with the Ukrainians, served as a
bulwark against the invasions of Mongols and Tatars, and who later
pushed eastward over Mongol and Tatar territory into Asia. The history
of central Asia has been a curious one in the relationship of white and
mongoloid peoples; the Turkestans, once wholly white, became partially
Mongolized by Turkish and Mongol advances from the days of the Huns
through to Kublai Khan. Southern Siberia, however, once sparsely
inhabited by mongoloids, received the eastward thrust, first of the Ugrian
Ostiaks and Voguls, then of the Great Russians of the sixteenth century,
who pushed steadily onward along arable land until they reached the
Pacific. Thus in central Asia the current has flowed westward in the
southern level, and eastward in the northern. Farther north still, the
westward advance of the Samoyeds has added another contrary stream.
Whereas the primary racial influence which acted upon the White
Russians was derived from the Baits, and upon the Ukrainians from the
Iranians, those which have affected the Great Russians the most have
been Finnic in the north, and Iranian in the south. One must not suppose,
however, that the northern Great Russians are nothing but Slavicized
Volga Finns; there is considerable evidence to indicate that the Slavic
colonists advanced in great numbers and reproduced with immoderate
fecundity; the Great Russians have been as capable of rapid genetic expan-
THE CENTRAL ZONE 573
sion as df absorption. Their deviation from an ancestral Slavic type is
due as much to selection within their own ranks as to the accretion of
Finns.
The mean stature of the Great Russians today is about 166 cm.,100
approximately the same as that of Poles, White Russians, and some
Ukrainians. It varies regionally from 169 cm. in the Kuban and Don
Cossack country, to about 165 cm. in the Finnish territory between the
Volga and the Urals.101 That selective forces are strongly at play in the
determination of the stature level is evidenced by the fact that the Russians
who have emigrated to Siberia have attained the mean of 168 cm., while
those measured at Ellis Island on their way into America as immigrants
reached 170 cm.102
Between the twelfth century and 1 880 or thereabouts, the stature of the
Great Russians, as exemplified by the inhabitants of the Moscow govern-
ment, had not perceptibly changed, remaining at the level of 165.5 cm.103
The same cannot, however, be said for the cranial index. A mean of 73,5
typified crania from eleventh and twelfth century Slavic kurgans; Kremlin
skulls from the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries had reached 79.6; from
then on there has been a steady rise to a mean of 81 for the recent cranial
material. This change in head form parallels but does not equal that which
has already been observed among Slavs in Bohemia. The brachycepha-
lizing agent was not, however, the same; in Moscow it entered only in the
fifteenth century, when fully brachycephalic crania appeared among
examples of the older type; the former were much lower and broader faced,
and broader nosed. This heterogeneity gradually decreased with the
increase of the mean cranial index. There can be no question that the
brachycephalizing agent was in its general character not Alpine, in the
western European sense, but a separately evolved and incipiently or
partially mongoloid Upper Palaeolithic derivative, whether transmitted
through a Finnish or a Tatar medium, or both.
The modern Great Russians vary in head form from a mean cephalic
index of 78 to 79 in parts of the old Scythian country of South-central
Russia to 83 and 84 farther north and east. The mesocephalic and low
i°° Anuchin, D. N., ZIGO, vol. 7, vyp. 1, 1889.
Bunak, V., AZM, #2, 1932, pp. 1-48.
Snigirev, V. S., VMZ, vols. 146-148, 1883.
*°l Bunak, V., ZfMuA, vol. 30, 1932, pp. 441-503. To readers unacquainted with
Russian, Bunak's work is perhaps the most useful single source on the physicial anthro-
pology of modern Russia.
102 Baxter, J. H., Statistics, Medical and Anthropological, U, S. Army.
Hrdliclta, A., The Old Americans.
Zeland, N. L., Anth, vol. 13, 1902, pp. 222-232.
*03Derviz, D. V., RAJ, vol. 12, 1923, pp. 24-38, French resum6, p. 100.
Stefko, V. H., and Shugaiev, U. S., AFA, vol. 50, 1930, pp. 44-55.
574 THE RACES OF EUROPE
brachycephalic index levels represent the usual Danubian reemergence
with the absorption of the old forest types; in the west from an entirely
Slavic and in the east from a partially Finnish source. Head dimensions
among these Great Russians are medium to small, and comparable to
those found among the Volhynians, White Russians, and Finns. The faces
of these people are likewise similar to those of the other Slavs mentioned ;
although they often appear to be wide, the male bizygomatic means rarely
exceed 140 mm. The nasal indices usually approach or attain mesor-
rhiny.104 There is a great variability in nasal profile, with at least 25 per
cent of concavity in most of the country. In pigmentation the Great
Russians, like all Slavs previously studied, are predominantly light-mixed,
with a tendency to brown and ash-blond hair, and light-mixed eyes. The
lightest pigmentation is found in the western part of the Great Russian
territory, and blondism decreases gradually to the south and east. The
peasants who have migrated to Siberia, however, have taken with them a
greater blondism than is typical of most of Russia; over 70 per cent of hair
colors lighter than dark brown, and under 30 per cent of brown eyes,
characterize the subjects measured in various Siberian districts.105
The Great Russians of a special area lying partly in the Tambov, Penza,
and Saratov Governments, who form a mesocephalic nucleus in the country
half way between Moscow and the mouth of the Volga, have been sub-
jected to a detailed study,106 which shows them to be essentially Nordic.
A mean stature of 169 cm., a cephalic index just under 79, and a head
length of 192 mm., indicate an initial resemblance to Nordics or brunet
Mediterraneans. The auricular height mean of about 1 30 mm. is greater
than that of Scandinavian Nordics, however, as are the bizygomatic of
140 mm. and the bigonial of 109 mm., while the minimum frontal of 105
mm. is more nearly Nordic than the other lateral dimensions. The face
height, 125 mm., yields a facial index on the borderline of mesoprosopy
and leptoprosopy; the nasal index, about 65, is derived from a mean nose
length of 55 mm. and a breadth of nearly 36 mm.
Half of these Great Russians have wavy hair, the other half straight;
the head hair is dark brown (Fischer #4-5) in 30 per cent of the series
studied, and almost never black; it is medium brown (Fischer #6-10) in
about 50 per cent, and light brown in most of the rest. Rufosity is rare,
104 Ivanovsky, A. L., AFA, vol. 48, 1925, pp. 1-12.
Nicolaeff, L., Anth, vol. 41, 1931, pp. 75-93.
Seeland, N., CRCA, 1892, pp. 91-154.
Worobjew, B. W., AFA, vol. 32, 1906, pp. 223, 238.
Zograf, N. J., CRCA, 1892, pp. 1-12; AFA, vol. 26, 1900, pp. 860-868; IILE, vol. 76,
1892.
106 Zeland, N. L., RAJ, vol. 3, 1900, pp. 75-82; Anth, vol. 13, 1902, pp. 222-232.
106Debet2, G., AZM, 1933, pp. 34-57.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 575
but at the same time most of the blondism falls on the golden side. About
8 per cent have brown eyes, nearly 30 per cent light, and the rest mixed.
Thus these tall, rnesocephalic Great Russians are brown to dark brown-
haired, and essentially mixed to light eyed. Their facial features conform
in most cases to a Nordic standard; the nasal profile is straight or wavy
in over 65 per cent of the group, convex in 25 per cent, and concave in
the 10 per cent that is left.
Individually as well as collectively, most of these men look Nordic in
either a complete or a partial sense; others, in the minority, with concave,
up-tilted noses and wide faces, approximate the forest type of incipiently
mongoloid trend. The facial dimensions, with their accent on the heavi-
ness of the mandible, diverge from a western European Nordic standard,
but conform to that of the eastern Nordic type found skeletally among
Scythians and in the Minussinsk kurgans; they also conform to a brunet
Mediterranean type which we shall see in other regions bordering the
Black Sea. The high vault, and the prevalence of brown hair in combina-
tion with light eyes, suggests a major survival of the Corded element so
lacking elsewhere in most of eastern Europe; since the Slavs elsewhere have
to a large extent lost this element, it seems likely that the people in question
are the descendants of earlier Iranian inhabitants as much as of Slavic
immigrants.
North of the grasslands, in the old forested country, the Great Russians
resume their expected racial character, and their resemblance to White
Russians, western Ukrainians, and Poles. The difference between eastern
Great Russians, living in Finnic territory, and the indigenous Finns, may
be seen by a comparison between Cheremisses and Mordvins, on the one
hand, and their Russian neighbors.107 The Russians are taller than
Cheremisses but shorter than Mordvins; hence no distinction may be
made on the basis of stature. The relative sitting height is the same, as are
the head length, head breadth, head height, and the total face height.
The bizygomatic of the Russians, however, is 138 mm., as compared to
140 mm. for Cheremisses and 141 mm. for Mordvins; the nasal index of
the Russians is 64, that of the Mordvins 65, of the Cheremisses 71. Thus
the only differences that can be seen anthropometrically are those which
concern the breadths of the face and nose, and these only to a slight degree.
There is a real difference, however, which appears in observational
characters; only 34 per cent of Russians have weak beard growth, as
compared to 64 per cent of Mordvins and 77 per cent of Cheremisses;
22 per cent of Russians have a median eyefold, which is found among
«* Bunak, V., RAJ, vol. 13, 1924, pp. 178-207; also r£sum£ in AAnz, vol. 2, 1925,
pp. 109-110.
Sergeev, V. I., PCZA, 1931, pp. 318-319.
576 THE RACES OF EUROPE
34 per cent of Mordvins, and 46 per cent of Cheremisses; only 12 per cent
of the Russians have concave nasal profiles, as compared to 18 per cent of
Mordvins, and 39 per cent of Cheremisses. Furthermore, only 36 per
cent of Russians are brunet in total complexion type, while 50 per cent of
Mordvins, and 69 per cent of Cheremisses, are so identified. The conclu-
sion to this is that the Great Russians living in Finnish territory in eastern
Russia, although they have absorbed much Finnish blood, have not wholly
lost their Slavic character, and have acquired fewer mongoloid or in-
cipiently mongoloid soft part features than have the Finns.
The traveller in Moscow, or in any other important Russian city, is
struck by the diversity of racial types met not only on the street but also
in any other place or circumstance. The broad-faced, snub-nosed Russian
peasant, with his shoulder-length head hair and beard, has, since the
revolution, lost much of his hirsute adornment; deprived of these distinc-
tive properties, he ceases to look as strange or as distinctive as before.
His hairiness, famous in caricature, is for the most part due to custom
rather than to pilosity, since beard growth among Great Russians is no
more abundant than among most other Europeans.
Beside the snub-nosed peasant type, one sees on the streets of Moscow
Nordics who would be at home in Sweden or in England ; Binaries, Norics,
and every variety of near and distant mongoloid. There are also occasion-
ally tall, large-headed, and large-faced men who are East Baltic in our
present sense, and some rare Mediterraneans other than Jews. Although
many of these individuals of varied type come from far corners of the
Russian Empire, there is a considerable mobility, and a juxtaposition of
varied types in the same place. Russia is a new country from the stand-
point of migrations and settlement, when compared to the rest of Europe;
she resembles in her population phenomena rather the United States or
Canada. There are still many unabsorbed or only partially absorbed
peoples within her European, not to mention her Asiatic, borders.
(10) TURKS, TATARS, AND MONGOLS OF EUROPEAN RUSSIA
In estimating the influence of the Turks, Tatars, and Mongols upon
the Finns and Slavs of European Russia, it is customary to assume that
these peoples are, or at least were, fundamentally mongoloid in race. It
will therefore be useful to examine the documents concerning the living
representatives of these Asiatic peoples. We have already studied the
skeletal remains of their ancestors (Chapter VII), and therefore know that
the early nomads of the central Asiatic plain were European in type, and
that many could be classed under the term Nordic, with a strong Corded
increment.
With the destruction of the Hiung-Nu empire of Mongolia by the
THE CENTRAL ZONE 5T<
Chinese, the Huns began their westward migration, finally arriving in anc
crossing Europe. These Huns, as we have seen, were mostly mongoloid,
of the primitive Tungusic variety, but the Avars who followed them be-
longed more to the Buryat-Mongol type. With the Hunnish and Aval
chiefs were many followers of the old central Asiatic Nordic race, and
mixed retainers of a pseudo-Armenoid or Dinaric cranial form, caused,
without reasonable doubt, by a Mongol-Nordic or other Mongol-European
hybridization. This medley of peoples, known as Turks or Tatars, invaded
eastern Russia intermittently during the first 1500 years of the Christian
era, before the tide turned, and the Slavs began the last leg of their east-
ward expansion. Besides those of the Turko-Tatars there were invasions oi
full-fledged Mongols, including the Kalmucks, whose descendants still
pasture their flocks on the western side of the lower Volga, just north oi
the Caucasus. For purposes of facility in treatment, I have divided the
Altaic speakers of European Russia into four groups: (a) Turkicized Finns
and Ugrians, including the Chuvash, Bashkirs, and Meshcheryaks; (b) the
Tatars in general, including all of the Turkish-speaking, mostly Moslem
peoples of eastern Russia, from the Perm government down to the Cau-
casus; (c) the Crimean Tatars; and (d) the Kalmucks.
The Chuvash, who live in various parts of the former governments of
Kazan, Simbirsk, Samara, Saratov, Orenburg, and Perm, number nearly
half a million,108 of whom some 116,000 live in what is now their own
administrative district. m These are near neighbors of the Mordvins, and
like the Bashkirs, who are historically survivors of the old Bulgar Empire
of the Middle Ages, are probably the results of an early Turkic-Finnic cross.
The Chuvash are metrically similar to the Mordvins, but differ from
these latter in the opposite direction from that in which the Mordvins
differ from the Russians; in other words, in most metrical and morpholog-
ical characters, there is a progression from Russians to Mordvins to
Chuvashes. Their mean stature is about 164 cm., their cephalic index
80.5, their facial index 85, and their nasal index 71. They are thus shorter,
longer headed, wider faced, and wider nosed than the Mordvins, and
proportionately more so than the Russians. Only 2 per cent have black
hair, 50 per cent dark brown (Fischer #4-5), and the rest almost entirely
medium brown (Fischer #7-9). Pure brown eyes are confined to 19 per
cent, and most of these are light brown; pure light irises to 3 per cent,
although predominantly light ones total 14 per cent. Thus, while darker
than the Mordvins, they are almost wholly a mixed pigment group.
»• Jochelson, W,, Peoples of Asiatic Russia, pp. 20, 21,
109 Vishnevski, B. N., Antropologicheskoe izuchmie ckuvashi^ K Otchetu po Isstedovaniidm,
1927, pp. 229-252.
Vishnevski is the source for the anthropometric data which follow.
578 THE RACES OF EUROPE
The Chuvash are not simply Finns Tatarized in language, but show
evidence in face form, nose form, and in the scarcity of true blondism,
that the Turkish influence did bring some mongoloid traits. It is inter-
esting to note, however, that the cephalic index was not elevated as a
result. Individually the Chuvash are extremely variable, as their por-
traits (see Plate 3) will show; complete Nordics of Corded tendency,
and unmistakable mongoloids represent the end types, both of which may
have been brought by the Turks.
There are two other peoples living in the general region between the
Volga and the Urals, and partly on the other side, who fall into the same
general Turko-Finnic class; these are the Bashkirs and the Meshcheryaks.
The Bashkirs are Moslems, some of whom are settled, while others are
cattle nomads; still others hunt and trap for furs in the mountains and
forests. In the thirteenth century they are said to have been still speaking
the same language as the Hungarians,110 which must have been some form
of Ugric. At that time they were both enemies and rivals of the Bulgars
and Petchenegs. The Meshcheryaks, who formerly inhabited the Oka
basin, were probably Finns; they split into two branches one of which
moved westward and became Russified, the other eastward and Turkicized.
Traces of the western branch may be found among the Russian-speaking
population of the Penza and Tambov regions; the eastern branch has
taken over the speech, religion, and habits of the Bashkirs, with whom they
live and are closely identified. For present purposes only the eastern
branch will be studied; the western branch is a part of the Great Russian
ethnos.
The two peoples, Bashkirs and Meshcheryaks, are physically much alike,
and not greatly different from the Chuvash.111 The Bashkirs are the taller,
with a mean stature of 166 cm.; that of the Meshcheryaks is 164-165 cm.
Both are as a rule long-bodied, with a relative sitting height of over 53,
well-muscled and robust, with wide shoulders. The Bashkirs are brachy-
cephalic, with a mean index of 83.5, while the Meshcheryaks run between
one and two points lower. The Bashkirs have heads of moderate vault
dimensions, and are comparable in this sense to the Volga Finns, rather
than to the larger-headed central Asiatic Turks and Mongols. Their
faces, however, are larger than those of most eastern Finns; breadths of
110 On the authority of those two intrepid and observant churchmen, John Piano de
Carpini and William of Rubruck.
111 Maliev, N., TKU, vol. 5, #5, 1876. R6sum6 in AFA, vol. 10, 1878, p. 434.
Nazarov, P. S., IILE, vol. 68, #9, 1890, Col. 350-367.
Nikolski, D. P., Bashkiri. R6sum6 in RAJ, vol. 1, 1900, pp. 116-118.
Sommier, S., APA, vol. 11, 1881, pp. 255-296.
Weissenberg, S., ZFE, vol. 24, 1892, pp. 181-233.
Zograf, N. J., AAM, vol. 3, 1879, pp. 7-23; r£sum6 in AFA, vol. 14, 1883, p. 294.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 579
109 mm. for the minimum frontal, 143 mm. for the bizygomatic, and 112
mm. for the bigonial, approach a Turko-Mongol standard, especially in
the excess of jaw width over that of the forehead. The total face height of
122 mm. lies closer to the Finnic and to the Mongol than to the Turkic
mean. Various groups of Bashkirs have nasal index means ranging from
67 to 73; a low mesorrhiny is apparently usual. A mean interorbital dis-
tance of 33.5 mm. is greater than among most Europeans. In all of these
metrical characters of the head and face, the Meshcheryaks differ slightly
from the Bashkirs, in each case in a Finnic direction. They have thus been
less thoroughly Turkicized racially than the Bashkirs.
Over 50 per cent of the Bashkirs have black hair, and over 75 per cent
dark eyes. Of the latter, a large minority are black. What blondism the
Bashkirs possess seems to be of the gray-eyed ash-blond variety. Fifteen
per cent have convex nasal profiles, which in this particular case implies
Turkish influence; about 20 per cent have the snubbed tip typical of Finns
but not of Mongols. The Meshcheryaks seem to be blonder than the
Bashkirs, and consistently more Finnish in every respect. A distinction is
usually made between the sedentary and forest Bashkirs, who are taller,
longer faced, and more frequently aquiline-nosed, and the pastoral
Bashkir, who are shorter in stature, broader faced, and more mongoloid-
looking. That there may be some such regional differentiations seems
likely.
Before proceeding further with the examination of Turko-Tatar peoples
in eastern and southern Russia, it may be well to study their central
Asiatic prototypes, as exemplified by the Kirghiz-Kazak whose home is
in the Altai Mountains112 but who also graze their flocks on the Aralo-
Caspian plain. The Kirghiz are a pastoral nomadic nation par excellence,
of Turkish antecedents but with a strong Mongol infusion; in this respect
they may be considered to resemble the Turkish-speaking invaders of
eastern Europe in earlier times. They are variable in stature but usually
short, with group means ranging from 160 cm. to 165 cm.; they are
exceptionally long-bodied and short-legged, with a relative sitting height
of 54.7, higher than that of any European people whom we have studied.
They are completely brachycephalic, with a mean cephalic index of
85 for most groups, and their heads are of considerable size. A mean
length of 188 mm., a breadth of 161 rnm., and an auricular height of
128 mm. indicates a larger vault than those of eastern Finns or Tatarized
Finns, as large as or larger than the heads of western European Alpines,
112 Baronov, S. F., Bukelkhan, A. N., and Rudenko, S. I., Kazaki, Antropologicheskie
ocherki.
larcho, A. I., SAM, #1-2, 1930, pp. 76-99.
Oshanin, L. V., ITL, vol. 10, 1927, pp. 233-270.
Roguinski, J., AZM, 1934-35, pp. 105-126.
580 THE RACES OF EUROPE
but smaller than the heads found in northwestern Europe among Borreby
descendants. The faces are absolutely large, with a mean height of 125
mm., which is comparable to that found on Nordic groups, and a bizy-
gomatic breadth mean ranging tribally from 148 to 153 mm. The last
named breadth is typical of pure Central Asiatic Mongols, who are,
however, shorter than the Kirghiz in absolute face height (120 mm.).
Thus the Kirghiz face seems to be a hybrid one in its differential inherit-
ance of dimensions, having received its breadth from a mongoloid an-
cestry, its height from a white. However, since a total face height mean
of 133 mm. is found among living Tungus, the Turkish face height may
also be partly derived from an alternate Mongoloid source; this must be
mentioned as a possibility, but, in view of the absence of other Tungusic
features, it is unlikely. The Kirghiz are long-nosed, with a mean nasal
height of over 55 mm., and a nasal index of 67, In this respect they differ
from the shorter-nosed, messorrhine Mongols, and from some of the
incipiently mongoloid Volga Finns.
Few of the Kirghiz have pinkish- white, northern European skins; the
ratio of these is under 5 per cent. Brunet-white and light brown skins
account for some 33 per cent of the whole, while the rest, over 60 per
cent, have a yellowish tinge of varying intensity, associated with vary-
ing degrees of pigmentation. No Kirghiz are really darker than light
brown, however; von Luschan #15 seems to be the darkest shade on their
normal range.
The hair color is black in 50 per cent of the Kirghiz; only 4 per cent
are lighter than dark brown, and complete hair blondism is extremely
rare. About 55 per cent have pure dark eyes, mostly dark brown with
nearly 10 per cent of black; about 7 per cent or fewer are light-mixed or
light, while the rest are dark-mixed. In series studied without scales, the
pure darks are listed as high as 93 per cent; hence the majority of the
mixed group must be dark-mixed indeed. The Kirghiz are predominantly
brunet; they show no more blondism than many brunet Mediterranean
peoples in Africa and Asia, but here *the blondism definitely implies a
Nordic or other blond racial increment, for there is no minority incidence
of blondism among fully evolved, unmixed mongoloids. The presence
of a submerged blond strain among the Kirghiz is clearly shown by the
presence of 14 per cent of beards lighter than dark brown, a ratio 10
per cent higher than that for head hair color. The white strains that went
into the Kirghiz blend were probably predominantly blond.
The prevailingly mongoloid character of the Kirghiz in their super-
ficial or soft part anatomy is clearly seen by a study of hair abundance and
hair distribution. Hair is absent from the chests and abdomens of 93 per
cent of adult males; in the rest it is scanty. Arm and leg hair is absent
THE CENTRAL ZONE 581
from 14 per cent, present in a minor degree on the shins only with 78
per cent; the remaining 8 per cent have a certain amount of hair on arms
and thighs. The beard, not including the mustaches, is actually absent
among 10 per cent of adult males, scanty with 56 per cent, and abundant
with only 9 per cent. It is situated on the chin only with 26 per cent, on the
lower jaw as well, under the jaw line, with 40 per cent more, and on the
lower part of the cheek also with the remaining 34 per cent. In no instance
studied did it cover the cheek profusely. The mustache is absent among
3 per cent, scanty among 55 per cent. The head hair is frequently coarse,
almost always straight; the beard hair is wavy in 23 per cent of instances.
The sparsity of body and beard hair is not as marked among most Kirghiz
as among complete mongoloids, but it falls nearer a mongoloid than a
white extreme.
In the form of the external eye, however, the Kirghiz are not notably
mongoloid; only 15 per cent have the epicanthic fold, as compared to
83 per cent of Buryat-Mongols. Eye obliquity is found in 38 per cent,
however, and the eye slit is characteristically narrow. Straight or vertical
foreheads, common among Buryats and Mongols, are uncommon among
Kirghiz ; the slope is as great as that among Nordics and other Europeans.
Browridges, usually but slightly developed among Mongols, are often
medium to heavy among Kirghiz. In malar form, however, the Kirghiz
tend in a mongoloid direction, since over 80 per cent protrude promi-
nently forward. Lips are usually thin or medium.
The greatest morphological difference between Kirghiz and Mongols
lies in the architecture of the nose; while the root is only of moderate
height, and frequently broad, the bridge is often quite high, and the nasal
profile is convex in 50 per cent of cases; the rest are almost entirely straight.
Thus the lightly concave mongoloid profile is notably rare, except among
women and children. The nasal tip is often thick, and is inclined down-
ward in some 30 per cent of cases; the wings are moderate to flaring, the
nostrils often highly excavated, and 'set usually at an oblique angle to the
axis of the septum.
This pseudo-Armenoid or Armenoid-looking nose, typical of the Kir-
ghiz if by no means found among all of them, differs from the true Dinaric
or Armenoid organ in the fact that its root is usually low, while its bridge
height is frequently great only by comparison. It is obviously a hybrid
nose, just as the dimensions of the Kirghiz face suggest a hybrid origin.
The pseudo-Armenoid skulls of the Medieval Avar and Turkish cemeteries
of eastern Europe and Hungary are thus explained as a consequence of
the mixture of the Buryat-Mongol mongoloid variety with white men
presumably to a large extent Nordic, on the central Asiatic grasslands.
This Kirghiz Turkish hybrid form is$ furthermore, a phenomenon parallel
582 THE RACES OF EUROPE
to the formation of Norics in central Europe, and of Binaries and Arme-
noids themselves elsewhere.
Let us return to the Tatars of eastern and southern Russia, other than
the Tatar-Finnish and Tatar-Ugric mixtures whom we have already
studied. These include numerous scattered peoples from the Bashkir
country down to the foothills of the Caucasus, and living, in its southern
reaches, on the western side of the Volga. With the exception of the
Kassimov Tatars in the government of Rjasan, who are said to be Tatar-
ized Finns, like the Chuvash and Bashkirs,113 and who resemble the latter
closely, most of these Tatar groups conform fairly well to the Tatar stand-
ard as exemplified by the Kirghiz. As a whole, however, they are less
frequently yellow-skinned; their eyes are pure brown in only 53 per cent
of a composite group studied; the hair is black or dark brown in only
half the total, while medium brown shades account for most of the rest.
Deviations from a Kirghiz standard result from the absorption not of
Finns, but of the remnants of Iranian tribes, and of other early occupants
of the southern steppe country. This will be made clear when we come to
study the Turkomans and other Turkish-speaking nomads of former
Iranian territory in what is now Russian central Asia.
The peninsula of Crimea, which lies immediately south of Ukrainian
territory, represents the most distant outpost of the Tatars in a south-
western direction, except for their colonies in Rumania and Bulgaria.
The history of the Crimea is one of many radical changes of ownership;
the Cimmerians were driven to the mountains by the Scythians in the
seventh century B.C.; subsequently Greeks colonized the peninsula in
large numbers, and it remained largely Greek until overrun by Goths in
250 A.D. We have already seen (Chapter VI, p. 206) that these Goths
faithfully preserved their Germanic skeletal character as long as they kept
their ethnic identity. Huns and Khazars followed the Goths, and later
Byzantines, Kipchak Turks, Mongols, and Italian merchants, all had their
share in the possession and exploitation of the Crimea. The Tatars began
their settlement in the thirteenth century, and became the principal
inhabitants, flourishing especially under Ottoman Turkish domination.
When the Crimea became Russian territory in 1783, many of the Tatars
migrated to Turkey.
There are still Greeks in the Crimea, as well as some Bulgarians, Ger-
mans, Albanians, Karaite Jews, and, of course, Russians. The Tatars,
however, still make up the bulk of the population. These are divided into
118 Benzengre, B., RDAP, ser. 2, vol. 2, 1881, pp. 211-221.
Nefedov, J. W., AAM, vol. 1, 1879, pp. 200-201, 320-322. R6sum6 in AFA, vol. 14,
1883, p. 291.
Talko-Hryncewicz, J , AFA, vol. 34, 1907, p. 224.
Wilier, O., PAtt, vol. 1, 1926, pp. 84-91.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 583
the Coastal Tatars, who have been very much mixed with other peoples,
the Mountain Tatars, and the Tatars of the steppe regions, away from the
southeastern coastal highlands.
In some respects there is a considerable difference between these groups;
the Steppe Tatars are the shortest, with a stature mean of about 164 cm.,
and are brachycephalic (C. I. = 85); they resemble closely their relatives
the Nogai Tatars, many of whom live near the Kalmucks in the territory
north of the Caucasus.114 (See Map 16.) On the whole, they seem to be
more frequently mongoloid than the rest of the Crimean Tatars. The
coastal and mountain groups are both taller, with regional means rising
as high as 170 cm., but with the general level situated at 167-168 cm.
All, however, are brachycephalic, with cephalic index means of 84 and
85; the facial dimensions are moderate, and white rather than mongoloid.
They are predominantly brunet, with over 50 per cent of dark eyes, and
65 per cent or more of black and dark brown hair color. This brunet
pigmentation, however, may have been derived from a number of sources,
as may the brachycephaly of this people. They are a very mixed group,
and show little morphological evidence of their partially mongoloid
ancestry.
The Kalmucks, who pasture their cattle on the Astrakhan steppe to the
west of the mouth of the Volga, are a relatively pure Mongol people,
transplanted from central Asia, who have retained their original speech
and manner of living in their new home. They have preserved the moder-
ately short stature, 164 cm., of the native Mongolians, but are less brachy-
cephalic, since their cephalic index mean is 83, while that of the Mongols
at home is about 85. m In their facial dimensions, including a mean
bizygornatic diameter of over 150 mm., they are fully Mongolian, as they
are likewise in skin color, in hair form and texture, and in hair pigmenta-
tion. Their noses, whether concave, straight, or convex in profile, are
usually low-bridged; their malars prominent, their eyes frequently bor-
dered by epicanthic folds. Although some mixture with Russians and
Tatars must inevitably have taken place, this cannot have been extensive,
and has not sufficed to deprive them of their essentially Mongol racial
character.
'"Kharusin, A. N., IILE, vol. 68, 1890, fasc. 7, col. 249-288; fasc. 8, pp. 303-322.
R£sum6 in Anth, vol. 3, 1892, pp. 481-482; also AFA, vol. 26, 1900, p. 831,
Nosov, A., Antrk, 1929, vol. 2, 1928, pp. 9-69.
Poschen, P., RAJ, vol. 8, 1912, pp. 36-42. Rev. in ZBFA, vol. 17, 1912, pp. 274-
275.
Talko-Hryncewicz, J., MAAE, vol. 7, 1904, pp. 3-100.
Tebebinska'ia-Schenger, N., RAJ, vol. 17, 1928, pp. 12-53. R£sum6 in Anth, vol. 39,
1929, p. 408.
"5 Korolev, S. R., AFA, vol. 32, 1906, pp. 90-92.
Vorobiev, V. V., AFA, vol. 32, 1906, pp. 87-90.
584 THE RACES OF EUROPE
The foregoing survey of Turkic and Mongolic-speaking peoples on
European soil, with an excursion into Asia for purposes of comparison,
has served to define the racial elements which these people have brought
with them into the European racial corpus. Except for the first Hunnish
and Avar inroads, and the late invasions of the Mongols themselves, pure
Mongols were seldom involved; a mixed mongoloid-white type, already
partly formed in central Asia, was the principal racial factor.
(11) THE MAGYARS
There are approximately eleven millions of Hungarians in Europe, of
whom some eight million live within the boundaries of their own kingdom;
three million have been placed in exile by the Treaty of Versailles. These
three million inhabit (or inhabited) the adjacent nations of Czechoslo-
vakia, Yugoslavia, and Rumania, most notably the latter, where a large
bloc of Magyars, the Szekelers, live in Transylvania, under the curve
of the Carpathians. Other groups are scattered widely between the Car-
pathians and the boundary of present Hungary.
The history of Hungary, reviewed in Chapter VII, has been one of
extraordinary complexity. Within the Christian era the Hungarian plain
has witnessed the invasion and settlement of numerous Slavs, Germans,
Huns, Avars, and Ugrian Magyars; the introduction of foreigners of all
kinds by the early Hungarian kings in their efforts to create a highly
civilized state added further confusion. Out of this medley of peoples
with their many languages and cultures, one speech, a partially Turkicized
Ugric, has survived; one dominant cultural pattern has arisen; this seems
partly Slavic, partly central Asiatic, and Romanized through the agency
of Catholicism.
The ethnic structure of Hungary is extraordinarily complex, and as
yet not wholly known. Many small sub-groups, located in various parts
of Hungary and elsewhere, claim special descent, not from Arpad and his
followers, but from the Avars, the Cumans, and other Turkish invaders.
The Szekelers, who are claimed to be the purest of the Magyars, in the
sense that they preserve the ancient types most faithfully, are descendants
of colonists sent to the Carpathians to ward off the inroads of the Cumans.
These various traditions and individual histories indicate that the forma-
tion of the Hungarian people was no simple matter.
Almost every race or sub-race in Europe, and many in Asia, have con-
tributed to the Magyar physical amalgam, and an adequate anthropo-
metric study of the Hungarians would be a task of great magnitude. So
far such a study has not been made, or at least, has not been published.
Contemporary Hungarian anthropologists have concentrated rather upon
the prodigious task of untangling the skeletal history of their country,
THE CENTRAL ZONE 585
with considerable success, as reviewed in Chapter VII. With this ample
background, the analysis of the living material which they have accu-
mulated and are accumulating will be made possible.116
The stature of living Magyars within the present kingdom of Hungary
varies but slightly from region to region; local means run from 167 to
168 cm. The same is true of most of the Hungarian districts in Rumania,
except for the Transylvanian Magyars, whose mean is 169 cm., and the
Szekelers, with 170 cm. Thus the Magyars are taller than either the
Ugrians or the Turks of eastern Russia, with a tendency for stature to
increase from west to east.
The cephalic index mean maintains a brachycephalic level of 84 to 87,
with the highest figures in the southeast, in the neighborhood of Szeged
and Arad; on the whole, excessive brachycephaly is a South Hungarian
phenomenon. The tall Szekelers of the bend of the Carpathians have the
low mean, for Magyars, of 81.5. Head sizes of Hungarians are of normal,
central European dimensions; the more brachycephalic groups have the
larger heads, with length means in the neighborhood of 185 mm., and
breadths of approximately 158 mm. They are thus equivalent to most
Binaries and Alpines in this respect. The less brachycephalic groups
farther north have lengths of approximately 181-182 mm., and breadths
of 152-153 mm.; figures of Neo-Banubian size. The Szekelers, by con-
trast, have large heads, with length and breadth means of approximately
191 mm. and 156 mm. If they have more Asiatic blood than the other
Magyars, it must be Turkish in the sense of the Turkomans and Azer-
baijanis.
Small series of Hungarians, taken as a whole, show fully European
cranial and facial dimensions. Total face heights of less than 120 mm,
are reminiscent of Ugrians as well as of modern Slavs, and are too short
for either central Asiatic Turks or Binaries. The mean bizygomatic
diameter of 140 mm. precludes, furthermore, extensive Mongol or Turkish
influence. A moderate leptorrhiny, 'with a mean nasal index of 68, is too
high for Binaries, but adequate for Neo-Banubians, Turks, or Alpines.
116 Sources on the physical anthropology of living Hungarians include :
Bartucz, L., REHF, vol. 5, Paris, 1927, pp. 209-241; ZFRK, vol. 1, 1935, pp. 225-
240; MAGW, vol. 57, 1927, pp. [126-130]; NMNM, vol. 7, 1911, pp, 278-292; AFA,
vol. 43, 1917, pp. 44-59.
Benyon, E. D., GR, vol. 17, 1927, pp. 586-604.
Biasutti, R., APA, vol. 51, 1921, pp. 154-184.
Hermann, O., MAGW, vol. 35, 1905, pp. 53-63; vol. 49, 1919, pp. 3-5.
Hrdlifcka, A., The Old Americans.
Janko, J., Magyar Typuszok, Elso Sorozat: A Balaton Mellektrol.
Korosi, M., BSAP, ser. 3, vol. 1, pp. 308-309.
Scheiber, S. H., AFA, vol. 13, 1881, pp. 233-267; CRCA, 8 me sess., Budapest, 1876,
vol. 1, pp. 601-611.
Talko-Hryncewicz, J., PAn, vol. 6, 1932, pp. 26-32, 118-119.
586 THE RACES OF EUROPE
On the whole, the metrical characters of the Magyars, as revealed
by small and perhaps poorly representative samples, indicate Neo-
Danubian and Alpine racial elements as the most prevalent, especially
the former.
The pigment characters, judging from what has been published, are on
the brunet side of medium; over 50 per cent of eyes seem to be dark or
predominantly dark, while black and dark brown hair shades reach
approximately the same figure. The majority of Magyars have straight
nasal profiles; a large minority of 25 per cent are concave, however, and a
few of these are flattish in a manner which suggests ultimate Finnic or
mongoloid derivation. Nasal convexity is not common, at least in the
small series available.
According to Bartucz's analysis, only about 15 per cent of the population
of Hungary is Alpine racially, and this element is commonest in the German
territories of the southern part of the kingdom. A Neo-Danubian racial
type117 is the most numerous single element, which accounts for about
35 per cent of the whole, and is commonest in the northeast, over against
Slovakia, and in this section it rises to 60 per cent of the population. Bi-
naries include 20 per cent of the total and are concentrated in the south
and especially the southwest, in contact with essentially Dinaric regions
in Yugoslavia.
Bartucz finds about 20 per cent of the Magyars to show evidence of
Asiatic Turkish blood, in the relatively non-mongoloid sense, while about
5 per cent manifest clearly recognizable mongoloid features. These Asiatic
elements are not evenly distributed, but are concentrated in the purer
Hungarian pastoral population, while the Turkish element is said to be
especially visible in the nobility. The 5 per cent which remains after
Bartucz's partitionment must include Nordics and Norics, with the latter
also forming part of the Dinaric allotment, as well as a few brunet
Mediterraneans .
Bartucz's analysis, based upon long observation as well as upon unpub-
lished materials, is more valid than deductions made from the small series
of detailed measurements at our disposal. Hungary fits into the racial
boundaries of the countries which surround her, without sharp transitions;
at the same time she provides a refuge in central Europe for a minor
central Asiatic survival. It is not accurate to say that the pre-Magyar
inhabitants of Hungary have completely, or almost completely, absorbed
the invaders whose speech is that of the nation, for the Ugric followers of
Arpad, who came to these plains in thousands, must have been largely
Neo-Danubian in race, as are many of their present-day descendants and
successors.
117 Bartucz calls it Oriental.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 587
(12) THE LIVING SLAVS (Concluded)
(c) Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes
If the Treaty of Versailles was bitter to the Magyars, it was more than
bountiful to the southern Slavs, the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, whom
the Magyars cut off, centuries ago, from their northern linguistic kinsmen.
The present kingdom of Yugoslavia includes almost the totality of the
three Slavic peoples mentioned, but also hundreds of thousands of Magyars,
Bulgarians, and Albanians, to mention merely the more numerous of the
subject minorities. Geographically, Yugoslavia is for the most part
mountainous; culturally, it covers the entire range from the sophisticated
civilization of central Europe to the Early Iron Age survival of the
Balkan highlands.
Among the Yugoslavs, religion as well as language forms a source of
division; the Croats and Slovenes are Catholics, the Serbs are mostly
Greek Orthodox. Under the term Serb are included, however, such
diverse peoples as the Serbs Proper, the Montenegrins, the Bosnians, the
Herzegovinians, and the Dalmatians. The Bosnians and Herzegovinians
include large minorities of Moslems and Catholics, and the latter are
particularly numerous in Dalmatia. Aside from the Serbs Proper, only
the Montenegrins, whose religion served for centuries as a symbol of
resistance to the Turks, are almost to a man Greek Orthodox.
Neither language nor religion, however, nor general type of civilization,
has much bearing on the problem of race in Yugoslavia, since within
this kingdom lies the concentration point of the entire Dinaric racial zone,
which has its western terminus in Austria, Switzerland, northern Italy,
and southern Germany, and its eastern in Albania. This Dinaric zone
closely follows the mountain chain which borders the Adriatic, and is
centered in Montenegro. It is the primary function of this section, and of
that on Albania which follows, to dissect this Dinaric nucleus and to
elucidate the Dinaric problem. We shall consider in turn the following
segments of the southern Slavic nation: Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, Bosnians,
Herzegovinians, Dalmatians, and Montenegrins.
The Slovenes,118 who are the westernmost of the southern Slavs, are
linguistically closest to the Croats, whom they border on the south and
east. They arrived in their present territory in the seventh century A.D.,
and absorbed the remnants of the Keltic and Illyrian peoples who had
persisted in one form or other through the invasions and turmoils of the
preceding centuries. Their chief area is the former Austrian province of
"8 Biasutti, R., APA, vol. 51, 1921, pp. 154-184.
Cwirko-Godyki, M.} RDAP, vol. 41, 1931, pp. 105-120.
Skerlj, B., ZFMA, vol. 28, 1930, pp. 213-237; AAnz, vol. 8, 1932, pp. 126-143;
AnthPr, vols. 1-2, 1927, pp. 55-91.
Weisbach, A., MAGW, vol. 33, 1903, pp. 234-251.
588 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Carniola, where they form 94 per cent of the population; beyond its
borders they extend into Styria and Carinthia, and in the south they
occupy part of the peninsula of Istria.
In stature, head form, and pigmentation, they cannot be distinguished
from the Austrians upon whose territory they touch; their mean height
being 168 cm., their cephalic index 83.4, and almost half having medium
brown to blond hair, while light and light-mixed eyes total nearly 70 per
cent. The length and breadth dimensions of the head, however, fall at
the small end of the Alpine and Dinaric ranges, with means of 183 mm.
and 154 mm.; furthermore, their facial dimensions are rather small, with
a total face height no greater than 120 mm., and a bizygomatic diameter
of 140 mm. A nasal index of 68 is accompanied by a 25 per cent incidence
of concave nasal profiles.
The metrical characters detailed above indicate that while the stature
and head form of the general Dinaric area are approximated by these
Slavs, the Neo-Danubian type which has reemerged so completely in
northern and eastern Slavic territory is also to be reckoned with here.
The Slovenes provide a partial breach in the Dinaric racial continuity,
comparable to that provided by the Germanic element in Austria.
This continuity is, however, partially restored by the Croatians,119 who,
with a mean stature of 170 cm., and a mean cephalic index of 85, are
intermediate in many respects between the Slovenes and the Serbs. The
pigmentation of the Croatians is equivalent to that of the Slovenes; their
faces are longer and wider, however, their noses longer, and nasal con-
cavity is reduced to 1 5 per cent of the whole.
The Serbs, who live for the most part to the north and east of the main
Dinaric Alpine chain, and immediately east of the Bosnians and Montene-
grins, founded a kingdom, after their invasion from the north in the seventh
century, in the country drained by the headwaters of the Lim and White
Drin rivers, in what is now the Ipek region of eastern Montenegro, and
the Mitrovitza country.120 The previous occupants were Romanized,
Latin-speaking descendants of Illyrians and Thracians, and of colonists
from other parts of the Roman Empire planted there by the emperors.
During the twelfth century the Serbs expanded southward onto the plain
of Kossovo, whence they made further conquests. Old Serbia, which
arose as an important kingdom during the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries, had as its centers Skoplje and Prizren, which, for the last five
centuries, have been mostly inhabited by Turks and Albanians.
"•Biasutti, R., APA, vol. 51, 1921, pp. 154-184.
Hrdlifcka, A., The Old Americans.
Weisbach, A., MAGW, vol. 35, 1905, pp. 99-117.
u° Anonymous, MAGW, vol. 18, 1888, pp. 182-190.
Cvijid, J., GR, vol. 5, 1918, pp. 345-361.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 589
The Serbs expanded, during the period of their efflorescence, into
Albania, Macedonia, and Thessaly; the arrival of the Ottoman Turks,
however, in the latter part of the fourteenth century, terminated this
period of expansion, and many of the Serbs fled northward, while others
became Turkicized and Albanized. The Albanians, many of whom were
converted to Islam, worked with the Turks rather than against them, and
after the flight of the Serbs from the plain of Kossovo, this region was
soon colonized by Albanians, many of whom still remain there. The once
important Serbian influence in Albania has left few vestiges, other than
Slavic place names, and the presence of a few islands of Moslem Serb
speakers in the mountains, as in the Gora district of Luma.
In studying the racial history of the Balkans, it must be borne in mind
that here more than elsewhere in Europe, linguistic and ethnic boundaries
are constantly changing; there have been many wholesale emigrations and
immigrations; whole countrysides have changed not only masters, but
also peasantry, in mass evictions and mass colonizations. The Balkan
peoples change their languages and ethnic identities with difficulty and
only after bitter oppression; it is easier to transplant than to alter them;
once converted, however, they become as ardent partisans of the new
allegiance as of the old. The Serbs have been subjected to these dis-
turbances as much as have the others. Their position as the dominant
people of Yugoslavia has only been won through centuries of retrench-
ment and struggle; their present effort to Slavicize by force the minorities
within their boundaries is a commonplace of Balkan history.
The modern Serbs, like the rest of the Yugoslavs, fall more into the
Dinaric racial classification than any other.121 Not as tall as the inhabitants
of the mountain chain itself, they attain a national stature mean of about
168 cm., which varies somewhat regionally, reaching the figure of 170
cm. and over as one approaches Bosnia and Montenegro. The bodily
build of the Serbs, as with most other southern Slavic peoples, is neither
thick-set nor lean as a rule, but of moderate European proportions. A
relative sitting height mean of 52.8 and a relative span of 102, emphasize
the relative length of leg and shortness of arm. These are the proportions
that one finds in southern Germany, rather than in northern Slavic
countries.
The Serbs, for their stature, have, even more than the Slovenes, rela-
tively small heads. The mean length is only 182 mm., the breadth 184.5
121 Lebzelter, V.» MAGW, vol. 59, 1929, pp. 61-126; vol. 63, 1933, pp. 233-251.
MaleS, B., Antropoloska Ispitivanja.
MaleS, B., and Konstantinovic, B., RDAR, vol. 28, 1928-29, pp. 401-416.
Pittard, E., REAP, vol. 20, 1910, pp. 307-311.
Wiazeinsky, Prince, Anth, vol. 20, 1909, pp. 353-372.
Wrzosek, A., WAnt, vol. 1, Z.I, 1922.
590 THE RACES OF EUROPE
mm., while the auricular height mean is only 123 mm. These are smaller
than the heads of most Alpines, and of most western Dinaric groups. The
cephalic index mean of 85 is of fully Dinaric elevation. The faces are also
small, but longer than those of Slovenes and Groats, with a mean menton-
nasion height of 122 mm. The bizygomatic breadth is likewise restricted,
the mean of 1 40 mm. or less is no greater than among Nordics and Neo-
Danubians. The noses are moderately leptorrhine (N. I. = 63), and small,
(53 mm. X 33 mm.). The nasal profiles are usually straight, with a 25
per cent convex minority, and about 12 per cent of concave. The nasal
root is almost always high, and the tip is inclined horizontally in most
cases, but downward more frequently than upward.
The Serbs are darker in pigmentation than either the Slovenes or the
Croatians; 45 per cent of eyes are pure brown (Martin #2-4), as against
20 per cent which are pure or nearly pure light. Over 55 per cent have
black or dark brown hair, while light browns and blonds come to less
than 10 per cent. The beards are, of course, often lighter than the head
hair. The skin is brunet-white or light-brown in at least a third of the
total. It is unlikely that the prevalence of brunet pigmentation among the
Serbs came from a Slavic source, and as we shall presently see, the high
incidence of dark eyes can hardly be called Dinaric. By elimination we
must suppose that the Serbs, in their sojourn in northern Macedonia,
accumulated a strong brunet tendency.
Bosnia consists of the six provinces, Bihac, Banjaluka, Tuzla, Travnik,
Sarajevo, and Mostar, which lie between western Croatia, Dalmatia,
Montenegro, and the Slavonian plain. The southernmost province, Mostar,
includes the territory known as Herzegovina, which lies nearest to Monte-
negro. The Bosnians serve racially as an approach to the nucleus of Dinaric
giantism in Montenegro.122 Tuzla, in the northeast, has a mean stature of
171 cm.; Biha6 and Banjaluca, in the northwest, of 172 cm.; in Travnik
and parts of Mostar it rises to 173 cm., in Sarajevo to 174 cm., and in
Herzegovina to 175-176 cm., approaching the Montenegrin level. The
mean cephalic index of the Bosnians is over 85; this varies by religions,
with the Catholics the most brachycephalic (86), and the Moslems the
least (84). The Catholics are likewise the tallest and the lightest skinned;
being the oldest population in the region in point of conversion, and the
least affected by outside influences, the Catholic element preserves both
a pre-Slavic ns and a pre-Turkish racial configuration more completely
than do the partisans of Orthodoxy or Islam.
122 Capus, G., BSAP, ser. 4, vol. 6, 1895, pp. 99-103.
Krauss, F. S., MAGW, vol. 15, 1885, pp. 84-87.
Weisbach, A., MAGW, vol. 25, 1895, pp. 206-239; MAGW, supplement 2, 1889.
123 Pre-Slavic in thi chronological sense, not in the sense used by Polish anthropolo-
gists.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 591
In hair and eye color the Bosnians are intermediate between Croatians
and Serbs; they are darkest in the northeast, and fairest in the regions near-
est Montenegro. Since they form but an extension of the Montenegrin nu-
cleus, it will suffice here to point out their near identity with the inhabitants
of that former kingdom, and to leave a detailed description for the latter.
On the steep and narrow coast of the Dinaric Alps, the zone of Dinaric
racial concentration tapers off abruptly. The mean stature of the coastal
people, from Istria along the Croatian shore and through the length of
Dalmatia almost to the border of Albania, rises regularly from about 1 66
cm. to 171 cm., as one proceeds southeastward.124 Although the head
form, with a mean cephalic index of 83-84, remains brachycephalic, the
extreme short-headedness of the mountain interior is not present. The
pigmentation changes gradually but extensively from a prevailingly blond
condition in Istria to a prevalence of dark-mixed and dark eyes, and of
black or dark brown hair, in southeastern Dalmatia. One may attribute
the lesser Dinaricism of the Dalmatians to Italian or to Vlach blood, or to
both,125 but this cannot be the only explanation. Dalmatia is the home,
in solution, of a strong Atlanto-Mediterranean strain comparable to that
found in northern Italy, which must go back in both places to a consider-
able antiquity.
The Montenegrins, who are the tallest people in Europe, live on a
barren limestone mountain upland, where they, for centuries, succeeded
in maintaining their Christianity and their freedom while surrounded by
the Turks. They, like the northern Albanians, preserve their old exog-
amous clan organization, and their clan loyalties and feuds. They are
linguistically Serbs, but there can be no question that they are to a large
extent Slavicized Albanians; the cultural continuity between the two
peoples is striking, the only real differences being those of language and re-
ligion. Although the Montenegrins are divided geographically into several
sections, the racial differences between these are not great, and for the pres-
ent purpose the Montenegrins will b£ dealt with as a whole. Where there
are regional differences, the Old Montenegrins, who show the most extreme
development in typically Montenegrin characters, will be referred to.126
w* Weisbach, A., ZFE, supplement to vol. 16, 1884, pp. 1-77.
Zampa, R., RDAP, ser. 3, vol. 1, 1886, pp. 625-648.
128 See Chapter XII, section 16, p. 614.
128 The data upon which the following anthropometric summary is largely based con-
sists of an unpublished series of over 800 Montenegrins measured by Mr. Robert W.
Ehrich, and used here with his permission. Other sources consulted are:
Haberlandt, A., and Lebzelter, V., AFA, vol. 45, 1919, pp. 123-154.
Males', B., AnthPr, vol. 9, 1931, pp. 125-145.
Pittard, E., RDAP, vol. 26, 1916, pp. 199-201.
ValSik, J., PAn, vol. 8, 1934, pp. 53-55.
Vram, U., ASRA, vol. 11, 1905, pp. 183-193.
592 THE RACES OF EUROPE
The mean stature of adult male Montenegrins reaches the figure of 1 77
cm., and in some districts it rises to 178 cm. The mean weight of a large
series whose average age is 40 years is 160 Ibs.; hence they are probably
the heaviest as well as the tallest people in Europe, being even heavier
than the Irish. Although their legs are very long, their trunks are cor-
respondingly high, and a mean relative sitting height of 52 is at least 4
points higher than that for the long-legged Tuareg, who are the only
white people of pure Mediterranean origin to approach them in stature.
The Montenegrins' mean shoulder breath is 39 cm., and their chests are
correspondingly large. The relative span of 101 is extremely low, indicat-
ing that their arms are short in proportion to either leg or trunk length.
The hands and feet are, as is to be expected, usually of great size. These
huge mountaineers are not as a rule slender, leptosome people; they are
often thick-set, and are large all over.
As is to be expected among men of their stature and bulk, the Montene-
grins have large heads, but these are not quite as large as those of the
somewhat shorter Irish, Icelanders, or Fehmarners. The mean head
length is 188 mm., the breadth 160 mm., the auricular height about 128
mm. The cephalic index mean is 85, about the same as for Croatians,
Bosnians, and Serbs. The head length, however, is at least 7 mm. greater
than that for these other Yugoslavs, excepting the Bosnians, who fill an
intermediate position; the head breadth is about 6 mm. greater. The faces
are correspondingly large; the minimum frontal mean is 112 mm., the
bizygomatic 147 mm., and the bigonial 112 mm. The toal face height,
127 mm. in Old Montenegro, rises to a mean of over 130 mm. in Brda and
the northern border tribes; the nose height reaches the remarkable eleva-
tion of 61 mm., while the breadth is 36 mm.
The facial index, in view of the great size of both component diameters,
lies at 89 in Old Montenegro, on the border between mesoprosopy and
leptoprosopy; it rises to 91 in Brda and the northern border tribes. The
upper facial index, 53 in Old Montenegro, has a mean of 55 in the north.
The nasal index is hyperleptorrhine, with tribal means ranging between
58 and 60. The widest faces, the shortest faces, and the lowest upper facial
indices, as well as the widest foreheads and jaws, are concentrated in the
southwest, Old Montenegro. These excesses are not typically Dinaric; they
suggest only one possible relationship, and that is with the unreduced
Upper Palaeolithic races.
The Montenegrins are prevailingly dark brown in head hair color; in
Old Montenegro some 45 per cent of adult males belong to this class,
while 20 per cent are medium brown, and 26 per cent auburn, or brown
with a perceptible reddish tinge. The tribesmen of Brda and the north-
ern border are somewhat darker, and show less rufosity. The beards are
THE CENTRAL ZONE 593
much lighter than the head hair; among Old Montenegrins 43 per cent
are reddish brown, and 8 per cent contain a pure red element; only 17
per cent are dark brown. In Brda golden-brown beards are extremely
common, as frequent as 39 per cent; in the northern border tribes, 24
per cent. The rufosity of the Montenegrins, and their tendency to golden
blondism, is not only extreme, but is particularly unusual for this part of
Europe. It will be recalled that the Serbians, traditionally close relatives
of the Montenegrins, are much darker haired, and that the Slavs in
general, when blond, favor the ash-blond side of the scale, being almost
entirely deficient in rufosity.
Twenty-five per cent of Old Montenegrins have pure dark eyes, and
10 per cent pure light ones. The pure darks are almost all mixtures be-
tween dark brown and light brown shades, while the pure lights are gray-
ish blue. The mixed class, by far the largest, consists of 37 per cent green-
brown, 20 per cent blue-brown, and 6 per cent gray-brown. The northern
border tribes and Brda are lighter eyed than Old Montenegro, with only
20 per cent of pure darks. On the whole the Montenegrins have lighter
eyes than the Serbs, and fully as light as the Slovenes and Croatians. Over
80 per cent have pinkish white unexposed skin color, ranging from von
Luschan #3 to 7, 8, and 9; a small minority have skins which are as dark
as light brown. About 25 per cent show some freckling, as is to be expected
in association with rufosity.
The head hair is straight or nearly straight among half the Old Mon-
tenegrins, wavy among the rest; in the other tribes the ratio of straight
runs higher. The beard and body hair are, as a rule, moderate to abun-
dant; the glabrosity of the eastern Slavs rarely appears here. Baldness,
either partial or involving the whole crown of the head, is quite common.
The eyebrows are as a rule thick, and concurrent in 80 per cent of the
group. Exceptionally heavy browridges, rare among other Slavs, are
found in about 20 per cent. The eyes are frequently deep set, with a
narrow opening between the lids; three men out of four have external eye-
folds. A low orbit, a quite un-Dinaric character, seems frequent.
The nose again in many cases diverges from a Dinaric standard; deep
nasion depressions are common, and the nasal root is often of only moderate
height and moderate breadth. The bridge is frequently but by no means
always high, and of medium breadth. Among the Old Montenegrins,
non-Dinaric nasal characters are commoner than among the other tribal
groups. Fifty-two per cent of convex nasal profiles, however, retain the
Old Montenegrins as a whole in the Dinaric class; the ratio is higher else-
where. Fifteen per cent are concave, and 4 per cent definitely snubbed.
The tip is of medium thickness in most cases, and inclined downward more
frequently than upward. It must be remembered that in this case we are
594 THE RACES OF EUROPE
dealing with a series of men whose mean age is 40 years, and that among
Dinaric peoples the depression of the nasal tip is a phenomenon of advanc-
ing age. On the whole the Montenegrins show a variety of nasal forms;
the large hawk-beak for which they are famous is the most common, but
alongside it is a large-tipped, low-bridged form which is less frequent but
even more characteristic.
The lips are usually of moderate integumental and slight membranous
thickness; eversion is usually slight, and this last feature may be associated
with a 25 per cent incidence of the primitive edge-to-edge manner of
dental occlusion. Although the malars are rarely prominent in the forward
plane, the zygomatic arches frequently jut widely to the side; the gonial
angles are of exaggerated prominence in nearly half the group. In the
back of the head, occipital protrusion is usually slight to absent; occipital
flattening is present in 43 per cent of the Old Montenegrins, and even
commoner in some of the other groups. Lambdoidal flattening is even
more frequent; few heads show no flattening in either the lambdoid re-
gion or below it.
The Montenegrins, after a detailed examination, are seen to be far
from typical Binaries in many features; they are too large-bodied, too
large-headed, and too broad-faced; their noses are too frequently broad
and thick- tipped. They are also far too rufous for the ordinary Dinaric
type. Taking the Montenegrins individually, one finds many who do
conform to standard Dinaric specifications, but are all taller than most
Dinarics elsewhere; there are also some short, thick-set Alpines, and a
minority of tall, brunet dolichocephals or near dolichocephals whom we
shall also find farther south in Albania. But the Montenegrin of distinc-
tive type, concentrated in Old Montenegro, is a very tall, large-bodied
man, with a large, full-vaulted head abbreviated at the rear; his face
is very broad, his jaw heavy, his brows overhanging, and his nose large and
thick- tipped. It is this type which bears the rufosity in hair color, the
freckling, and a tendency to light-mixed eye color. Most of the Montene-
grins are intermediate between this type and a more conventional Dinaric.
The Old Montenegrin type, concentrated in the southwestern mountain
fringe of Montenegro, just north of the Lake of Scutari, in the most
conservative part of the kingdom culturally, and the ethnic center of the
Montenegrin nation, is nothing more nor less than a local unreduced
brachycephalized Upper Palaeolithic survival or reemergence, comparable
to those found in northern Europe and northern Africa. Its growth to an
extreme size is a local specialization, in which selection may have played
a part, as well possibly as nutritive factors associated with life on a lime-
stone mountain. Mixture with this Borreby-like type, and a response to
the same selective and environmental influences, have elevated the stature
THE CENTRAL ZONE 595
of the accompanying Dinaric factor as well. Montenegro is not, therefore,
simply a Dinaric nucleus; it is a Borreby-like or Afalou-like outcropping
within a Dinaric nucleus. We know little or nothing of the prehistoric
archaeology of Montenegro. So far there is no evidence to prove or dis-
prove the presence of an Upper Palaeolithic European racial strain in
this region. How this strain got to Montenegro, far from its other centers
of survival, is a problem which cannot be solved without further facts.
(13) ALBANIA AND THE DINARIC RACE
The kingdom of Albania, lying directly south of Montenegro, contains a
population of roughly one million people; another million at least live
outside the borders of their own country, mostly in Yugoslavia, although
there are large colonies in Greece and in Rumania, as well as in the
United States. They are divided into two distinct ethnic groups, each
with its own variety and dialects of the Albanian language, its own cos-
tume, and its own particular pattern of culture. These are the Toscs in
the south, and in the north and on the plain of Kossovo, the Ghegs. The
Ghegs still preserve their system of exogamous patrilineal clans, compa-
rable to that of the Montenegrins; they are divided into ten tribes of which
at least part of each lies in Albania itself, and three or perhaps more out-
side. The ten in Albania include Malsia e Madhe, Dukagin, Malsia
Jakoves and Has, all north of the Drin, and reading from west to east.
Both Has and Malsia Jakoves extend eastward into Old Serbia, north of
Prizren; Malsia e Madhe has clans in Old Montenegro. Entirely outside
of Albania, in Montenegro and the Kossovo country, are Peia, Podrima,
and a number of clans in the neighborhood of Mitrovitza. South of the
Drin are Zadrima, immediately southeast of Shkodra; Puka, Mirdita,
and Luma, part of which is Serbian-speaking; south of this band are Mati,
the tribe of King Zog, and Dibra, which occupies the slopes on either
side of the Black Drin.
Seventy per cent of the Albanians 'in Albania are Moslems, nearly all
in Yugoslavia are. The remaining 30 per cent are equally divided between
Catholics and Greek Orthodox. The Catholics are all Ghegs, the Orthodox
all Toscs. Of the Ghegs, all of Mirdita, all of Dukagin, and parts of Za-
drima, Malsia e Madhe, Puka, Malsia Jakoves, Has, and Mati are Cath-
olic. The Catholics are the most conservative culturally, and as a rule
the most remote in their habitat. Neither Catholicism nor Islam have
inhibited the functioning of the Gheg social system, which operates in an
unusual manner. Each tribe is divided into geographical and political »
divisions known as bairaks, but independent of this is another concept
known as the fis. The fis is an exogamous patrilineal kinship group,
without geographical attachment; several whole bairaks may belong to
596
THE RACES OF EUROPE
one fa, and thus be excluded from intermarriage; on the other hand one
small village may contain branches of several fa, some large and national,
other small and local.
The fa is the body of descendants in the male line of one usually epony-
mous ancestor. In various tribes different rules hold as to the determina-
tion of when this relationship may become so remote that the marriage
MAP 15
TRIBAL DIVISIONS IN NORTHERN ALBANIA
restriction breaks down; in some, after one hundred generations; in others,
only when the exact relationship is unknown. This exogamy has a close
bearing upon the regional physical anthropology of the Ghegs, since it
oversteps tribal boundaries and causes a trading of wives over large
distances. Designed to prevent incest, it actually produces close in-breed-
ing, since reciprocal matings amount in many cases to habitual cross-
cousin marriage.
The most important^ is that to which the people of the famous bairaks
of Shoshi and Shala, in Dukagin, belong, and also three of the five bairaks
THE CENTRAL ZONE 597
of Mirdita. The restrictions against intermarriage between Shoshi and
Shala have broken down, as well even as unions between moieties within
these bairaks, but in Mirdita all the young men of the three bairaks of
Spag, Orosh, and Kushnein must take their wives from the other two,
Dibri and Fan. The original ancestors of this super^ were brothers,
who came from the plain of Kossovo into the mountains looking for
refuge, at least 100 generations ago, according to the popular tradition.
That many such movements must have taken place in the past is apparent;
northern Albania is a refuge area of the first water. The Albanian lan-
guage, a hybrid between Illyrian, Thracian, Latin, Slavic, Turkish, and
other elements, reflects the ethnically composite origin of the Albanians.
The stature of the Ghegs is extremely variable geographically; the
tribes which touch Montenegro have means of 173 cm. and 174 cm.; the
northernmost bairaks of Malsia e Madhe and Dukagin, which lie closest
to Old Montenegro, are taller than the southern ones within their own
tribes.127 On the south side of the Drin the means fall to 169 crn., and
continues to the level of 167 cm. in Mati and Mirdita. The stature level
of the Montenegrins tapers off much more rapidly to the south of its
nucleus than it does to the north. The descent in stature level is steepest
on the western side of the mountains; on the eastern side, from Has to
Dibra, there is a drop of only 2 cm. The stature of the Albanians is
chronologically constant; there is no internal evidence of recent increase.
The relative span of the Ghegs is 104, higher than that of Montenegrins,
and more in accordance with Dinaric standards. The relative sitting
height of 52.8 is much the same, and shows no regional differences of any
importance. As in Montenegro, bodily build is not controlled by stature;
the most thick-set individuals are often the tallest. The shoulder breadth-
stature ratio is in fact highest in the tribes adjoining Montenegro.
The mean cephalic index of the Ghegs is 85, as with most Binaries.
Geographically, however, the highest indices are found in the west, in
Malsia Jakoves, Zadrima, and Mati, the three tribes situated on the coastal
side of the mountain chain; here the means lie between 86.5 and 87. A
zone of relative long-headedness is found in the east, in Malsia Jakoves
and Luma, where the means are 83. Thus the progression is from west to
east, and not north to south, as with stature.
127 This section is based upon a series of 1100 Ghegs measured by the author in 1929-
30. In each of the ten tribes within Albania, the sample includes over 100 men; within
each tribe the bairak and village distribution is approximately even. Other sources
dealing with the Ghegs include :
Haberlandt, A., and Lebzelter, V., AFA, vol. 45, 1919, pp. 123-142.
Pittard, E., Les Pmples des Balkans.
Tildesley, M. L.» Biometrika, vol. 25, 1933, pp. 21-51.
Weninger, J., Rassenhmdliche Untersuchungm an Albanern> RPN, ser. A. vol. 4, 1934.
598 THE RACES OF EUROPE
As one would expect, the head dimensions vary with stature; the mean
head lengths in the north range from 186 mm. to 190 mm.; in the south
from 183 mm. to 185 mm. The head breadths run from 162 mm. in
Malsia e Madhe to 165 mm. in Luma. The widest heads are thus found
in proximity to Old Montenegro. The vaults of the Ghegs are moderately
high; ranging from 129 mm. in the north, to 126 mm. in the south. The
facial diameters show both a north-south and an east- west progression;
the minimum frontal mean, for example, is 112 mm. in Malsia e Madhe,
and 110 mm. in other tribes north of the Drin; elsewhere it falls to 107
mm. and 108 mm. The bizygomatic, with a mean of 144 mm. in the
northwestern tribes, falls regularly to 140-141 mm. in the south and east.
The bigonial follows a similar progression from 109 mm. to 107 mm. In
these facial diameters, as in stature, the northwesternmost Ghegs form a
continuation of the oversized racial area of Old Montenegro; elsewhere
there is a rapid tapering to a normal Dinaric condition. It is to be noted
that among these Dinarics, patently the descendants of pre-Germanic and
pre-Slavic mountain peoples, the forehead is wider than the mandible,
and the face takes on the characteristic form of an inverted triangle.
Once outside the Montenegrin area, the face loses its excessive height;
the mean menton-nasion diameter of the Ghegs is 124 mm., comparable
to face heights in southern Germany and Switzerland. The greatest
heights, reaching a mean of 1 26 mm. in Has, are found in the east, along
the edges of the plain of Kossovo; the shortest, reaching 121 mm. in
Mirdita, are located in the central mountain nucleus, from Dukagin to
Mati. This regional pattern is clearly shown by the facial index, which
runs from 86 in the center and west, to 89 in the east. All tribes but Has,
however, are mesoprosopic. The upper facial index is even more variable;
the mean for Mirdita is 49; for Has 54; this range is nearly as great as
that for all of Europe. The noses of the Ghegs, 58 mm. high by 34 mm.
wide, are among the world's most leptorrhinc, with a mean nasal index
of 58.
Metrically the Gheg tribes present a complex situation; the rapid pro-
gression from north to south in stature and in the breadths of the head and
face show that the Borreby-like nucleus of Old Montenegro does not
extend far southward into Albania. The tall, northern tribesmen are the
most heavily built, the shorter southern ones the most sparely; a conven-
tional Dinaric build goes with the shorter stature level. In the eastern
tribes there is strong evidence of a moderately tall, long-faced, dolicho-
cephalic element; while a short-faced element, metrically suggestive of
Alpines, is centered in the very remote mountain valleys of Mirdita.
Almost all of the Ghegs are light-skinned, with the von Luschan #3
and 7 most frequently represented. Freckling, common in Montenegro,
THE CENTRAL ZONE 599
is rare here; what little there is is confined almost entirely to the tribes
nearest Old Montenegro, and here it reaches but 5 per cent. The head
hair is usually brunet, with black or near black reaching 40 per cent,
and dark to medium brown 45 per cent. Light brown or blond hair,
which is almost always on the golden or slightly rufous side, accounts for
the other 15 per cent. Only two men out of 1100 were found to have ash-
blond hair. As in Montenegro, the beards are much lighter than the head
hair; the black contingent is reduced to 6 per cent, while 36 per cent are
reddish brown or auburn, 3 per cent red, and 30 per cent golden blond or
light brown with a golden tinge. The rufous tendency, while not as pro-
nounced as in parts of Montenegro, exists to the virtual exclusion of ash-
blondisrn. Regionally, the darkest hair is found in Mirdita and in the
eastern border; the lightest in the west and south.
Seventeen per cent of Ghegs have pure brown eyes, and 7 per cent pure
light ones. Half the group has green-brown iris combinations and 20 per
cent blue-brown. Of the mixed eyes, 30 per cent are dark-mixed, and 48
per cent predominantly light, the rest nearly even. The Ghegs are, there-
fore, thoroughly mixed, or almost completely intermediate, in eye color,
with the blond element or elements slightly more important than the
brunet. The darkest eyes are found in Dukagin, and in Malsia Jakoves,
on the border of Old Serbia; there 25 percent of eyes are brown. Else-
where there is little regional differentiation.
The head hair of the Ghegs is usually wavy, and medium to fine in
texture; it is of greater than average abundance for Europeans on mus-
tache, cheek, jaw, and on the body; at the same time the correlative
tendency to baldness is strong here. The eyebrows are usually thick, and
are concurrent in 70 per cent of the group. As in Montenegro, the fore-
heads are seldom very sloping; the browridges are usually on the heavy
side of medium. External eyefolds, found in 35 per cent of the group, are
commonest in the tribes which form a continuation of the western moun-
tain zone south of Old Montenegro; elsewhere the high Dinaric orbit
precludes their development in most cases.
The nasal morphology of the Ghegs is usually more strictly Dinaric than
that of the Montenegrins; the root and bridge are more consistently ele-
vated, and the tip as a rule thinner. Well over 50 per cent have convex
profiles; only 6 per gent concave. Less than half the tips are inclined
downward; only in Malsia e Madhe, closest to Montenegro, are depressed
tips in the majority. With the thin nasal tip goes a high ratio of compressed
nasal wings; the Gheg nose is truly leptorrhine morphologically as well
as metrically.
The faces of the Ghegs often lack the strong bony relief so noticeable
among Montenegrins; the lateral jut of the zygomatic arches is usually
600 THE RACES OF EUROPE
restricted, and the gonial angles are usually of but medium prominence.
The cheeks are usually drawn and thin, and while this condition may be
partly nutritional, it has its racial implications. The plump, fat-padded
cheeks of the Ukrainian peasants stand at the opposite European extreme.
The morphology of the occipital region among the Ghegs, in view of
their general Dinaric character, is of particular interest. The occipital
protrusion is as a rule slight to medium; it is least in the western tribes,
and greatest in the eastern. Actual occipital flattening is found in only
30 per cent of the group; tribal incidences range from 50 per cent in
Malsia e Madhe to 20 per cent in Dukagin, Malsia Jakoves, and Puka.
On the whole the distribution is definitely west to east. Lambdoid flattening
is found among 44 per cent of the Ghegs; it is thus more frequent than the
occipital form. Its tribal distribution is exactly opposite to that of occipital
flattening; the two phenomena are usually complementary, and a minority
only of individuals lacks either.
There has been much discussion upon the subject of occipital flattening,
both in Albania and in Asia Minor; there are two definite schools, one
which believes that it is natural and racially determined, the other that it is
a form of artificial deformation caused by cradling. My own position lies
between these two extremes; 128 occipital flattening is without doubt a phe-
nomenon associated with the entire mechanical orientation of the cranium
in the Dinaric race, and especially with the position of the foramen magnum
to the rear of that usual in most races. As such, it is undeniably inherited.
At the same time, the use of the Albanian cradle, in which the shoulders
are bound but the head is not, may in some instances have caused an
intensification of this flattening, since the heads of some living Albanians
are unquestionably deformed. However, since cradling practices are
regionally uniform in Albania, the geographical distribution of this
character is wholly racial in pattern.
At this point there arises the entire question of Dinaric origins, which
may be approached on the basis of a statistical analysis of the Gheg
material. Attempts to intercorrelate metrical and morphological char-
acters with each other and with pigmentation reveal the presence of the
following types in Ghegnia, each of which shows a tendency for the
characters of which it is composed to associate themselves as a unit.
(1) A tall, large-headed, brachycephalic, wide-faced type, with inter-
mediate pigmentation, and an especial tendency toward rufosity.
This is the Borreby-like type prevalent in Montenegro; in Albania
it is almost wholly confined to the tribe of Malsia e Madhe, and
within that tribe is concentrated in the bairak of Gruda.
128 A detailed study of this question will be published in the author's The Physical
Anthropology of Northern Albania.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 601
(2) A medium-statured, brachycephalic, short-faced type, with mixed
pigmentation, which is fundamentally Alpine. It is found in all
tribes, but is commonest in the refuge area of Mirdita.
(3) A tall, dolichocephalic or mesocephalic type with dark hair and
dark brown eyes, a straight nasal profile, and a tendency toward a
lesser leptorrhiny than the total group. This is an Atlan to-Mediter-
ranean racial type which is also prevalent in other Balkan countries.
It may also be sorted out of available statistical series of Greeks,
while it is common in Bulgaria and easily distinguishable among
Serbs. It, or a similar type, also occurs with Binaries in northern
Italy and the Tyrol. In northern Albania it is commonest in
Malsia Jakoves and Dukagin.
(4) A very strongly differentiated type which is characterized by
medium stature, exceptional brachycephaly, great narrowness
and convexity of the nose, a high incidence of occipital flattening,
and a tendency to light brown eye color in combination with
dark brown hair. This type may be called Dinaric in the full or
specific sense; most of the other Ghegs are Binaries in a partial
or a general sense. This ultra-Binaric type is commonest in the
tribe of Bibra.
(5) A blond, brachycephalic, convex-nosed Noric, of standard type.
It is commonest in Zadrima.
(6) A few light brown-haired Nordics, centered in Luma.
As a result of the foregoing division of the Gheg material into natural
sub-racial compartments, it becomes apparent that the Binaric race, in
the sense of a tall, convex-nosed, long-faced population inhabiting the
mountain zone which stretches from Switzerland to Albania, is a com-
posite aggregation of racial types. The specific nature of the Binaric
population of any given segment of this zone depends upon the local
elements involved; thus there are regional Binaric sub-types. There is
one dominant set of characters which pervades the Binaric group; high
brachycephaly, nasal convexity, occipital flattening, and a tendency
toward the attenuation of extremities. Aside from these features, the
original ingredients in the Binaric blend tend to retain their old linkages.
The peculiar facial and cranial features of the Binaries seem to be the
results of differential inheritance in hybridization; the primary mixture
which brings them about is apparently an Alpine-Mediterranean cross,
with Mediterranean used in the widest sense of the word. The Asiatic
Binaries, who appeared early in the Metal Age, were apparently Alpine-
Cappadocian hybrids; many of those went to Europe and settled in widely
separated places, including sections of the Binaric Alps. The exaggerated
Binaric type of Albania, with its tendency to light brown eye color may
602 THE RACES OF EUROPE
conceivably be derived from this source. It is also to be found in con-
siderable numbers in the Tyrol.
All European Binaries, however, cannot be traced to this Near Eastern
origin; most of them must be the result of primary blendings on European
soil. Here the two principal ingredients are the tall, dark brown-eyed
Atlanto-Mediterranean which seems old and basic in southeastern Europe,
and an ordinary Alpine. Nordic accretions produce a Noric, Borreby-like
accretions an Old Montenegrin. Neo-Danubian Slavic additions produce
the small-faced type common in Slovenia, Croatia, and Serbia.
The blending of the Binaries is never perfect in a chemical sense; in
any Binaric population there are ordinary Alpines and a few Atlanto-
Mediterraneans along with their blended brethren. When the proportions
of the ingredients are wrong, the type which is present in excess may be
found in some numbers in its original form. That is why there are so many
Alpines in France and Switzerland, and so many Atlanto-Mediterraneans
in Malsia Jakoves.
Binaricism is not a quality pertaining to a single race, it is a condition.
This condition is common in Europe; it is also common in western Asia.
Furthermore, it is not confined to the white racial stock; the principle of
hybrid inheritance which produces Binaries in Europe has also produced
Papuans in New Guinea, the Arii aristocrats in Polynesia, and many
American Indians.
The southern half of Albania, the homeland of the Toscs, lies outside
the Binaric racial area in the strictest sense. The Toscs are dwellers in
compact villages, wearers of pleated kilts like the Greeks, and frequent
emigrants to other lands. Like the Mzabites in Algeria, and the Had-
hramis of southern Arabia, many of the male inhabitants of several
southern Albanian towns, notably Korga, migrate to distant lands in their
youth, work in factories or run shops, and return when they have accumu-
lated enough money. It was this system which first led Albanians to
migrate to America, a system which the Toscs share with the Greeks.
The only adequate anthropometric data extant which deals with the
Toscs is a series from southwestern Albania, from the town of Gjinokaster
and its neighborhood.129 These Aginocastrians are on the short side of
medium in stature, with a mean of 164 cm.; they are long-bodied, with a
mean relative sitting height of 53.7, and medium in arm extension (rel.
span = 103.4). They are, as a rule, medium to lateral in bodily build.
Their cephalic index mean, 90.8, is by far the highest recorded in Europe.
129 Tildesley, M. L., Biomctrika, vol. 25, 1933, pp. 21-51.
See also:
Pittard, E., Les Peuples des Balkans', RA, vol. 40, 1930, pp. 109-115 (for Toscs in
Rumania) ;
Zampa, R., RDAP, ser. 3, vol. 1, pp. 625-648 (for Toscs in Italy).
THE CENTRAL ZONE 603
Their head length, 177 mm., is extremely small, its breadth, 161 mm.,
great. The auricular height of 122 mm. is moderate to low. The forehead
is rather broad, with a minimum frontal of 109 mm., the mandible less
so, with a bigonial of 107 mm., while the face breadth, 141 mm., like the
other facial dimensions, falls into the Alpine range. The face height, 119
mm., is moderately short; the facial index, 84.4, barely mesoprosopic.
The nose, however, with a length of 56.3 mm. and a breadth of 34.4 mm.,
is very leptorrhine, in a typical Albanian manner, with a nasal index
of 61.
Toscs measured in Rumania have a mean cephalic index of 87 ; members
of the Tosc colonies of southern Italy, who fled across the Adriatic from
the Turks in the sixteenth century, a mean of 80. It seems probable that
the extreme index mean of the Gjinokaster neighborhood is higher than
that for the Tosc country as a whole; yet individual Toscs measured in
Massachusetts run well into the 90's. The Italian Toscs may owe their
relative dolichocephaly to (a) mixture with Italians, (b) selection at
source of migration, or (c) the possibility that the high brachycephaly of
the Tosc country may be a recent phenomenon, as in southern Germany,
Bohemia, and so many other central European countries. It is very pos-
sible that the high brachycephaly of the Toscs at home may be partly
due to cradling; it is a commonplace in the Albanian colony of Massa-
chusetts that the newer generation born in Stockbridge and Brockton
lacks in many cases the extreme occipital brevity of its parents.
Further exposition concerning the physical anthropology of the Toscs
must take the form of subjective observations and remarks, which are
permissible only in lieu of adequate data. In the first place, the funda-
mental Tosc type is Alpine. The head form, with or without occipital
flattening, is usually globular, the forehead high and often bulbous, the
face frequently round in contour. The nose in many cases lacks the high-
bridged Dinaric character found among the Ghegs, as well as the common
depression of the tip. This Alpine type is well represented by photographs
on Plate 14. Beside the Alpines, there are many Dinarics in southern
Albania, but they probably form a minority, and in any case are extremely
variable. In Albania it is very easy to distinguish a Gheg; they have a
racial hall-mark which is hard to define and easy to recognize; the Toscs
are much less homogeneous, and in America they pass for the most part
unnoticed in the general racial hodge-podge. Most Bostonians, who
possibly see fifty to one hundred Toscs in a week, are unaware of their
presence, while they have definite ideas, formed upon first sight, as to who
is an Italian, an Armenian, or a Jew.
It is my opinion that the Toscs, in pigmentation as well as in bodily
and facial characters, resemble the southern and central French very
604 THE RAGES OF EUROPE
closely; that they and the French form the two ends of the Alpine racial
area in Europe, the center of which is largely taken up by the Dinaric
amalgam.
(14) THE GREEKS
The title of this section is The Greeks, and not Greece, since from the
mythical days of the Argonauts to the present, neither the peninsula of
Hellas nor Ionia and the Aegean Islands have been large enough to hold
the far-wandering Hellenes. Greek is a language and a civilization, the
Greeks a people; the Greeks are the descendants of all the peoples who have
adopted and retained that language and that civilization from classical
times to the present. Some of these converts to Hellenicism were inhab-
itants of Asia Minor, others of Thrace and Byzantium, others of the lands
bordering the Black Sea, especially the Crimea.
Into the peninsula of Greece itself, many thousands of Slavs wandered
as immigrants during the maximum South Slavic expansion; the Turks
brought colonists, including many Albanians, and whole districts of
Boeotia and Attica and of other parts of Greece are today Albanian speak-
ing. Romance-speaking shepherds, the Vlachs, have also made the slopes
of the Pindus their seasonal pastures. Since the World War many of the
Greeks living in Thrace and Asia Minor have been sent to Greek soil to
live, while Turks and other Moslems have been in turn repatriated.
Despite these attempts at producing ethnic order, much Greek territory,
especially in Macedonia, remains ethnically heterogeneous. Furthermore,
the number of Greeks who live abroad, be it in Egypt, East Africa, or in
the New World, is so great that the Greeks are still almost an international
people. Many of the Greeks leave home to make their fortunes on less
stony soil, but many of them also return.
It is inaccurate to say that the modern Greeks are different physically
from the ancient Greeks; such a statement is based on an ignorance of the
Greek ethnic character. In classical times the Greeks included many
kinds of people living in different places, as they do today. If one refers
to the inhabitants of Attica during the sixth century, or to the Spartans
of Leonidas, then the changes in these localities have probably not been
nearly as great as that between the Germans of Tacitus and the living
South Germans, to cite but a single example.
Within the peninsula of Hellas, despite the mobility of the Greeks to and
from their country, the internal mobility has not been sufficient to break
down strong local differentiations in head form. The Epirotes, like their
neighbors the Toscs, have an extremely high cephalic index mean, 88,
and there seems to be a strongly brachycephalic zone running down the
western slopes of the mountain core from Albania to the Gulf of Corinth,
THE CENTRAL ZONE 605
and perhaps beyond.130 It is an extension of the same zone which extends
all the way from the Alpine racial center in France, and more specifically,
of the population studied in the region of Gjinokaster in southernmost
Albania. The Greeks of Macedonia, again, who live in settlements inter-
spersed with those of Bulgars and of Turks, possess the usual West Balkan
brachycephaly, with mean cephalic indices of 86 for Christians, and 84.6
for Moslems. Greeks from the northern shore of Asia Minor have a mean
of 87, while those from the Black Sea coast in Rumania, and members of
the colony in the Crimea, are low brachycephals, with a mean of 82.
In Greece itself, most of the Peloponnesus, Attica, Euboea, and the
Ionian Isles are characterized by a mean cephalic index of 81 to 82; this
is also true of the Greeks who are found abroad, as in America. Aside from
local groups in regions which, in classical times, were not truly Greece,
the modern Greeks are for the most part low brachycephals. In Thessaly a
provincial mean of 77 has been reported; and Greeks from the shore of the
Sea of Marmora have a mean of 79. There are still, therefore, local
groups of Greeks who are largely long-headed.
The stature mean for Greeks in general runs about 167 cm., and there
seems to be little regional variation; those in Asia Minor and in the Crimea
are a millimeter shorter, those measured in Boston a millimeter taller.
The Greeks are as tall as most South Germans or northern Frenchmen;
their stature is too elevated for the prevalence, in partial brachycephaliza-
tion, of a strong, small Mediterranean strain. About half of them have
brunet-white or light brown skin color, the rest the usual pinkish-white of
central and northern Europe; over 80 per cent have dark brown hair,
the rest have hair evenly divided between black and the lighter shades of
brown. Pronounced blondism, although rare, is not unknown. The beard
is rarely lighter than the head hair, in contrast to the condition found
among Ghegs and Montenegrins; the implication is that the dark brown
130 A bibliography of works on the physical anthropology of the modern Greeks would
include :
Apostolides, BSAP, ser. 3, vol. 6, 1883, pp. 614-616.
Cutukala, G. J., AnthPr, vol. 8, 1930, pp. 12-136.
Hasluck, M. M., and Morant, G. M, Biometrika, vol. 21, 1929, pp. 325-334.
Hrdli£ka, A., The Old Americans.
Koumaris, J., ACAP, 1931. Paris, 1931, pp. 218-221.
Neophytos, A. G., Anth, vol. 1, 1890, pp. 679-711; vol. 2, 1891, pp. 25-35.
Ornstein, ZFE, vol. 9, 1877, pp. (39)~(41); vol. 11, 1879, pp. (305)-(306).
Pittard, E., ASAG, vol. 1, 1914, pp. 7-36; RDAP, vol. 25, 1915, pp. 447-454.
Schiff, F., ZFE, vol. 46, 1914, pp. 14-40.
Stephanos, C., DESM, ser. 4, 10, 1884, Article Grlce> p. 432.
Weisbach, A., MAGW, vol. 11, 1882, pp. 72-97.
Besides these published works reference has been made to a series of 113 Greeks
measured in Boston in 1932, by Drs. B. Gardner, S. Kimball, M. Titiev, and
Mr. E. Muller, as part of a graduate course in field methods, under the direction of the
author.
606 THE RACES OF EUROPE
hair of the majority of Greeks is a pure brunet condition. Over 65 per
cent of Greeks have pure brown eyes, and most of these are dark brown;
pure lights are sporadic, but there is a 15 per cent incidence of light-
mixed iris forms.
The pigment ratios given above apply to Greeks as a whole; there is
evidence, however, of considerable regional variation. The Macedonian
Greeks are much lighter, especially those that are Moslem, while the
Greeks of the Ionian islands are darker, as are, in all probability, most
Peloponnesians.
For a more detailed study of the Greeks, we may examine the series
measured in Boston, which, although without doubt subjected to selective
forces, does not seem too much at variance from native Greek samples
for our purposes. The men measured came from all parts of Greece, and
from Asia Minor. Their mean stature, 168 cm,, is moderately tall; their
bodily proportions are for the most part intermediate; the shoulders are
broad, the trunk length moderate, as shown by a relative sitting height of
52.9; the relative span is 104.
Their heads, with a mean cephalic index of 82, are long for brachy-
cephals (189 mm.), and of moderate breadth (154 mm.); the head height
of 127 mm. is moderately high. The occiput protrudes but little in most
of the group; 40 per cent have lambdoidal flattening, while some degree
of occipital flattening occurs in over 50 per cent. It is pronounced, however,
in only about 20 per cent. Their facial breadths are: minimum frontal,
107 rnm., bizygomatic, 142 mm., and bigonial, 111 mm.; the great
breadth of the jaw, as compared with that of the forehead, is a Greek
specialty, and is strongly contrasted with the inverted triangle face form of
Albanian Dinarics. The face height is 124.4 mm., the upper face height
75.6 mm.; the facial index, 87, is mesoprosopic, the upper facial index, 53,
a little high in comparison with the foregoing. The noses are both long
(58.8 mm.) and moderately broad (37 mm.); the nasal index of 63.2,
leptorrhine.
The dimensions given above are for the most part quite variable; a
number of distinct types are included, but the metrical character of the
group as a whole indicates a blending of Dinarics and Alpines with Atlanto-
Mediterraneans, which is confirmed by the observational data to follow.
The head hair is straight in slightly more than half the group, wavy in
most of the rest, but curly hair is not unusual. It is usually medium to fine
in texture. With at least half of adult male Greeks, it is thin on the head,
and about one out of five of any adult group is bald. In old age baldness
affects the majority. The beard development is as a rule thicker than in
most European groups, and the body hair is often abundant.
The eyebrows are often thick, and are concurrent in 75 per cent of the
THE CENTRAL ZONE 607
group; the browridges are usually of moderate development. The fore-
heads give, in most cases, an appearance of great width, and are seldom
more than very slightly sloping. The nasal characters of the Greeks are
variable, but there are definite trends which pervade the whole group.
The root is, as a rule, moderately high, and medium to broad; narrow
roots, usual among most northern Europeans and among Binaries, are rare.
The bridge is of medium to great height, almost never low; the breadth is
as a rule medium to broad. The nasal profile is straight in about 45 per
cent of the group, convex in about 30 per cent, and concave in but 10 per
cent, while the rest are wavy or concavo-convex. The tip is as a rule thick,
and elevated more often than it is depressed. The nasal wings, as a rule
medium, are flaring more often than compressed. On the whole few Greek
noses can qualify as Dinaric in the strict sense; more are typically Alpine,
while a straight-profiled, consistently wide form is the commonest.
There is nothing remarkable about the lips and mouth region of the
Greeks; both membranous and integumental lips thicknesses are of usual
European dimensions, and eversion is as a rule slight to medium. The
lip seam, however, is usually visible, and is sometimes prominently ele-
vated. A slight degree of facial prognathism is found in nearly half the
group; alveolar prognathism is rare. Typically Greek features are full,
curved temples, full cheeks, a laterally prominent malar region, and
strongly everted gonial angles. In these facial characters well over half
show an extreme development for Europeans.
Within the Greek group, heavy beards, heavy browridges, and con-
current eyebrows tend to associate themselves with an Alpine type; there
is also a linkage between tall stature, in the 170 cm. class, cephalic indices
of about 80, straight noses, dark brown hair, and dark brown eyes. This
last set of associations clearly denotes the presence of a strong Atlanto-
Mediterranean element. There are also strong connections between black
hair, occipital flattening, and narrow facial features, which means Dinaric
or Armenoid. That the small amount of blondism among the Greeks is
mostly Nordic in origin is indicated by its linkage with external eyefolds,
relative thinness of beard, and absence of eyebrow concurrency.
The Greeks, in short, are a blend of racial types, of which two are most
important; the Atlanto-Mediterranean and the Alpine. Dinaricism here
is present, but not all pervading; true Alpines are commoner than com-
plete Binaries. The Nordic element is weak, as it probably has been since
the days of Homer. The racial type to which Socrates belonged is today
the most important, while the Atlanto-Mediterranean, prominent in
Greece since the Bronze Age, is still a major factor. It is my personal
reaction to the living Greeks that their continuity with their ancestors of the
ancient world is remarkable, rather than the opposite.
608 THE RACES OF EUROPE
The living inhabitants of Crete differ considerably from the mainland
Greeks,181 They are taller, with a mean stature of 169 cm., and meso-
cephalic, with a mean cephalic index of 79. In some districts, as at
Pedhiadha, the mean is actually on the upper border of dolichocephaly,
at 77. The heads of the mesocephalic Cretans are as large as those of
Nordics or Atlanto-Mediterraneans; a mean length of 193 mm., and a
breadth of 149 mm., characterizes the group with an index mean of 77.
In facial and nasal dimensions, the Cretans resemble the Greeks. They
are, however, somewhat blonder; only 35 per cent have pure brown eyes,
while about 7 per cent have eyes that are light or predominantly light;
the rest are mixed, with dark mixture in the great majority. About 25 per
cent have black hair, and about 50 per cent dark brown; 10 per cent are
light brown or blond, the rest medium brown. As among Albanians and
not among most mainland Greeks, the beards are much lighter; 40 per
cent have blond or light brown mustaches, with an equal number black
or dark brown. About one-sixth have light brown to very brunet-white
skin color.
One special group, the Sphakiots, living near the western end of the
south side of the island, differ from the other Cretans in a number of
characters; they are very tall, with a mean stature of 175 cm., and meso-
to sub-brachycephalic, with a mean cephalic index of 81.6. They have
especially large heads, with a mean length of 191 mm. and breadth of
155 mm.; their faces are longer than the others, and equally broad or
broader. Morphologically Dinaric types are common among them; they
may be compared with Montenegrins and the northernmost Ghegs.
According to the general assumption of authorities on Crete, the Sphakiots
are the partial descendants of the Dorians who invaded the island at the
end of the Minoan period. That some of them do resemble the traditional
Spartan type is very likely. One can only derive them from the north,
from the region in which the larger branch of the Dinaric race was formed.
The living Cretans are for the most part Atlanto-Mediterraneans, and
there has been no post-Dorian migration into the island which could have
brought such a type in large numbers. The only logical explanation of its
presence in Crete, formed on the basis of available data, is that some of
this element existed in Crete in Minoan, probably for the most part Mid-
dle and Late Minoan, times; that migrations from the Greek mainland at
the time of the Minoan collapse may have brought more.
The fact that a larger number of Cretans are blond than is the case with
"I Hawes, C. H., ARBS, vol. 14, 1909-10, pp. 258-280; RBAA, supplement, 1910.
Luschan, F. von, ZFE, vol. 45, 1913, pp. 21-393.
Rosinski, B., Kosmos, vol. 50, 1925, pp. 584-637.
Schiff, F., ZFE, vol. 46, 1914, pp. 8-13.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 609
Greeks is a matter that requires ample data and some analysis to explain.
One may attribute much of the blondism, perhaps, to the invasion that
brought the Sphakiots, while some of it must be inherent in the Atlanto-
Mediterranean race. But the arrival of the early Greek-speakers may have
brought blondism other than that borne by the brachycephals, and Crete
is an island; it is a principle of insular anthropology, well borne out by
the British Isles, that when a numerous group invades an island it has a
better chance for survival than in a continental area where there is a
nearby mountainous or forest-covered hinterland, to which earlier types
may retreat and from which they may reemerge.
The important discovery about Crete, however, is the fact that its
population is mostly Atlanto-Mediterranean; this race seems to be almost
equally important in most of Greece. It has also appeared in the Dinaric
area, and in Serbia; we shall see more of it in the eastern Balkans.
(15) BULGARIA
East of the Illyrians and north of the Macedonians lived, in classical
times, the Thracians. Their territory reached beyond the Danube on the
north to the border of Scythian country, and on the east to the Black Sea.
In the period of their greatest power, between 450 and 300 B.C., they were a
numerous and important people; Herodotus called them the most numer-
ous west of India. The southern Thracians were more or less Hellenized
culturally, the northern ones in later times were Romanized, and were
also influenced by the settlement of Goths among them. The invasions of
the South Slavs, however, put an end to what remained of their ethnic
identity.
The Thracians are introduced here, at this late date, because they
were not discussed in Chapter VI, along with the other Indo-European-
speaking peoples of the Iron Age. The reason for this omission is that no
skeletal material worthy of mention has been described which can be as-
sociated with them. A single skull which was probably Thracian, however,
was dolichocephalic and leptorrhine. 132 Classical descriptions of Thracians
make them tall, powerful, and apparently fair. As such they fit into the
general scheme of the Iron Age Indo-European-speaking peoples.
Bulgaria was once Thracian country; a few centuries after its Romaniza-
tion, it was submerged by a Slavic invasion, the advance guard of the
movement which brought Slavic speech into Serbia. This Slavic invasion,
which resulted in a permanent settlement of the country, was followed by
a further invasion of still heathen Ugrian tribes under Turkish leadership,
182 Weisbach, A., MAGW, vol. 29, 1899. The foregoing discussion of the Thracians is
based mainly on Lebzelter, V., MAGW, vol. 49, 1929, pp. 61-126, See also, Pittard, E.?
les Peuples des Balkans, pp. 139-153,
610 THE RACES OF EUROPE
similar to the movement which brought the ancestors of the Magyars to
Hungary. The subsequent history of Bulgaria was the opposite to that
of Hungary; the Bulgars, who had left their eastern Russian home before
the rise of the Bolgar Empire, kept their Ugrian name, but gave up their
language, in favor of the speech of their Slavic predecessors. Whereas the
Magyars became Catholics, the Bulgars adopted Orthodox Christianity.
The next invaders of Bulgaria of importance were the Ottoman Turks,
who took over the fertile Danubian farm lands, and settled large colonies
of Asiatic Turks on them. Sporadic invasions of Tatars from South
Russia mingled themselves with this Turkish body. At the time of the
Russian conquest of the Caucasus, many Moslem Cherkesses fled to
Bulgaria to avoid submission to Christians.
Since the war, many of the Turkish peasants have left Bulgaria, and
many of the Cherkesses as well. There are still islands of these people
throughout the country, but especially in the eastern lowlands, and there
are minor colonies of Greeks, of Tatars, and of Rumanians. To the west,
the Bulgarians occupy the greater part of Yugoslavian Macedonia, and
border in this neighborhood on the Albanians. To the south, they extend
to the head of the Aegean, where their settlements are interspersed with
those of Turks and Greeks. Most of the Bulgarians are still Orthodox
Christians, but a large minority, especially in Macedonia, is Moslem.
The stature of the Bulgarians varies regionally from 166 cm. to 168
cm. ; 133 the tallest are found in Macedonia, and also in the very north-
eastern part of Bulgaria. There is a strong social segregation on the basis
of stature; students at the Sofia Military Academy had, in 1906, a mean
stature of 171.5 cm.;134 other socially selected samples rise to 170 cm.
The Bulgar colonists who live in the Crimea have a mean of 169 cm., those
in the Rumanian Dobruja, 167 cm. The mean cephalic index of over
5000 Bulgarian soldiers is 79.6; this varies within the kingdom of Bulgaria
from 80.8 in the north, to 79.9 in the southwest, and 78.2 in the south.
Christian Bulgars of Macedonia have a mean of 83.3, in the region of
Monastir this rises to 85; Moslem Bulgars are less brachycephalic, with a
mean of 80.5, while in the neighborhood of Salonika small local samples of
Bulgars are actually dolichocephalic, with a mean of 76.4, and in the
neighborhood of Adrianople in Turkish Thrace, the mean is only 78.3.
Bulgarian Emigres in the Crimea have a mean of 78.7.
133 Wateff, S., BMSA, ser. 5, vol. 5, 1904, pp. 437-458.
Drontschilow, K., AFA, vol. 42, 1915, pp. 1-76.
Hasluck, M., and Morant, G. M., Biometrika, vol. 21, 1929, pp. 325-334.
Kirkoff, N., BMSA, ser. 5, vol. 7, 1906, pp. 226-233.
Lebzelter, V., MAGW, vol. 59, 1929, pp. 61-126; vol. 53, 1933, pp. 233-251.
Nosov, A., Z. AntrK, vol. 3, 1929, pp. 1-53; PCZA, 1930, pp. 311-312.
Pittard, E., Les Peuples des Balkans.
i* Kirkoff, N., BMSA, 1906.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 611
Thus within the Bulgarian people there is a strong tendency toward
dolichocephaly, strong enough to impress mesocephaly upon the nation
as a whole. The strongest expression of this tendency is found in the
southern part of the kingdom, and beyond Bulgarian territory proper.
True brachycephals are found only among the Macedonian Bulgars who
live in close contact with Albanians.
The Bulgarians of the kingdom have heads of moderate size, with a
mean length of about 189 mm. and a breadth of 150 mm.; they are com-
parable in this respect to the longer-headed Greeks. Their faces, however,
are narrower than those of most Balkan peoples; the minimum frontal
mean is 105 mm., the bizygomatic 139 mm., and the bigonial 108 mm.
As with the Greeks, the jaw is wider than the forehead, but both widths
are much narrower than with the latter. The face height, 121 mm., is
moderate, the facial index, 87, mesoprosopic. On the other hand the
upper facial index, 55, is relatively high. The ratio between the two facial
indices assumes a Mediterranean position. The nasal diameters, 55 mm.
by 36 mm., yield a moderately leptorrhine index, 65.
So far, the metrical position of the main group of Bulgarians is that of
a moderately tall-statured Mediterranean group, with the addition of
some brachycephalizing agent in a minor numerical position. The pig-
mentation of the Bulgars, while lighter than that of the Greeks, is pre-
dominantly dark. About 25 per cent have pure dark eyes, about 15 per
cent light and light-mixed; the remaining majority are dark or evenly
mixed. The head hair is dark brown or very dark reddish brown in almost
the entire group; even among children, definitely blond combinations of
hair, eye, and skin color do not exceed 10 per cent of the whole. Among
adults light head hair is rare. The beard, however, shows the same tend-
ency to disproportionate lightness found among Albanians, Montenegrins,
and Cretans, but not among Greeks; the brunet colors found in about
90 per cent of the head hair occurs in only 50 per cent of the beards.
Medium and light brown beards account for most of the rest. There is a
notable absence of ash-blondisrn in this group.
Most of the Bulgars have straight nasal profiles; concave forms are
found principally in the northwest, adjoining Serbian territory, where
they amount to 1 2 per cent. Convexity is rare among all Bulgarians, but
least so in Macedonia. The snubbed tip so characteristic of northern and
eastern Slavs is by no means unknown among them, but is in the minority.
The Bulgarians are a composite people, with the following racial ele-
ments easily discernible: (a) a medium to tall-statured Atlanto-Mediter-
ranean; (b) a partially blond Neo-Danubian, of typical snub-nosed form;
(c) a Nordic; (d) a Dinaric, with the usual Alpine corollary; (e) a brachy-
cephalic central Asiatic Turkish or Tatar form. The basic element is the
612 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Atlan to-Mediterranean, which probably goes back to the Neolithic; the
Neo-Danubian is probably of both Slavic and Ugrian introduction,
although some of it may be older; the Nordic may be of several origins,
including Thracian; the Dinaric is simply the result of Bulgarian admix-
ture with local elements in Macedonia; the Turkic is found mostly in
eastern Bulgaria, and then among townsmen and shepherds rather than
among agriculturalists. Of these varied elements, the first two are the
most important, and the first more than the second. The presence of a
strongly entrenched Atlanto-Mediterranean population of Neolithic date
in all of the lowland Balkans south and east of the Iron Gate is becoming
increasingly evident. In Bulgaria it is geographically most concentrated
along the southern ethnic periphery, and among Bulgarian colonies
abroad, as in the Crimea.
(16) RUMANIA AND THE VLACHS
The modern kingdom of Rumania consists of the provinces of Moldavia,
Wallachia, Dobruja, Bessarabia, Transylvania, part of the Banat, and
the Bukovina. The last four, while the majority of their inhabitants are
Rumanians, have been Rumanian territory only since the World War.
Moldavia is bounded on the west by the crest of the Carpathians, on the
east by the Pruth River; Wallachia is bounded on the north by the Tran-
sylvanian Alps, and on the south by the Danube. Dobruja is the plain
lying between the northward curve of the Danube and the Black Sea; it
includes the important seaport of Constanza.
In Moldavia and Wallachia the great majority of the population is
Rumanian; the same is true to a large extent of Bessarabia, but in Transyl-
vania there are large populations of Germans and of Magyars, already
discussed in previous sections. In the Banat again there are many Hun-
garians, and a number of Serbs, while in the Dobruja lives one of the most
scrambled populations of Europe. Here Bulgars, Ottoman Turks, Tatars,
Gaguz, who claim to be descendants of the Kumans, Armenians, Kurds,
Caucasic peoples, and a few of almost all the other peoples of eastern
Europe and western Asia are to be found. The Dobruja is as varied as the
contents of an ethnological museum, and like a museum, each group
clings tenaciously to everything that is its own.136
The inhabitants of Dobruja include, of course, both Gypsies and Jews,
and Rumania is one of the greatest concentration points for both in
Europe. The Jews form 5 per cent of the population of the pre-war sec-
tion of the kingdom, and are especially numerous in northern Moldavia
and the Bukovina, where their zone of concentration forms an extension
of that in Polish Galicia. The Moldavian Jews, who are mainly of Polish
185 Pittard, E., Les Peuples des Balkanst is the authority on the Dobruja.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 613
or Russian antecedents, speak their own language, wear a separate costume,
and mix little if at all with the Rumanian population.
In classical times Transylvania, Wallachia, and Moldavia formed what
was known as Dacia, and the Dacians were considered to be a branch of
the Thracians. The Dacians included an upper class, distinguished by
the practice of wearing brimless felt hats, Scythian style, and a peasantry,
among whom the men went bare-headed, with their hair long, as do the
older and more conservative of the present-day Rumanian peasants.
Between 105 and 107 A.D. Trajan conquered Dacia, and made it a Roman
province; the warlike inhabitants, who had long resisted the Romans,
fled in great numbers, while their villages were being plundered; later,
many are said to have returned. The Romans placed many colonists in
Dacia, and for its defense established there the permanent headquarters
of the thirteenth legion. In 256 A.D. the Goths arrived, and the Romans
began a hasty departure; it is likely that many of the inhabitants of the
country left with them.
During the century and a half of Roman rule, the language of Dacia
became Latin, and modern Rumanian is without doubt a descendant of
that colonial speech. During the maximum extension of the empire,
Latin and its derivatives were spoken in a wide zone peripheral to Rome,
including the Iberian peninsula, Gaul, Switzerland, the Tyrol, and much
of the territory lying between the head of the Adriatic and the Black
Sea. Albanian, with its strong Latin infusion, must be considered a partial
product of this extension; elsewhere Ladin, Romansch, and Rumanian
must be considered survivals in the face of the barbarian invasions which
converted most of southeastern Europe to Germanic, Slavic, Uralic, and
Altaic speech.
Foreigners designate Rumanians and Rumanian speakers by the term
Vlach; the Vlachs are the Rumanian speakers to be found throughout
southeastern Europe, whether living in Rumania, Bulgaria, Greece,
Albania, Yugoslavia, or elsewhere. 'The word Vlach, which is a derivative
from the Gothic, by way of Slavic, means "foreigner"; it is a cognate of
our own word "Welsh," used by the Anglo-Saxons to designate Kymric-
speaking Britons, and of "Walloon." The modern Vlach language, while
basically Latin, shares with Albanian certain structural peculiarities
which it must derive from Thracian or Illyrian, and at the same time
contains a large number of Slavic roots.
The use of a Romance language in Rumania today is not a simple case
of a Romanized Dacian survival; the history of Rumania is too compli-
cated to permit this explanation alone. After the departure of the Romans,
Dacia was overrun by Goths, by Slavs, by Bulgars, by many kinds of
Tatars, and by Ottoman Turks. It is very likely that the Vlach survival
614 THE RACES OF EUROPE
in these lands was only partial until the late Middle Ages, when the
peasants who had resisted the inroads of these conquerors were joined
by their kinsmen returning from Bulgaria and Macedonia, and from
beyond the Carpathians. Since then the expansion of the Vlachs in what
is now Rumania has been constant and, east of the Carpathians, nearly
complete.
The Vlachs have always been far wanderers; many of them are shep-
herds, and the pastoral life has been as important to them, until modern
times, as agriculture. In Macedonia and northern Greece, and in southern
Albania, Vlach colonists are nomads living in black tents like those of
Arabs, and like those which one may suppose the Scythians used before
them. In Dalmatia they were during the Middle Ages an important people;
Dubrovnik (Ragusa) was originally a Vlach town. In the peninsula of
Istria, now inhabited mostly by Slovenes and Italians, a small group of
Vlach speakers, the Ci£i, has resisted assimilation to this day. These
Istrian Vlachs, early invaders of Illyrian territory, are the remnants of a
former link in the continuity of the Roman Empire between the Atlantic
and the Black Sea.
In view of the complex ethnic history of Rumania, the living Rumanians
may be expected to show evidence of a multiplicity of racial origin. To
native Dacian elements, which must have included a blend of indigenous
Neolithic peoples with Sa tern-speaking Nordics, have been added whatever
population the Romans brought and which did not run away, and a
multitude of early Slavs whom the Vlachs absorbed. Other elements,
Ugric, Tatar, and Gothic, were probably of lesser importance.
The Rumanians, as a whole, in the early part of the present century,
had a mean stature of roughly 167 cm., which is probably nearly repre-
sentative today.136 There is little regional variation; what there is indicates
that the mountaineers of the northern Rumanian Carpathians may be
taller than the rest, since the villagers of Fundul Moldovii, studied by
Rainer, have a mean of nearly 170 cm.; those living on the Bessarabian
plain amongst the Ukrainians seem to be the shortest, with a mean as
low as 165 cm. A greater variation is found in the cephalic index; on the
plains of Moldavia and Wallachia, and in the Dobruja, the Rumanians
136 Besides Pittard's book, sources on the Rumanians are:
Biasutti, R., APA, vol. 51, 1921, pp. 154-184.
Bielskii, P. A., RAJ, vol. 7, 1907, pp. 146-164.
Himmel, H., MAGW, vol. 18, 1888, pp. 83-84.
Lebzelter, V., Anth, vol. 45, 1935, pp. 65-69.
Papilian, V., RDAP, vol. 33, 1923, pp. 337-341
Pittard, E., and Donifci, A., BMSA, ser. 7, vol. 8, 1927, pp. 38-50; BSGA, vol. 3,
1927, pp. 13-14; vol. 4, 1928, pp. 29-30.
Pittard, E., and Sergent, E., RDAP, vol. 29, 1919, pp. 57-76.
Rainer, F. I., EnquStes anthropologiques dans trois Villages Roumains des Carpathes.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 615
are as a rule mesocephals or sub-brachycephals, with means of 80 to 81;
they are nearly as long-headed as the Bulgarians. In the mountains,
however, they are fully Dinaric or Alpine in their brachycephaly, with a
mean of 85.4 in Fundul Moldovii in the Bukovinian highlands, and of 86
in Bukovina in general, where they equal the brachycephaly of the Huzuls.
Within the curve of the Carpathians, they are also completely brachy-
cephalic; means from Rumanians in Transylvania and in the Banat lie
mostly between 84 and 85, although in the village of Dragu§, an old and
completely Rumanian settlement lying just inside the bend in the moun-
tain crest where the Transylvanian Alps become the eastern Carpathians,
and not far from the Saxon city of Kronstadt, the mean is 86.6.
We are dealing, therefore, with two kinds of Rumanians; the meso-
cephalic ones of the eastern plains, and the brachycephalic ones of the
Carpathians and the lands to the west. The Carpathians form a sharp
boundary delimiting the eastward and northeastward extension of Alpine
brachycephaly in Europe. This boundary shows little regard for language
or for ethnic tradition.
The Rumanians of the plains show a general metrical similarity to the
Neq-Danubians of the Slavic countries to the north, and at the same time
a relationship to the longer-headed Bulgarians. The village of Nerejul
Mare, some eighty miles north of Bucharest on the southeastern slope of
the Carpathians, will serve as an example of the plains population, although
the mean cephalic index of its inhabitants, 81.5, is higher than in some
districts. The mean stature is 166.8 cm., the relative sitting height 52.7.
Eighty-eight per cent of the men have black or dark brown to brown hair,
the rest light brown or blond. Pure dark eyes are found among 54 per
cent, light eyes among 11 per cent, with the rest mixed, mostly dark-
mixed. Thus the population is prevailingly brunet, as well as moderately
tall, intermediate in body build, and sub-brachycephalic.
The mean head length of 186 mm., and breadth of 151 mm. show a
moderately small head size; the auricular height of 125 mm. is relatively
high. The face is of moderate size, with a height of 121 mm., and breadths
of 102 mm. for the minimum frontal, 140 mm. for the bizygomatic, and
106 mm. for the bigonial. The nose is small, with a height of 53.2 mm.
and a breadth of 34.2 rnm. The face is mesoprosopic, with a facial index
of 86, and leptorrhine, with a nasal index of 65. While these cranial and
facial indices place the inhabitants of Nerejul Mare definitely in the same
class with the peasantry of most of Russia, the intensity of hair and eye
pigmentation, and the narrowness of the forehead and nose, as contrasted
to the breadth of the jaw, suggest the brunet long-headed element in
Bulgaria and Greece. Rainer finds these moderately tall Mediterraneans
among his villagers, as well as individuals of Neo-Danubian, Slavic-looking
616 THE RACES OF EUROPE
type; Alpines and Binaries are partly responsible for the elevation
of the cephalic index, and Norics are present as a Nordic by-product.
In Moldavia as a whole, however, the Neo-Banubian and Black Sea
Mediterranean forms are the two elements of greatest importance, and the
same is true of Wallachia.
The mountaineers of Fundul Moldovii, in the Bukovina, are taller than
the villagers just studied, with a mean stature, quoted above, of 169.5 cm.;
their cephalic index mean is 85.4, while their nasal index reaches the low
mean of 60. They are somewhat lighter eyed than the plainsmen, and
darker haired. Their heads are broader, with a mean width of 157 mm.,
rather than shorter, and hence larger. Their faces are longer (124 mm.)
and broader (144 mm.), while both foreheads and jaws also exceed those
of the Moldavian villagers in breadth, and their nasal lengths (56.4 mm.)
are considerably greater. Fifteen per cent have flattened occiputs.
Although only 20 per cent have convex nasal profiles, in the great majority
the forward jut of the nose, accompanied by a straight or wavy profile, is
great.
The Fundul Moldovii people are in great majority Binaries; a few
appear Alpine, and a few others Noric. By and large, if the inhabitants
of this village were transported to northern Albania and given a change
of costume, few anthropologists would be able to tell the difference between
the newcomers and the native tribesmen. The inhabitants of Bragu§,
farther south and on the Transylvanian side, and no farther from Bucharest
than Nerejul Mare, are just as Binaric metrically as the Bukovinian
villagers; their heads are, in fact, shorter, with a mean length of 182 mm.,
as are their faces; they resemble to a certain extent the Binaric form
common among Serbs.
Leaving the political boundaries of Rumania, we find two groups of
Vlachs who have been the subjects of special study; those of Macedonia137
and of Istria.138 The Vlachs of Macedonia are the tallest of the many
varied ethnic groups which compose that region, with a mean stature
of 168 cm., and have the greatest absolute head length (188 mm.). They
are low brachycephals, with a mean cephalic index of 83, are predomi-
nantly dark-haired and dark-eyed, and straight-nosed. They show some
Binaric influences, as do all the peoples of Macedonia; on the whole,
however, their closest affiliation is with the brunet mesocephals and dolicho-
cephals of the eastern Balkan area. There are, nevertheless, a few blonds
among them, and these are usually Nordic.
The Istrian Vlachs, on the other hand, are complete Binaries with a
mean stature of 169 cm., a cephalic index of 86, and head and facial
18THasluck, M., and Morant, G. M., Biometrika, vol. 21, 1929, pp. 322-336.
isw Schiick, A,, MAGW, vol. 43, 1914, pp. 210-234.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 617
dimensions which cannot be distinguished from those of most Binaries,
In their high brachycephaly, however, and in their facial and nasal
lengths, as well as in a predominant brunet tendency, they are much
closer to the Tyrolese, and especially to the Ladin-speakers, than to the
Slovenes among whom they live. They are also very similar to their
distant linguistic relatives in the Carpathians.
The Vlachs, a widespread and numerous people in southeastern Europe,
are the descendants of Romanized aborigines, and of other peoples whom
these latter have absorbed. They have no racial homogeneity, but vary
regionally according to the races long seated in the regions where they
live. In the northeast, where the Moldavian plain forms a continuation
of the Black Earth region of southern Russia, the Neo-Danubian type of
the Black Earth region is predominant; in the southeast, where a local
Atlanto-Mediterranean type is concentrated, the Vlachs tend to assume
that form; west of the Carpathians, and near the crest of that range, they
are Binaries of the first rank, comparable to that other group of mountain-
dwelling speakers of Neo-Latin, the Ladiner.
In studying the racial composition of southern Russia, there was evidence
of a moderately tall, long-headed, brunet Mediterranean form, which is
concentrated along the northern shore of the Black Sea, but which also
appears sporadically in the entire Russian population. To western
Europeans and Americans, it is better known than its frequency would
warrant, for it is exemplified by several world famous ballerinas and
opera singers. This is the Mediterranean racial division which the
Russian anthropologists call Pontic 139 and which the Poles recognize as a
very minor element in their own population. It is with little doubt of
Neolithic date in southern Russia, Rumania, Bulgaria, and the Hellespont
region, and probably in Greece and the Aegean. In most of Thrace it
seems more basic than the Banubian, or at least more common. What its
relationship may be to the introduction of the Neolithic economy into
Europe by land or by sea, cannot be determined without more data.
(17) THE OSMANLI TURKS
The best known and most numerous of the living Turkish peoples, the
Osmanlis, today form the principal element in the population of Asia
Minor, while colonies of them, left behind by the recession of Turkish
power from southeastern Europe, are to be found here and there in Yugo-
slavia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, and Rumania. Only in the present
Turkish territory west of the Bosporus do they form at the present day a
majority in any European area which is a political entity. Individual
Turks still occupy positions of importance in some of the former Turkish
w'Bunak, V., ZFMA, vol. 30, 1932, pp. 441-503.
618 THE RACES OF EUROPE
provinces outside of Europe, as in the Yemen; Turkish families form the
nucleus of the aristocracy in others, as in Egypt.
The first Turks to concern themselves with Asia Minor were the Seljuks,
a nation of Turks or Turkomans called at that time Ghuzz, who were
converted to Islam in what is now Russian Turkestan about the year
1000 A.D. After conquering Persia, they entered Armenia in 1048 A.D.
and during the rest of the eleventh century gradually took over Asia
Minor, although they were more interested in the civilized Moslem centers
of Syria and Iraq. Starting about 1070 A.D., tribe after tribe of Turkish
nomads from central Asia and Turkestan entered Asia Minor across
northern Persia, in search of fresh pastures. Many of the Christian peasants
of the peninsula abandoned their farms, turned to the cities, or became
nomadic themselves; this movement was further fostered by the great
destruction of property consummated by the Mongols.
The Osmanli Turks, later comers than the others, did not arrive in
Asia Minor until 1227 A.D., and numbered but a few thousands. About
1300 A.D., under their leader Osman, they obtained control of the Seljuk
empire, and the Ottoman rule began at that time. They converted many
of the Christian natives, left alone by the Seljuks, to Islam, and the name
of the nation as a whole became that of the founder of the Ottoman dynasty.
It cannot be denied that the present-day Turks of Asia Minor have
absorbed much of the pre-Turkish population, but that their ancestors
came in great numbers from central Asia is equally true. The Turkish
invasion was not a simple, connected event, but a long succession of immi-
grations of different kinds of Turks over a long period of time. The hetero-
geneity of these movements is seen by the retention in the present Turkish
population of Anatolia of old distinctions; the Yiiriiks, for example, who
still pasture their flocks on the hills of Cappadocia and Cilicia, retained
their old central Asiatic manner of life with little change until the rise
of the Turkish Republic, and the Kizilbashes, in eastern Anatolia, who
are Shiite Turks from Persia, are recognized as a separate group.
The Christian population of Turkey, or that remnant of it which has
remained unabsorbed, had until recent years always been numerous; it
consists mostly of Greeks, many thousands of whom have been sent back
to Greek soil, and of Armenians, a large proportion of whom have emi-
grated during the present century to all quarters of the earth, and in
especially large numbers to America. Jews as well as Christians survived
centuries of Turkish rule; throughout mediaeval and modern history
Moslems have behaved with greater consistency and with less violence
toward Jews than have Christians.
The modern Turks of Anatolia differ little in most of their metrical
characters from peoples whom we have already encountered in central
THE CENTRAL ZONE 619
and southeastern Europe, as the following r6sume will make clear.140
The mean stature for Anatolia is 167 cm.; this varies from 169 cm. in
the Smyrna district and 168 cm. in the Dardanelles-Marmora Sea region,
and in Kastamuni on the Black Sea shore, to 166 cm. in the eastern prov-
inces, on the flank of Armenia. The bodily build is often thick -set or
lateral; this is shown by a relative sitting height of 54. The relative span,
104, is moderate, and varies from 103 in the west, to nearly 105 in the
east. The same is true of bodily proportions in general; the lateral form is
much more typical of the eastern provinces than of the Aegean and Pontine
shores.
The head form of the Turks as a whole is only moderately brachy-
cephalic; 84.2 is the mean for Anatolia, and this varies from 81.8 in
Brussa, between Smyrna and the Hellespont, to 85.4 in the eastern prov-
inces, and 86.6 in Kastamuni, on the southern shore of the Black Sea.
The western and southern Turks are low brachycephals, the eastern and
northern ones high. In the regions of Brussa, Smyrna, and Konia, there
is, therefore, an important long-headed minority. For the most part the
heads of Turks are not large; the mean length for Anatolia is 181.6 mm.,
the breadth 152.6 mm., while the auricular height mean is 126.1. These
dimensions could easily be matched among Yugoslavs or Macedonians.
In Smyrna, the longest-headed province, the mean head length rises to
nearly 184 mm., in Kastamuni it falls to 180 mm. The breadth similarly
varies between 150 mm. and 156 mm.; even the roundest-headed region
has a relatively small head breadth. It is interesting to note that the
Greeks of the north shore of Asia Minor have the same head form as the
Turks, but to a more exaggerated degree; with a length mean of 180.7
mm., breadth of 157.6 mm., and cephalic index of 87.2.
The faces of the Osmanli Turks of Anatolia, as well as their head vaults,
have dimensions reminiscent of southeastern Europe. The total face
height mean for the whole is 122 mm., and this varies little throughout
the region. The bizygomatic mean,' 140 mm., is also relatively constant,
but narrowest in the Smyrna district. The minimum frontal, about 105
mm., is not excessive, nor is the bigonial, 108 mm. In these dimensions
the Turks resemble Balkan Mediterraneans and Alpines; their faces are
140 The principal work on the physical anthropology of modern Turkey is Wagen-
seil, F., ZFMA, vol. 29, 1931, pp. 193-260.
Other references consulted are:
Crowfoot, J. W., JRAI, vol. 30, 1900, pp. 305-320.
Elisiev, A., IILE, vol. 68, 1890, col. 219 ff.; 1891, vol. 71, col. 62 If. R£sum6 in Anth,
vol. 3, 1892, pp. 477-481.
Kansu, S. A., TAM, vol 7, 1931, pp. 3-15, 17-19.
Luschan^ F. von, JRAI, vol. 41, 1911, pp. 221-244; AFA, vol. 19, 1890, pp. 31-54.
Luschan, F. von, and Petersen, E., Reisen in Lykien, Milyas^ und Kibyratis.
2upanic", N., Etnolog, 1927, pp. 87-130. R6sum£ in AnthPr, vol. 6, 1928, pp. 95-96.
620 THE RACES OF EUROPE
not long enough for exaggerated Dinarics. Like the Greeks and the peoples
to the west of the Black Sea, they preserve a forehead-jaw ratio which
emphasizes the width of the mandible. The nose, with a mean height of
57 mm. and a breadth of 35.3 mm., is, however, fully Dinaric. It is
largest (59 mm. by 36 mm.) in the eastern provinces, smallest (56 mm. by
35 mm.) in Smyrna. The nasal index of 62.4 is leptorrhine, but not as
much so as that of Albanians.
The unexposed skin color of the Turks is mostly brunet-white or swarthy,
(von Luschan #11-16), the head hair color, in 90 per cent of cases, dark
brown. Black hair, however, is found in less than 5 per cent, and blondism
is rare. The ratio of dark brown hair is constant, except in the eastern
provinces, where it is nearly 100 per cent. The beard hair is often lighter
than the head hair; only 70 per cent are black or dark brown, while
reddish shades are found among nearly 10 per cent. Reddish and blondish
beards are by far commoner in the western and northern provinces than
elsewhere, and are in these places found in one-third of the group observed.
Pure dark eyes are found in about 40 per cent of the total, while another
40 per cent possesses dark-mixed eyes, many of which would appear
brunet upon casual observation. The remaining 20 per cent is almost
entirely composed of men who possess evenly mixed or light-mixed irises,
with but less than 2 per cent of pure lights. On the whole, the Anatolian
Turks are prevailingly brunet in pigmentation, but brunet in a condition
in which the skin is brunet-white, the hair dark brown, and the eyes
brown or dark-mixed. There are several shades of brown in the eye
color, and it is apparent that more than one brunet strain is present.
The virtual absence of black hair, however, the presence of rufosity, and
the high ratio of mixed eyes, when combined with the metrical data,
indicate that the principal brunet strain is some form of Alpine.
Fifty-four per cent of the Turks have some occipital flattening, and this
ratio rises to 80 per cent in the province of Kastamuni. In the west, it
falls to 38 per cent, and in the eastern provinces is only 42 per cent. The
associated Dinaric character of a convex nasal profile is found among
58 per cent of the total; the ratio is slightly higher in the north and east
than in the west. The nasal wings are usually compressed to medium;
flaring forms, such as one associates with mongoloids, are very rare, as are
concave nasal profiles. An excessive development of the malars is uncom-
mon, but more frequent in the east than in the west. The epicanthic eye-
fold, typical of Mongols, is almost unknown in Turkey. The beard is
often heavy, and the body hair on the heavy side of medium.
On the basis of the metrical and morphological data outlined above,
we may dismiss the theory that the Anatolian Turks are in any sense
mongoloid. It may be possible to find individuals with some recognizable
THE CENTRAL ZONE 621
mongoloid features, but no more frequently than in most countries of
Europe. The Anatolian Turks are for the most part Cappadocian Mediter-
raneans, with a mixture of Alpines in sufficient quantity to produce the
Dinaric transformation. Only in Kastamuni, on the shore of the Black
Sea, and in the provinces which contain large populations of Armenians
and other non-Turks, does the brachycephaly of the Osmanlis reach full
Dinaric proportions. In the west and south, there are enough unassimilated
dolichocephalic factors left to form a considerable minority.
If the Turks are for the most part Gappadocians Dinaricized through
Alpine mixture, this simply means that the zone of reduced Upper
Palaeolithic survivors extends into Anatolia; the skeletal types found
among the meager remains from Alishar Hiiyuk have mingled, with a
result parallel to that experienced throughout the entire Alpine racial
zone in Europe. This conclusion would mean that the Turks are not
Turks at all, except in speech and tradition, except for one thing: the
remnants of the pre-Turkish population are more brachycephalic, more
typical members of this Near Eastern Dinaric race than are the Turks
themselves. We have already seen that the Asia Minor Greeks are even
rounder-headed than the Turks of Kastamuni; they are also 2 cm. shorter
in stature. As we shall presently see, the Armenians themselves likewise
exceed the Turks in their Dinaric or Armenoid character. Furthermore,
the Takhtadshy and Bektashi, members of heretical sects in Asia Minor
who arc supposed to have little Turkish blood, are rounder and shorter-
headed, and more Alpine and Armenoid in every way, than the Turks as a
whole.141 The Turks, therefore, while to a large extent descended from the
pre-Turkish population, are perceptibly different as a group from its
most fully authentic survivors.
With this directional lead, we may proceed to examine the most fully
Turkish people in Turkey, the Yiiriiks, pastoral nomads of Cappadocia
and Cilicia, who are supposed to have mixed little with non-Turks or
other kinds of Turks since their arrival. A small but apparently repre-
sentative series 142 shows them to be tall, with a mean stature of 169 cm.,
mesocephalic, with a mean cephalic index of 79, and largely brunet.
Their faces are moderately long (124.6 mm.) and moderately wide (144
mm.). In facial features they are not at all mongoloid. If the early Turk-
ish invaders of Asia Minor belonged largely to this type, then the racial
position of the modern Osmanlis in reference to that of the previous Ana-
tolians is easily comprehended.
In the early history of the Turkish invasions, there was some question
141 Crowfoot, JRAI, 1900.
Luschan F. von, AFA, 1890.
142 Luschan, F. von, in Petersen and von Luschan.
622 THE RACES OF EUROPE
as to whether the ancestors of the Seljuks and Osmanlis were to be con-
sidered Turks in the sense of Kirghiz and Uzbegs, or Turkomans, a general
name meaning Turk-like people. In view of the present evidence, it is
likely that they were actually Turkomans, or at any rate Turks similar to
living Turkomans and Azerbaijanis (see Chapter XI, section 5), and
were thus non-mongoloid whites of a tall, long-faced, high-headed, brunet
Mediterranean variety. The Turks who invaded eastern Russia, on the
other hand, belonged rather to the Kirghiz type, which is a Mongol-
Turkoman-Nordic mixture, and the Tatars of eastern Europe and of the
Caucasus are for that reason primarily brachycephalic and partially
mongoloid.
The determination of the physical type of the Osmanli and Seljuk
Turks, through directional leads and the study of the Yuriiks, furnish a
reasonable explanation of the racial characters of the modern Anatolian
Turks. If one places the contribution of the Turkish ancestors in Anatolia
at about 25 per cent, and that of the previous inhabitants at about 75 per
cent, the racial situation in that peninsula assumes a position in accord-
ance with history. The indigenous 75 per cent is composed of a Cappa-
docian-Alpine blend, in which the latter element must have reemerged
in a manner similar to that which can be chronologically established in
central Europe.
Data on the Turkish inhabitants of the present southeastern European
states are very conflicting. A series of 200 from Macedonia 143 is hyper-
Anatolian, with a mean cephalic index of 87, and pigmentation comparable
to that of Turks in Asia Minor; another series, presumably from a different
part of Macedonia,144 is dolichocephalic, with a mean index of 77.7. Turks
in Rumelia,146 that is southern Bulgaria, and Turks in the Dobruja,146
have cephalic indices of 82-83, and metrical and morphological features
which relate them to the body of Turks in general. Owing to the fact that
the Osmanli Turks of the Balkans have preferred emigration rather than
assimilation since the disappearance of their European empire, it is unlikely
that they have contributed much in a racial sense to populations which
are now Christian, or to Moslem groups which are not Turkish in speech.
(18) NEAR EASTERN BRACHYCEPHALS; SYRIA, ARMENIA,
AND THE CAUCASUS
The object of the present section is to deal with the general group of
brachycephalic peoples, other than the Osmanli Turks, who live in the
regions lying between Syria and the Caucasus, and including both. These
148Hasluck, M., and Morant, G. M., Biometrika, vol. 21, 1929, pp. 322-336.
M* Lebzelter, V., MAGW, vol. 63, 1933, pp. 233-251.
"» Kansu, S. A., TAM, vol. 7, 1931, pp. 13-15, 17-19.
146 Pittard/E., Les Peuples des Balkans.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 623
peoples include the various groups of Syrians, the Druses, the Armenians,
the Assyrians, and the Caucasic peoples proper.
Syria, an Arabic-speaking country, is bounded by the northern Arabian
desert on the east, by Palestine on the south, and by Ottoman Turkish
territory on the north. It is divided into the coastal mountain sections of
Lebanon on the south and the Alawiya country on the north, and the
inland portions administered from Damascus and Aleppo, respectively.
In the very south is the Jebel Druz, some fifty miles east of the Lake of
Tiberias. The majority of the inhabitants of the Lebanon region are
Christians, of both Maronite and Orthodox sects; the Druses practice a
secret religion of their own which arose from a Fatemid heresy in Egypt
in the eleventh century; the Alawiya or Nosairi are also Moslem heretics,
being the most extremely schismatic of the Shiites.147
For anthropometric purposes, the Syrians may be divided into (1)
the Syrian Bedawin, including the Ruwala, Akeydat, and Maualy, (2)
the desert border groups, including the towns of Horns, Hama, and Aleppo,
and the districts of Mharda, Hafar, and Hijana, (3) the mountain groups,
including the Druse, the Lebanese, the Mitwali (Lebanese Moslems), and
the Alawiya (Alouites). The Syrian Bedawin are dolichocephalic Arabs
of pure Mediterranean race; the desert border groups are intermediate
between the former and the mountain people, with mean cephalic indices
of 77-79 for the country people, and 81-82 for the city dwellers. It is the
third group, which is fully brachycephalic, that deserves special attention
here. Both the Lebanese and the Druses have mean cephalic indices of
86, and the Mitwali of 87, while the mean of the Alawiya is 83. 148
The mountain peoples, Lebanese, Alawiya, Mitwali, and Druse, are all
racially very much alike, whatever their differences in religion, and a study
of one will suffice for the whole. The Lebanese will serve as an example.
They are of a little more than moderate European stature, with a mean
of 167 cm.; their bodily proportions are medium, from the metrical stand-
point; they are thicker set as a rule than Bedawin, and are built more often
like the Anatolian Turks; some, who follow sedentary occupations, incline
to corpulence.
147 Lammens, H., Islam, Beliefs and Institutions.
148 Principal sources on Syria are :
Kappers, C. U. A., and Parr, L. W., An Introduction to the Anthropology of the Near East.
Seltzer, C. C., The Racial Characteristics of Syrians and Armenians.
Shanklin, W. M., JRAI, vol. 65, 1935, pp. 375-390.
Shanklin, W. M., and Izzeddin, N., AJPA, vol. 21, 1936, pp. 217-252; vol. 22, 1937,
pp. 381-415.
Also other material in preparation by W. M. Shanklin, and a series of over 600 adult
male Druses by Miss Izzeddin. Part of Miss Izzeddin's series, the Matn sub-group, has
already been published by Kappers and Parr. Any reference to her work here is through
the medium of this publication.
624 THE RACES OF EUROPE
In their head and face measurements, they are virtually identical with
the more brachycephalic groups of Anatolian Turks studied in the last
section; they likewise fall extremely close to the total means for Ghegs
in northern Albania, in all characters studied except the nasal dimensions;
the Lebanese being shorter and slightly broader-nosed. The nasal dimen-
sions of the Lebanese are 55 mm. by 35 mm., with a nasal index of 63.
Most of the Lebanese have brunet-white unexposed skin color, although
some 20 per cent have pinkish-white skin, as light as that of most northern
Europeans. About 50 per cent have black hair, a higher incidence than
was found among Turks, while most of the rest have dark brown. Eighty-
three per cent have pure brown eyes, with dark brown in the majority;
the principal mixed color scheme is green-brown. Some 5 per cent have
eyes which are either pure or nearly pure blue. The hair is usually wavy,
and often fine in texture; it is often heavy on the beard and body, while
the eyebrows are frequently thick, and in 77 per cent, concurrent.
The noses of the Lebanese, convex in profile in 53 per cent of the group,
have usually a slight to medium nasion depression, a high, medium to
broad root, and a high, broad bridge; the tip is of moderate thickness in
most cases, and usually elevated; the wings are seldom compressed. Their
foreheads usually have little slope, their browridges are of moderate
development; occipital flattening of some degree is present in almost all
who were born in Syria.
The Lebanese are Mediterraneans of the same type found in Palestine
and northern Arabia, brachycephalized through the agency of the Alpine
race. They differ from the brachycephals of Anatolia, who antedate the
Osmanli Turks in origin, in very few characters; one is the possession of
black hair, as opposed to dark brown, in half the group; another is a
greater incidence of pure brown eyes. The difference between the two
is largely due to the fact that the Arabian type of Mediterranean is natu-
rally more brunet than the principal element in Anatolia. Among the
Lebanese, dark brown-eyed, black-haired individuals tend to be shorter,
longer-headed, and narrower-faced than the group as a whole, and thus
lean in a Mediterranean direction; the blonds or near-blonds are the
tallest, longest-faced, and narrowest-nosed. They thus assume the Noric
form typical of a Nordic strain in this type of mixture. The Lebanese on
the whole are Dinaricized Mediterraneans, but do not entirely merit the
term Armenoid, any more than do the Osmanli Turks.
We cannot date the brachycephalization of the Syrians exactly, but
we know that brachycephals began travelling from that part of the world
by sea as early as approximately 2200 B.C. Cyprus, an early center of
maritime Bronze Age activity, is today inhabited by a Graeco-Turkish
population, in which the Greeks, both linguistically and in religion, are
THE CENTRAL ZONE 625
the preponderant element.149 The living Cypriots are, like their Dinaric
forebears, moderately tall, with a mean stature of 169 cm.; they are
moderately brachycephalic, with a mean cephalic index of 82.5, and their
anthropometric character in general is fully Dinaric. Slightly more than
half of the Cypriots have brown eyes, and of the others the majority are
greenish-brown. Thirty-five per cent have black hair, most of the others,
dark brown. On the basis of available information, it is possible to admit
both Greek and Turkish influences in a physical sense, while the major
inheritance must be from the Cypriots of the Bronze Age.
It has long been believed by physical anthropologists that the quintes-
sence of Near Eastern brachycephaly is to be found in the Armenians;
the racial term Armenoid being named for them. The Armenians have
long been established in the territory which is now only partly theirs;
they had, before the arrival of the Turks, a powerful kingdom, which
covered most of the territory between the Gulf of Alexandretta and the
Caucasus. Their kingdom had its roots in the Early Iron Age, and a possi-
ble derivation, in part at least, from that of the Hittites. The endogamy of
the Armenians in modern times is well known, and there is every reason to
suppose that they have preserved a pre-Turkish racial complex with some
fidelity. Endogamy, however, functions best under adversity, and there
is reason to believe that in the time of their greatest power the Armenians
absorbed other Near Eastern peoples into their linguistic and cultural
body. There was, furthermore, a strong social division into military
aristocrats and peasantry.
The present Armenians are greatly scattered, and so great has been the
exodus from their own country that series measured elsewhere should
show little influence of selection. A series of 1100 men, measured in
America but adult at the time of immigration, furnishes ample material
for the study of this people.150 They belong, as is well known, to the
u» por an excellent account of the modern Cypriots, and a survey of the history of Cy-
prus, see The Memoirs of Sir Ronald Storrs.
For the anthropometry of the island, see: Buxton, L. H., JRAI, vol. 50, 1920, pp. 183-
235.
160 I am relying almost entirely upon an unpublished work: Hughes, B. O., The
Physical Anthropology of Native Born Armenians. Accepted as a PhD. thesis at Harvard
University, 1938.
Other sources include :
Bunak, V., Crania Armenica.
Chantre, E., Recherches anthropologiques dans VAsie Occidentale; BSAL, vol. 13, 1895,
pp. 49-101.
Erckert, R. von, AFA, vol. 18, 1889, pp. 263-281; vol. 19, 1890, pp. 55-84, 211-249,
332-356.
Seltzer, C. C., The Racial Characteristics of Syrians and Armenians.
Twarjanowitsch, J. K., Materialen z,ur Anthropologie der Armenier. Resume* in AFA,
vol. 26, 1899, pp. 178-184.
Weissenberg, S., AFA, vol. 13, 1915, pp. 383-387.
626 THE RACES OF EUROPE
planoccipital brachycephalic division of the white race, a division which,
as we have seen, possesses only such unity as that which results from a
common principle of heredity.
They are men of medium stature, with a mean of 166 cm.; this varies
extensively in accordance with geography; the eastern Armenians, from
Van, Erivan, Bitlis, and Erzerum, are considerably taller than those in
the west, who come from Sivas, Kaisarie, and Marash, while those
geographically intermediate, from Kharput and Diarbekr, are inter-
mediate in stature as well. The extremes are the Van people, with a
mean of 169 cm., and those from Kaisarie and Marash, with means of
164 cm. They are, for their weight, very heavy people^ with a mean of
160 Ibs.; the lateral bodily habitus which the foregoing weight-stature
ratio indicates is predominant in all regional groups, except Van. Mem-
bers of the western groups, on the whole, are more lateral than those
from the east. The relative span, 104, and the relative sitting height, 53,2,
fall into the general Alpine category.
The mean cephalic index for Armenians is 85.4; this varies from 84 in
Van and Erivan, to 86 in Sivas and 87 in Erzerum. The mean head
length, 185 mm. for the total, reaches 188 mm. in the east, and 183 mm.
in the west. The breadth mean, 1 58 mm., is relatively constant. The auric-
ular height, with a mean of 126 mm., is also subject to this east-west differ-
entiation; local means reach 129 mm. in the east, 124 mm. in the west.
The lateral dimensions of the face, 108 mm. for the minimum frontal,
144 mm. for the bizygomatic, and 110 mm. for the bigonial, show no geo-
graphical variation; they are comparable to the breadth dimensions found
among moderate-sized Binaries in Europe, although the jaw width is more
reminiscent of Asia Minor and Greece. The inverse jaw-forehead ratio is
the opposite from that of Albanian Binaries.
Vertical diameters of the face are again divided geographically, the
total face height mean is 128 mm., ranging from 130 mm. in the east to
125 mm. in the west; the upper face height similarly varies from 78 mm.
to 75 mm., with a mean for the whole of 77 mm.; the facial and upper
facial indices vary in consequence. The group as a whole is on the upper
border of mesoprosopy, and mesene. Only Van is leptoprosopic and
leptene.
The Armenian nose is extremely long, with a mean height of 60 mm.,
and quite wide, with a mean breadth of 38 mm. The nasal index, 64,
is leptorrhine, but by no means as leptorrhine as the noses of European
Binaries. The difference between Albanian Binaric and Armenian
nasal indices lies entirely in the breadth. Like all other vertical dimensions,
the nose height among Armenians is subject to geographical variation,
but this is slighter than with most other characters, since a long nose is an
THE CENTRAL ZONE 627
essential Armenoid feature. The width also varies, from 37.4 mm. in
Van, to 38.4 mm. in Kaisarie.
Taking these measurements as a whole, there is seen to be a strong east-
west division within Armenia; this division is especially prominent in
weight, stature, segments of stature, head length, the cephalic index, the
auricular height, the face heights, and to a lesser extent in both nasal
dimensions. Linear traits of the head and face as well as of the body are
greater in the east, while the lateral dimensions are much the same every-
where.
The Armenians are metrically very much like the northern Albanians in
most characters; the chief differences are the greater face length and greater
nasal breadth of the Armenians. Although the differences between Arme-
nians and Albanians are no greater than those between a number of Euro-
pean groups which collectively enjoy the designation Dinaric, the Ar-
menians do stand at one extreme of the Armenoid-Dinaric combination,
while the Osmanli Turks and the Syrian brachycephals fall much closer
to the European end.
The skin color of the Armenians has been designated as pinkish-white,
brunet, swarthy, and light brown. The two middle categories share
almost equally over 85 per cent of the total. Pink skin, which includes
8 per cent, is far commonest at Van, light brown at Kaisarie. The east-
west division holds in skin color as in other features. The hair color is
mostly dark brown; 58 per cent belongs to this category while black and
medium brown account for 18 per cent each. The remaining 6 per cent
is almost entirely reddish brown. The men with black and dark brown
head hair have, as a rule, beards of the same color; but the brown-haired
men have reddish brown or red beards, in most cases. Thus, at least 75
per cent of the group may be considered completely brunet in hair color
tendencies. The brown and reddish hair shades are commonest in the
Lake Van region, the black in the south and west, nearest Syria.
To match the ratio of pure brunet hair, one finds 73 per cent of brown
eye color; this is divided almost evenly between dark brown, light brown,
and mixed-brown classes, the latter implying an iris form in which more
than one brown shade is present. The high ratio of this class, one-fourth
of the total series and one-third of the pure dark eyes, is due to the accu-
racy of the observer rather than to any peculiar condition. It means that
more than one brunet strain is present among Armenians, a fact which
other evidence confirms. Dark brown eyes are most numerous in the
west, where they form 36 per cent of the whole, and rare in the Lake Van
region, where they form 1 3 per cent. Mixed and light eyes, mostly green-
brown, but including 2 per cent of pure blue, total 34 per cent in Van,
and but 1 1 per cent in Kaisarie.
628 THE RACES OF EUROPE
The hair form of the Armenians is mostly low waves; their pilosity is
abundant. Beards are usually very heavy, and body hair as well; hairiness
is an outstanding Armenian feature. As with most hairy people, many of
the Armenians grow bald with advancing age. The eyebrows are usually
thick, and in 73 per cent of cases, concurrent. The foreheads of the
Armenians, unlike those of Syrians and Turks, and of many European
Binaries, are as a rule quite sloping, more so than is found in the majority
of white racial groups. The browridges, however, are seldom very heavy;
the heaviest are found in the east.
The Armenian nasal features are extreme and consistent; the nasion
depression is usually slight, but almost always present; both the root and
the bridge are very high and quite broad. It is this breadth of the nose,
from root to tip, that differentiates it most from those of European Binaries.
The profile is convex in 62 per cent of cases, and very few are concave.
The tip is thick in over 50 per cent of cases, and depressed in about 70
per cent. The wings are usually medium or flaring, compressed in only
20 per cent. Thinner roots and bridges and more compressed wings are
characteristic of Armenians from the Lake Van country, thicker and more
flaring in those from the south and west.
The Armenian orbit, high on the skull, does not permit frequent eyefolds;
these are usually external or median, and are found mostly in the east.
The eye opening is usually great, and there is, in nearly half the group,
some obliquity of axis, although this is usually slight. The Armenians are
as a rule thin-lipped, with medium to great chin prominence, a palpable
bilateral cleft in the chin, and flaring gonial angles. 'Mid-facial progna-
thism is found in about one-fourth of the group, but it is seldom great;
alveolar prognathism is very rare.
The occipital region is seldom protuberant, but more so among eastern
than western Armenians; occipital flattening is found among 75 per cent,
and its absence is commoner in the east than in the west. There can be
little doubt that its intensity is partly due to unintentional cradling defor-
mation, especially since the cradle was more commonly used in the west
than in the east at the time that the men studied were infants. As in
Albania, pronounced cranial asymmetry, a concomitant of unbound oc-
cipital flattening, is frequent.
In the characters of the nose, in the form of the skull, especially of the
occipital region, in pilosity and in the prevalence of brunet pigmentation,
the Armenians from all regions form a definite whole. Yet the variability
of the different characters is so linked that the component factors in the
blend may be seen upon analysis, and the composition of the Armenoid
racial type revealed. The partially blond element, as best designated by
eye color, is quite different from the group as a whole; persons with mixed
THE CENTRAL ZONE 629
or light eyes are much more linear in build, taller, longer and higher-
headed, longer- and narrower-faced, and longer- and narrower-nosed.
The brunet skin color is associated, on the other hand, with a whole com-
bination of characters, especially those concerned with bodily, cranial, and
facial breadths; whereas the first type is Nordic, the second is Alpine in
directional implication. The most brunet group, on the basis of skin
color, is bimodal; it includes a long-faced, long-nosed, heavily bearded
Irano-Afghan strain, and a smaller Mediterranean type, which is also
a factor in the composition of the Syrian brachycephals.
The Armenoid type is a stable hybrid between two principal elements,
the Alpine race and the Irano-Afghan division of the Mediterranean stock,
mixed at the ratio of 2 of the latter to 1 of the former. The combination
has produced a greater laterality than either parent stock, an excess of
brachycephaly, and an excess of facial length and nasality. In northern
and eastern Armenia, a strong Nordic infusion has altered the blend in a
linear direction, and has infused a minority with partial blondism; in
southern and western Armenia, a parallel infusion of Mediterranean
factors, comparable to those found in Syria and Arabia, has reduced the
stature and other linear dimensions, while increasing the brunet character
of the pigmentation.
Thus the Armenoid race is a product of the same principle of hybridiza-
tion which has produced Binaries in Europe,151 the chief difference being
that among the Armenians the Mediterranean factor involved is Irano-
Afghan, while in countries farther east it is one of several varieties more
familiar to Europeans. In tracing relationships between Binaries and
Armenoids, as between groups of Binaries, it is futile to look for historic
associations, since the relationship is parallel rather than derivative.
Racial analysis has indicated something that archaeology has only begun
to reveal; that Anatolia, the Syrian highlands, and the Armenian plateau
are not, in all likelihood, basic Mediterranean racial territory, but the
former homelands of a population similar to that living in Europe during
late glacial times. The Alpine race, here as in central Europe, from France
to Albania, has reemerged, and in so doing has blended with Mediter-
ranean forms in a characteristic way. Another conclusion which one may
make from this study is that Anatolia was never, until the time of the
Ottoman Empire, an important highroad of racial movements; its main
r&le has been that of a refuge area, and the same is true of the Syrian
mountains and those of Armenia.
181 The general application of this principle was suggested by Dr. Hughes's analysis of
his Armenian material. For the conclusions as to the hybrid character of the Armenians
and as to their component elements, and for the principle involved, I am indebted to
Dr. Hughes, whose work on the living confirms the conclusions of Bunak derived from
his study of Armenian crania. See Bunak, V. V., Crania Armenica,
630 THE RACES OF EUROPE
A separate group of brachycephalic Near Eastern people living until
recently in the neighborhood of the eastern Armenians is that of the
Aissores, or Assyrians, Christians who still speak the old Syriac language,
now used in Syria in a ritual sense only, but once widespread also in
Mesopotamia. These Assyrians, Christians in Mesopotamia since their
conversion in 70 A.D., were, at the time of the Arab conquest of their
country, granted a firman issued by the Prophet himself permitting them to
practice their religion without hindrance. Under this sanction they
flourished greatly, sent missionaries to China, and founded a colony,
which still exists, in India.152 At the time of the Mongol invasions, between
1230 and 1400 A.D., their country was laid waste, and those who survived
the calamity fled northward into Turkey, settling in the mountain district
of Hakkiari, in Kurdish country, south of Lake Van and west of Lake
Urmia. In 1914, 80,000 of them were still established there, while another
35,000 lived in Iran, near Lake Urmia, and 10,000 more had returned to
the lowlands of Iraq, near Mosul. During the World War and in the two
decades since, the Assyrians have suffered further political disasters which
have left them homeless and have greatly reduced their numbers.
These Assyrians, whose ancestors, presumably plainsmen from Iraq,
may have been no different in a physical sense from the other inhabitants
of that valley, are now, after some six hundred years of living in the
mountains, more brachycephalic than the Armenians.153 Their mean
stature is about 167 cm., their cephalic index mean about 87, with series
by different authors varying from 85 to 90. They are almost purely brunet,
and characteristically aquiline in nasal profile. Their total resemblance
to Armenians, however, is not close; the faces of the Assyrians are both
shorter and narrower than those of the Armenians, and their noses are
likewise smaller. It is possible that mixture with Armenians produced the
initial stimulus toward hyperbrachycephaly, but whatever its immediate
origin, the facial dimensions show that the basic Mediterranean type
involved is western, and not I rano- Afghan.
Even more of a refuge area than Asia Minor, the Caucasus mountain
range and the valleys to either side provide shelter to an extremely varied
conglomeration of peoples. Besides the Armenians, the Aissores, the
Kurds, the Tats, who are Iranians living near Baku, and the Azerbaijani
Turks, and some Tatars and Mongols, the Caucasus contains the Cau-
casians proper, who are the speakers of Caucasic languages, and the
162 Browne, Brig.-Gen., J. G., GM, vol. 4, #6, April, 1937, pp. 431-448.
163 Aruntinow, A., AFA, vol. 30, 1904, pp. 222-224.
Ghantre, E., BSAL, 1891, vol. 10, pp. 103-126; Recherches anthropologiques dans VAsie
Occidental.
Djawachischwili, A., AFA, vol. 48, 1 925, pp. 77-89.
Kappers, C. U. A., KAWA, vol. 36, 1933, pp. 3-11.
THE CENTRAL ZONE
631
Ossetes, whose language is Iranian and for whom descent is claimed from
the Alans, the last ethnic survivors of the Sarmatians recorded in history.154
The Caucasic speakers are divided into four main branches, each of
which has many subdivisions; these branches are the Lesghians, the
Chechens, the Gherkesses or Circassians, and the Georgians. Map 16
will show the distribution of these peoples. The various subdivisions of
^k • . ' •' :•'•' •'• ^ HL ^^-^^-i^^^®^Bw5
X. V ~ ^>*v<^N)* *fr«2N * .te^/*£i^ M'» ! i! I !i!i
MAP 16
PEOPLES OF THE CAUCASUS
The Caucasic-speaking peoples have been shown by unbroken lines and cross hatch-
ings; Indo-European and Altaic speaking peoples by other symbols. Russians, Ossetes,
Armenians, Tats, and Kurds are Indo-European speakers; Kalmucks are Mongolic-
speakers, while Kirghiz, Nogai, and Kumyk Tatars are all Turkic-speakers. Small
settlements of Russians, Germans, and Jews in this region have been left unrepresented,
to avoid confusion. (After Jochelson, W., Peoples of Asiatic Russia, Map 6, with alter-
ations and additions.)
these peoples, living in their separate valleys, follow different forms of
Christianity and of Islam, while the presence of Jewish villages complicates
the religious pattern. The Georgians, however, are mostly Christian, the
Cherkesses mostly Moslems; with the Russian conquest of the northern
slopes of the Caucasus, many of the latter emigrated to Ottoman Turkish
164 The bibliography dealing with the Gaucasic peoples is exhaustive; for a brief,
lucid, and accessible exposition, however, Jochelson, W., Peoples of Asiatic Russia, is
recommended.
632 THE RACES OF EUROPE
territory, including Syria and the Balkans. Most of the Lesghians are
also Moslems, while the Chechen are for the most part Christians, as is
the majority of the Indo-European-speaking Ossetes. The Tats are
Moslems.
As is frequently the case in regions of great ethnic complexity, the racial
situation is simpler than the linguistic or cultural. The Tats, to begin with,
are tall and mesocephalic, and resemble the Persians of Iran, to whom
they are related.155 The Ossetes,166 who live in the middle of the Caucasus,
mostly on the southern side of the watershed, are tall people, with a mean
stature of 169 cm., sub-brachycephalic, with a mean cephalic index of 82,
and of medium head size, a head length of 189 mm., and a breadth of
155 mm.; they are only moderately leptorrhine, with a mean nasal index
of 65, and somewhat broad-faced, with a mean bizygomatic diameter of
145 mm. About half have pinkish-white skins, the other half, brunet-
white; similarly over half have black or dark brown head hair, the rest,
brown, light brown, or light. Some 54 per cent are said also to be brown-
eyed, the rest, mixed and light. Over 60 per cent are considered definitely
brunet in general pigmentation, some 10 per cent definitely blond. It
is of course the latter minority, and a comparison with the other Caucasic
peoples, which has given the Ossetes a reputation for blondism.
As far as one can tell from present material, the Ossetes do possess a
Nordic strain, which has, however, been partly altered by local admixture
into Noric; other elements are one or more forms of Mediterranean, not all
of which were high-headed or long-faced, and Alpine. On the whole, the
result might be called incipiently Dinaric. That the Ossetes are the
result of a mixture of Scytho-Sarmatian refugees from the plains to the
north with indigenous peoples is, on the basis of the physical data, quite
possible.
The Caucasic-speaking peoples 157 differ from their Ossete neighbors in a
166Chantre, E., BSAL, vol. 10, 1891, pp. 103-126; Recherchts anthropologiques dans
I'Asie Occidentalg.
lw Gil'chenko, N. V., TVMA, 1890. Resume* in BZL, vol. 11, #9-10, 1891.
Djawachischwili, A., AFA, vol. 48, 1925, pp. 77-89.
Erckert, R. von, AFA, vol. 18, 1889, pp. 262-281, 297-335; vol. 19, 1890, pp. 55-84,
211-249, 331-356.
The last two are general works on Caucasian anthropometry; the first a separate
source on the Ossetes.
167 An exhaustive bibliography of the physical anthropology of the Caucasus will be
found in Djawachischwili, A., AFA, vol. 48, 1925, pp. 77-89. Besides the comprehen-
sive works of Chantre and of von Erckert previously cited, these include both special
and general studies by the following: Aruntinow, A.; Dirr, A.; Erikson, E.; Kurdov, K.;
Malinin, K.; Pantuchov, J.; Schwidersky, N.; Stshukin, J.; Vishogrod, J.; and Voro-
biev, V. To this list should be added Djavakhov, A., RAJ, vol. 7, 1907, pp. 127-167,
and Sommier, S., APA, vol. 21, 1901, pp. 413-457. Most of the Russian authors have
published in the RAJ, but the works of some are to be found in the publications of the
THE CENTRAL ZONE 633
number of respects, one of which is that they are nearly all shorter in
stature. The mean stature for Georgians is 165 cm., and most of the
Cherkess groups fall at the same level, although the Kabardians have a
mean 2 cm. higher. The Lesghians vary by tribal groups from 1 64 cm. to
168 cm., while the Chechen mean is about 168 cm.
Nearly all are br achy cephalic or sub-brachycephalic; the Georgian
means stand consistently at about 84, as do those of the Chechens, while
the Lesghians are more brachycephalic, with means of 86 and 87, and the
Cherkess less so, with means of 81 and 82 on the northern side of the
Caucasus, and 83 and 84 on the south of it. As a rule the faces of the
Caucasic-speaking peoples are of moderate height, in the low or middle
120's, and in the middle 140's in breadth; facial indices are all meso-
cephalic; the noses, too, lack the great size of those of the Armenians or of
the long-headed Kurds and Azerbaijanis; nasal indices are moderately lep-
torrhine only, with indices of approximately 65.
The Caucasian peoples are, as a whole, dark-mixed in pigmentation.
In most of the tribal series, dark hair and dark eyes total well over 50
per cent, while the presence of a little more than a third of light-mixed
individuals in each group is sufficient to create the impression, fostered by
the Turks, that they are fair. Light skin is commoner than light hair or
eyes, and it is for their skin color more than for their blondism that
Circassian beauties, among others, are famous.
Aside from the Ossetes, the Georgians are the blondest, as well as the
shortest, of the peoples of the Caucasus. The Cherkesses, on the other
hand, are the darkest as well as the tallest and least brachycephalic; they
seem, in view of their geographical location on the northeastern shore of
the Black Sea, to contain much of the brunet Mediterranean or Atlanto-
Mediterranean racial strain which we have already studied in Bulgaria,
Rumania, and the Ukraine, and which the Russian anthropologists call
the Cherkess or Pontic type when found elsewhere in Russia.
The Caucasic-speaking peoples 'as a whole, from an anthropometric
standpoint, represent a blend between a local Alpine racial nucleus and
several kinds of Mediterraneans. The Georgians and the Lesghians are
the most Alpine, the Cherkesses the least so. The facial dimensions pre-
clude, in most groups, the presence of a long-faced Irano-Afghan element
in any quantity; except among the Cherkesses, the head size, with mean
lengths in the low 180's, limits the possible Mediterranean elements to
the smaller-headed varieties. These are apparently both Danubian and
Anthropological section of the Moscow Natural History Society (IILE, etc.), and of the
Military-Medical Academy of St. Petersburg (VMZ, TVMA, etc.), as well as in those
of the Georgian State University at Tiflis. In Djawachischwili's compilation, as well as in
that of farkho, A., AZM, 1 932, #2, pp. 49-82, the reliable figures from the earlier authors
are presented.
634 THE RACES OF EUROPE
Cappadocian; there is too much true facial Dinaricism for the Danubian
to be the only factor, and too much blondism and nasal concavity for the
Cappadocian.
The Georgians, with a high incidence of concave noses, as well as the
greatest blondism, are the most nearly Danubian; except for the Cherkesses,
most of the other peoples are more Dinaric. On the whole, the Dinaricism
of the Caucasian area is only partial; there are too many unaltered Medi-
terraneans, and too many Alpine-Danubian mixtures, which, here as in
Croatia and Slovenia, fail to assume a Dinaric facial form, to make the
Caucasus as Dinaric a country as the Tyrol or Albania.
Syria, Anatolia, Armenia, and the Caucasus form a zone of Alpine
reemergence on the border of Mediterranean racial territory. In all four
regions there has been a major blending with Mediterraneans, and the
differences between the racial characters of the regions depend upon (a)
the relative degree of Alpine reemergence, and (b) the kinds and relative
amounts of Mediterranean involved in each. The linguistic complexity,
involving Semitic, Uralic, Altaic, Indo-European, and Caucasic languages,
merely reflects the racial complexity within the Mediterranean component
of this primary refuge area.
(19) TURKESTAN AND THE TAJIKS
Beyond the stretch of steppes and desert immediately east of the Caspian
Sea, where the brunet Mediterranean race, through the agency of the
Turkomans, is brought into direct contact with mongoloids, lies the once
densely populated oasis country of Russian Turkestan, sparsely watered
by the Amu Daria or Oxus, which rises in the Pamirs and flows past
Bokhara and Khiva into the Aral Sea, and by the smaller Syr Daria,
which, from its source in the Tian Shan Mountains, provides irrigation for
Ferghana, Samarkand, and Tashkent.
Russian Turkestan was once a seat of Iranian-speaking civilization;158
but since the sixth century A.D. it has been constantly overrun by invaders
from different quarters. First the Turks subjugated the Iranian farmers,
then the Chinese defeated the Turks and ruled the country for a century;
then the Arabs, entering Turkestan by way of Persia, defeated the Chinese
in 751 A.D., and remained in power until the thirteenth century, since
which time, until the Russian conquest, Turkestan has been ruled by
various bodies of Turks and by Mongols.
The present peoples of Russian Turkestan are numerous and varied,
but may be divided into two principal groups, the Tajiks and the Turkish-
speakers. The Tajiks, who number over a million in Russian Turkestan,
168 This brief introduction is based largely on Jochelson's Peoples of Asiatic Russia,
Chapter 4. See also, K. E. von Ujfalvy, Les Aryens au Nord et au Sud de FHindou Kouch.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 635
have between one and two million brethren in Afghan territory. In the for-
mer country they inhabit the oases of Ferghana, Samarkand, and Bokhara,
where they live as farmers marvelously skilled at irrigation; they are the
linguistically unaltered descendants of the pre-Turkish cultivators. Their
western geographical limit is the Bokhara country; there are no Tajiks
in Khiva. On the plains the Tajiks proper form but a small proportion
of the population, since many others have been absorbed into the Turkish
ethnic world. Besides these plainsmen, there are many more in the moun-
tains, who live in farming villages as a unified population reaching over
the Pamirs into Afghanistan. These mountain people have presumably
been less subjected to Turkish influences than have those of the plain.
The second principal ethnic and linguistic group, that of the Turkish-
speakers, is divided into two principal and many minor subdivisions; the
important ones are the Uzbegs and the Sarts. The Uzbegs are pastoral
nomads linguistically related to the Kirghiz, who have settled down in
considerable numbers during the last century. They are tfcie descendants
of a mixture of Turks, Mongols, and Iranians, whose principal ancestors
were recruited from the Turkish tribes of northern Turkestan, and con-
verted to Islam in the fourteenth century. They are the aristocrats of the
country and the rulers of some of the city khanates have been drawn from
their ranks.
The Sarts are assimilated Tajiks with the addition of considerable
Turkish blood; they are farmers, townsmen, and traders, living in all of
the oases west of Khiva. Other Turkish speakers are the Turkomans,
particularly numerous in Khiva and on the plains to the west, Kipchaks,
Kara Kalpaks or Black Hats, Tatars from Russia, and Turkish-speaking
Moslems from Chinese Turkestan. There are also Mongol Kalmucks in
Russian Turkestan in small numbers, Moslems, whereas their kinsmen
elsewhere are Buddhists. A few thousand Arabs left over from the early
Moslem conquest still remain, although most of them were absorbed by
the Uzbegs. Persians, Hindus, Gypsies, and an ancient colony of Jews,
centered at Bokhara, make up the rest of the non-Russian population.
The Uzbegs, who as partial whites concern us here in only a collateral
sense, are hardly sufficiently unified in race to be dealt with as a single
body.159 Many of them are purely or nearly purely white, others are
apparently pure Mongols, while the majority occupy positions in between.
Nearly all are brachycephalic, for few long-headed elements have been
absorbed into their body; many of them belong to that hybrid type, called
Turanid by von Eickstedt, 16° and characterized by brachycephaly, con-
vergent parietal walls, a nearly straight beard of medium abundance, a
169 Vishnevsky, B. N., ACIA, 3me sess., 1927, pp. 243-248.
MO See Chapter VIII, section 6, p. 287. '
636 THE RACES OF EUROPE
long, broad face, a low-rooted, long, and often convex-profiled nose, with
a high-orbitted but heavy-lidded eye. The Sarts are also a variable group,
but are much less mongoloid on the whole than the Uzbegs, and in many
cases are identical with the Tajiks.
Since the Tajiks form the basis of the population of Russian Turkestan
as well as of the mountains to the south, and since all other elements in
the population are known and have been described, our only concern
here is the elucidation of the racial position of the Tajiks. This is a com-
paratively easy task.161 The Tajiks are of moderate stature, with a mean of
166 cm., the same in the oases of Samarkand and Ferghana, in the foot-
hill country of Ura-Tuba and Pedjerent, and in the mountains, lying be-
tween the headwaters of the Syr Daria and those of the Amu Daria, in
Afghanistan. Their arm length and arm segment proportions show them to
resemble closely southern Germans and Frenchmen, in other words Alpines;
at the same time they differ profoundly in these respects from mongoloids.
In shoulder breadth, and in an especially great pelvic width, they again
show their lateral constitutional tendency, and their Alpine body build.
The dimensions and proportions of the heads and faces of the Tajiks as a
whole are as ideally Alpine as one can find in any unsorted population
series; they might equally well have been measured upon samples from
the most purely Alpine districts of France or Bavaria. The head length
mean is 180 mm., the head breadth 155 mm., the cephalic index, 86.
The auricular height is 127 mm., and the series hypsicephalic. The mini-
mum frontal is 107 mm., the bizygomatic, 141 mm., and the bigonial,
108 mm.; the face height, 124 mm., the nose height, 55 mm., and the nose
breadth, 34. The facial index is 88, on the border between mesoprosopy
and leptoprosopy; the nasal index, 65.
On the whole, the mountaineers and the people of Ura-Tuba and Ped-
jerent are the same, but the oasis-dwellers of Samarkand are narrower-
headed, narrower-faced, and narrower-nosed, while at the same time wider
in the distance between the eyes, with a cephalic index of 84, and a nasal
index of 62. Another difference between the Samarkand series and the
mountaineers is in the biorbital diameter, taken between the outer eye
corners; 94 mm. in Samarkand, and 92 mm. in the others. At the same
time, the interorbital distance, between the inner corners, is actually
narrower in the Samarkand group (30.7 mm.) than in the mountains
(34.5 mm.). Hence the divergence of the Samarkand people from the
mountaineers cannot be in a mongoloid direction. The series from the
161 Thanks to the generosity of Prof. Boris N. Vishnevsky, of the Institute of Anthro-
pology and Ethnography at Leningrad, who has most graciously permitted me to make
use of his fully documented series of over 300 Tajiks, hitherto published only in part and
in a preliminary report.
Vishnevsky, B. N., ACIA, 3me sess., 1927, pp. 243-248.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 637
oases of Ferghana differs from the mountain group in the same direction,
but not to the same degree as that of the Samarkand Tajiks. This direction
points, in a metrical sense, toward the Irano-Afghan Mediterranean type
prevalent among the Turkomans, and also, as we shall see later, toward
that of the Bokharan Jews.
The skin color of the Tajiks is a brunet-white to a light brown, from
von Luschan #10 to #16; it is lighter on the plain than in the mountains.
About 55 per cent have dark eyes, with a great majority of light brown;
the remainder are mostly dark-mixed, of both blue-brown and green-
brown shades. The plainsmen of Samarkand and Ferghana run to 85
per cent of dark eyes, with many dark browns. The head hair color is
black in 35 per cent of the mountain group, and over 60 per cent in the
oases; the rest are dark brown in both, except for a very small incidence
of partial blondism. The beard color is the same as that of the head hair,
as a rule, although there is a slight tendency to reddish brown.
The hair form is usually straight on the beard as well as on the head;
the eyebrows are usually thick and concurrent. The beard development
reaches a maximum white condition, with heavy growth on the cheek
and jaw as well as on the mustache and chin. There is, however, a 10
per cent minority with weak development. Hair is also usual on the chest,
abdomen, arms, and legs; 12 per cent even have it on their backs. In
this maximum pilosity the mountaineers are outstanding; the Tajiks of
Samarkand and Ferghana, while still very hairy, are less so.
Most of the Tajiks have pentagonoid or oval faces, the latter form being
especially marked in the lowlands; the horizontal profile of the face,
however, is flattish in over 50 per cent of the group, in marked contrast to
the narrowness and beakiness of Turkomans and Persians. That this
condition is Alpine rather than rnongoloid is shown by the lack of forward
malar projection.
The mountain Tajiks have noses that are definitely Alpine in most cases;
the root is usually of medium depth, under moderate browridges; the
bridge is medium to high, with oblique walls, the tip is of moderate thick-
ness, often slightly bifurcated, and usually horizontal; the wings of medium
lateral extension. Straight or wavy profiles are found among 60 per cent,
convex among 25 per cent, concave among the rest. The noses of the
oasis people, on the other hand, tend to high roots, lack of nasion depres-
sion, convex profiles, and compressed wings.
A few Tajiks have round nostrils, and others a horizontal nostril axis;
these show definitely rnongoloid tendencies, as do some 4 per cent with
slight epicanthic eyefolds. Armenoid or Dinaric tendencies are more
prevalent; some 17 per cent of occipital flattening is found in the total
group, but it is more frequent on the lowlands than in the mountains,
638 THE RACES OF EUROPE
where it reaches but 8 per cent. Lambdoid flattening is commoner. The
great majority have curvoccipital, globular cranial vaults, with both high
and broad foreheads which are rarely more than slightly sloping.
The mountain Tajiks, both metrically and morphologically, are as pure
Alpines as it is possible to find anywhere in the white racial area today; but
like other Alpines, they show a minor tendency toward a Dinaric or Arme-
noid form, owing to the presence of Mediterranean strains in their midst.
The Nordic racial element which the bearers of Iranian speech may have
brought to this population has been almost entirely absorbed, although a
few blonds, resembling those found among the Ossetes in the Caucasus,
are to be seen. Mongoloid admixture is present in small quantity; most of
the mongoloid racial characters are so at variance with those of the Tajiks
that when present, mongoloid blood may easily be perceived.
On the plain, in the oases of Ferghana and at Samarkand, there is a
strong admixture of narrow-headed, narrow-faced, thin-nosed, high-
nosed, brunet Mediterraneans, of the general Irano- Afghan type. This
divergence from the mountain Tajik type is at variance with the theory
that mongoloids have mixed with the people of the oases. The acquisition
of this Mediterranean strain may be explained by any one or more of the
following theses: (a) admixture of Turkomans at the beginning of the
Turkish invasion; (b) the absorption of Persian slaves; (c) the absorption
of Jews; (d) the survival of an early Turkish strain in the oases from the
days of initial food production, or of the beginnings of horse nomadism.
Historically, any of the first three may or may not be possible; the fourth
is rendered possible only by a tentative acceptance of the theory of Turkish
origins propounded earlier in this volume.
How much farther eastward the zone of Alpine reemergence goes beyond
Russian Turkestan, cannot be told on the basis of available published
data. If it extends beyond the Tian Shan, it has been so modified through
mixture with mongoloids that its identification would be difficult. The
Tajiks form the last complete outpost in the wide zone of Alpine survival
or reemergence which reaches eastward with few breaks from France
over a stretch of nearly 5,000 miles. Like their counterparts in the far
west, they are more Alpine and less altered by Mediterranean admixture
than most of those who live in between.
(20) THE BRACHYCEPHALIZED JEWS: ASIA AND
CENTRAL EUROPE162
Our study of the Alpine peoples and their mixed derivatives leads
directly to that of the European and central Asiatic Jews, for their racial
162 Here as in Chapter II, section 7, I wish to express my gratitude to Professor Harry
Wolfson for elucidating the historical and cultural aspects of the Jewish racial problem.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 639
history is an intimate part of the problem of Central European brachy-
cephaly, and deserves treatment in that connection. At the same time, the
Jews cannot be treated as a geographical unit; they are ubiquitous within
certain economic and cultural horizons.' Their distribution is definitely
limited, but its limits are not fundamentally spatial. For this reason their
racial character has been affected more by social and economic consider-
ations than by latitude and longitude.
In Chapter XI, section 7, we have already surveyed the racial position
of the Sephardic Jews, i.e., the descendants of the Jews expelled from Spain
and Portugal in 1492, as well as of the Oriental Jews who live in the stretch
of Mediterranean racial territory extending from Morocco to Iran. By
means of this survey we have established the existence of a definite and
very constant Jewish racial entity, variable within itself but varying
equally in all geographical groups. This Jewish racial entity is almost
purely Mediterranean, and is the result of the combining of several
Mediterranean types in Palestine and elsewhere during the courses of
Jewish history. Having established what appears to be the basic Jewish
racial entity, our next step is to discover what alterations this entity has
undergone in the course of the complex history of the Ashkenazic Jews
in Europe and of the Oriental Jews living in parts of Asia other than those
already studied.
Let us first study the Jews of Turkestan, who are descended from off-
shoots of the ancient Persian colony, and who were isolated from the rest
of the Jewish world for several centuries before the Russian occupation
of the central Asiatic khanates. These Jews have been made the subjects
of an especially thorough study and merit detailed attention.163
In the first place, the Jews of Bokhara and Samakand are the same, and
seem in turn to be identical with those living in Herat in Afghanistan.
Thus these northeastern and eastern Jewish peoples who speak a Persian
dialect form a single racial unit. They are of moderate stature, 166 cm.,
nearly the same as the Tajiks among whom they (the Bokharan Jews)
have lived for over a millennium. They are narrower-shouldered than the
Tajiks, shorter- trunked, and longer-legged; their bodily proportions
preserve more of a Mediterranean racial character. Their heads are
absolutely short, with a mean length of 1 80 mm. ; narrower than those of
the Tajiks, with a mean breadth of 153 mm., but fully brachycephalic,
with a mean cephalic index of 85. Despite this brachycephalization they
preserve distinctive traits in the diameters of the face; their minimum
i«3 Weissenberg, S., MAGW, vol. 43, 1914, pp. 257-272.
Vishnevsky, B. N., ACIA, 3me sess., 1927, pp. 234-248.
Professor Vishnevsky has given me permission to use the detailed data of his Turke-
stan Jewish series, along with those of hisi Tajik series.
640 THE RACES OF EUROPE
frontal mean is 104 mm., their bizygoinatic, 139 mm., and bigonial, 104
mm. Thus they are definitely narrower in all three dimensions than their
non-Jewish neighbors, are not much wider in the essential facial diameters
than long-headed Jews. Their interorbital (31.3 mm.) and biorbital
(90.9 mm.) diameters are narrower than those of other central Asiatic
peoples; they have thus also preserved the original Jewish narrowness
between the eyes. Their faces, with a mean length of 125.4 mm. are 2
mm. longer than those of their neighbors; their noses, with a mean length
of 57 mm., also 2 mm. longer. Their facial index of 90.5 is leptoprosopic,
their nasal index, 62, 3 to 4 points lower than those of the narrowest
noses of the other peoples of Turkestan with whom they are in contact.
Metrically, therefore, it would be wrong to infer from the cephalic
index alone that the Bokharan Jews were simply Judaized Tajiks, or Sarts,
or Judaized Turkestan people in general; what they actually are is
brachycephalized Jews, who have preserved their Mediterranean facial
characters almost intact.
They are almost all brunet- white in skin color, lighter than the Tajiks
as a whole; in eye color, 57 per cent are purely brunet, and mostly light
brown, while of the mixed eyes, the great majority are dark-mixed. Fifty
per cent have black head hair; 40 per cent, dark brown; and another 10
per cent, brown to blond. In their general pigment character they are
approximately the same as the mountain Tajiks, but somewhat lighter
than those of the oases. They are, however, as heavily bearded as the
Tajiks, and as abundantly supplied with body hair.
They are mostly dlipsoid in facial form, and have much less malar
projection than the Tajiks, in fact their malars are usually compressed,
in great contrast to those of the partly mongoloid Sarts and Uzbegs. In
their nose form their non-mongoloid and non-Alpine character is fully
expressed; 44 per cent have convex profiles, 40 per cent straight, and 9
per cent wavy, while only 7 per cent are concave. The tip is depressed
in 37 per cent of cases. To match the nasal convexity and tip depression
is a 17 per cent ratio of occipital flattening, and a high incidence of small,
slanting ears.
The observational material confirms the metrical data; the Jews of
Russian Turkestan are true Palestinian Mediterraneans who have been
brachycephalized by a process of Dinaricization; the agent of brachy-
cephalization is Alpine, and undoubtedly the same as the Alpine ele-
ment among the Tajik. The Turkish and Mongol invasions of Turke-
stan, which brought much mongoloid blood to the general population,
have left the Jews almost unaffected. One case of epicanthus observed
by Vishnevsky alone provides an exception.
If the endogamy of the Bokharan Jews has been sufficient to exclude
THE CENTRAL ZONE 641
mongoloid influences almost entirely, it has also preserved a Jewish racial
type since before the mongoloid arrival. The amount of Alpine infusion
necessary to generate the brachycephalization of this people must have
been slight. Some of it may, indeed, have been acquired in transit across
northern Persia. The lesson taught by this particular study is that brachy-
cephaly among Jews does not in itself imply the absence of a basic Pales-
tinian racial character.
Let us continue our study of brachycephalized Oriental Jews who live
in various geographical units derived from different Jewish sources. The
Jews of Asia Minor are descendants of the Byzantine Jews, reenforced by
many Sephardim. In Kurdistan there is a very old settlement of Aramaic-
speaking Jews, who have no rabbis but who worship the tombs of
prophets, and who live with the Kurds symbiotically as traders and makers
of jewelry for the Kurdish women. In the Caucasus there are Jewish settle-
ments dating back, according to local tradition, to Assyrian times, but
historically these settlements were first mentioned in the fifth century A.D.,
and the Jews who composed them were said to have come from Persia,
The main Jewish section of the Caucasus is Daghestan, in Lesghian country;
the Jews here, numerous in the time of the Khazars, are now scattered in a
few mountain villages, and speak the same Persian dialect as do the Tats.
Another group of Jews, known as Georgian Jews, lives in Georgia, espe-
cially in Tiflis.
In the Crimea there are still settlements of Karaite Jews, who speak
the Jagatai Turkish of the Khazars, as do the Krimchaks, but the latter
are rabbinical whereas the Karaites are not, and the Krimchaks have
absorbed Jews from Italy. Some of the Karaites are found in small
colonies in Poland and Lithuania, as well as in the Crimea.
The Jews of the Caucasus 164 including the mountain Jews of Daghestan,
the Georgian Jews, and the Shemakha Jews who live in Azerbaijan, are
highly brachycephalic. Metrically, samples of all these groups are much
alike, with mean statures ranging from 163 to 166 cm., and cephalic
indices of 85 and 86. They are all predominantly brunet, and have
straight or convex nasal profiles. Their faces are of medium length (125
mm.), and broader than those of the Bokharan Jews (141 mm. ca.).
They are, however, still extremely leptorrhine, with nasal indices of 59
to 63. The general racial character is Dinaric, with more Alpine mixed
with the original Jewish Mediterranean strains than in Turkestan. It is
a mistake to call them Armenoid, for their faces and noses do not approach
those of the Armenians in either length or breadth. Any Armenian can
164 Chantre, E., Recherches anthropologiques dans I'Asie Occidentals.
Dzhavakhov, A. N., RAJ, vol. 8, 1912, pp. 57-75.
Weissenberg, S., AFA, ns. vol. 10, 19.11, pp. 233-239,
642 THE RACES OF EUROPE
distinguish with ease between a fellow Armenian and a Jew, and the
distinction is substantiated metrically.
Little difference may be found between the Karaite Jews of the Crimea,165
whose relatives contributed a small but renowned element to the com-
position of the European Ashkenazim body, and those of the Caucasus.
The mean stature of the Karaites is 164.5 cm., their mean cephalic index
85, their nasal index 60; 75 per cent of them are brunet, but 5 per cent
are light or prevailingly light in complexion. Their facial dimensions are
the same as those of the Caucasus Jews, and the same conclusions drawn
in regard to the latter apply to the Karaites.
Karaites living outside of the Crimea, however, have failed to preserve
their characteristic metrical position. Those settled in the Egyptian
Delta 166 have a mean cephalic index of 74.6 and are little different from
other Egyptian Jews, while Karaites of Lithuania 167 have a mean cephalic
index of 81, a stature of 162 cm., and 55 per cent of fair skin color and an
equal amount of mixed eye hues. Over 40 per cent have also brown or
light brown hair color. Concave noses, the antithesis of a Jewish condition,
are found among 50 per cent, while nasal convexity is almost entirely
absent. The Lithuanian Karaites have apparently been thoroughly
mixed with Neo-Danubian peoples either locally or in transit; their
stature level is very low, but this may be accounted for environmentally.
On the basis of available data, there is little to connect the Lithuanian
Karaites with those of the Crimea, except their retention of brunet pig-
mentation in nearly half the group. However, further data than is now
available would be needed to make this conclusion certain.
Having reviewed the racial characters of the rest of the Jews in Europe,
North Africa, and Asia, insofar as available data have permitted, we are
now faced with the task of studying the Ashkenazim. These modern
central European Jews, concentrated in the Ukraine, White Russia,
northern Rumania, Galicia, Poland in general, Lithuania, Germany,
Bohemia, and Austria, have been subjected to considerable study, espe-
cially those living in Poland and Lithuania and the countries to the east.168
166 Weissenberg, S., AFA, vol. 34, 1907, pp. 219-220.
166 Weissenberg, S., MAGW, vol. 42, 1912, pp. 85-102.
187 Talko-Hryncewicz, J., MAAE, vol. 7, 1904, pp. 44-100.
168Fishberg, M., ANY A, vol. 16, part 2, 1905, pp. 155-297 is the most exhaustive
single treatise, and contains a bibliography of previous works.
Other works used in the present study include :
Beddoe, J., TESL, vol. 1, part 2, 1861, pp. 222-237.
Davenport, (X, and Love, A., Army Anthropometry.
Deckert, E., ZFE, vol. 9, 1877, pp. 39-41.
Dubowski, W., ResuraS in AFA, vol. 14, 1883, pp. 61-71.
Fligier, C., MAGW, vol. 9, 1880, pp. 155-157.
(Continuee^on page 643.)
THE CENTRAL ZONE 643
These studies, especially that of Fishberg, show a number of important
points clearly. One is that the Jews as a whole, without regard to specific
political divisions, form an ethnic community with as much statistical
homogeneity as do most ethnic groups which have elsewhere been treated
as units. Although varied in racial origin and varied individually, in the
racial characters measured, the usual distribution pattern is an approxi-
mation to a bell-shaped curve. The Ashkenazim of eastern Europe, at
least, form a biological unit. This is only to be expected when one con-
siders the spatial mobility of the Jews in history, and, by contrast, their
endogamy within the larger religious community.
Another is that stature among the Ashkenazim is environmentally and
socially conditioned to a large extent, and geographically variable in a
much lesser degree. Mean statures for regional groups vary from 162
cm. to 167 cm., with a general mean around the figure 164 cm. In a
rough way, the stature level corresponds to that of the local Gentiles, but
is one or two centimeters lower in each region. In England, where
the Jews have enjoyed relatively favorable living conditions, and in
America among the American born Jews, the stature rises to high levels.
In Europe, indoor workers such as tailors and shoemakers have the smallest
statures, professional men the tallest; the occupational range is from 160
cm. to over 170 cm. Since the mean stature of the Palestinian Jews was at
least 166 cm. in the days before the Diaspora, and since the purely Jewish
element in the modern Jewish body must almost everywhere be potentially
as tall as that of the Gentiles among whom they live, if not taller, the
short stature of eastern European Jews as a whole is, therefore, entirely a
reflection of environmental and occupational forces. Their rapid size in-
crease on American soil, in response to better living conditions and perhaps
also to a relief from a constant nervous tension, may be partly interpreted
Guthe, C., AJPA, vol. 1, 1918, pp. 213-223.
Himmel, H., MAGW, vol. 18, 1888, pp. 83-84.
Hrdlifcka, A., 7'he Old Americans.
Jacobs, J.,JRAI, vol. 15, 1886, pp. 23-62.
Lempertowna, G., Kosmos, vol. 52, 1927, pp. 782-819.
Lipiec, M., MAGW, vol. 42, 1912, pp. 115-195; ACIA, 2me sess., 1926.
Kossovitch, N., and Benoit, F., RDAP, vol. 42, 1932, pp. 99-125.
Majer, J., and Kopernicki, I., ZWAK, vol. 9, 1885, pp. 1-92.
Pantuchow, J. J., PRAO, vol. 1, 1888, pp. 26-30; R6sum6 in AFA, vol. 26, 1899,
pp. 211-213.
Pittard, E., Les Peuples des Balkans.
Rutkowski, L., MAAE, vol. 2, 1910, pp. 65-121.
Sailer, K., ZFMA, vol. 32, 1933, pp. 125-131.
Talko-Hryncewicz, J., ZWAK, vol. 16, 1892; R6sume in MAGW, vol. 21, 1891,
p. 63.
Weissenberg, S., AFA, vol. 23, 1894-95, pp. 347-423, 531-579; ZFE, vol. 44, 1912,
pp. 269-274.
Wiazemsky, Prince, A nth, vol. 22, 1911, pp. 197-201.
644 THE RACES OF EUROPE
as a fulfilment of their genetic possibilities and cannot necessarily be
claimed as something entirely new. In the same sense, the inferior chest
diameters of the East European Jews, once considered a racial character,
are seen to rise to the non-Jewish standard in America.
The head form of the Ashkenazim is relatively constant within the
regions of maximum Jewish concentration; in Germany the mean cephalic
index for Jews is about 81, rising to 83.5 in Baden; in Galicia again it
reaches the level of Baden, and in Bukovina attains 84, but elsewhere,
from Austria to the Ukraine and Lithuania, it centers about the mean of
82. There is a slight tendency for the cephalic index level to vary region-
ally as does that of the corresponding Gentiles, but this tendency is neither
strong nor wholly consistent. It is chiefly manifest in the relatively high
indices in Galicia and Bukovina. Everywhere in central and eastern
Europe, except in comparatively long-headed regions such as Moldavia,
the Jews are less brachycephalic than the Gentiles. The central European
Jews have been only partly brachycephalized, less so than the Christians,
and in view of their wide geographical spread, have maintained a remark-
able racial continuity in head form.
A third consideration, that of pigmentation, is found to agree in principle
with stature and with head form; the Jews are mainly brunet, with about
55 per cent of dark hair and eye color combinations, and less than 10 per
cent which can be construed as blond. In countries where the Gentiles are
predominantly blond, or more blond than brunet, the Jews are relatively
dark; in countries such as Rumania where the Gentiles are prevailingly
brunet, the Jews are blonder than the Gentiles. The Jews have, therefore,
struck a pigment balance which is as constant as their balance in head form.
In the dimensions of the head and face, the Jews have likewise developed
certain consistencies which operate regardless of geography. The head
length is always, except in socially selected groups, less than 190 mm., and
often less than 185 mm. The bizygomatic is less than 140 mm., with the
same exceptions, and usually stands at the level of 135 mm. or 136 mm.,
and the nose breadth mean ranges usually between 34 and 36 mm. The
vertical diameters of the face and nose are, in existing material, seldom
reliable, but there is reason to believe that the upper face height is relatively
long in reference to the total face height, which is a Mediterranean racial
character. Convexity of the nose, a popular diagnostic of Jews, is usually
found in far fewer than 50 per cent; straight noses are in all regional
Jewish groups the commonest of profile forms, while, in southern Russia,
concave profiles are more frequent than convex.
The physical composition of the central European Jewish body has
not been difficult to determine. The Ashkenazim are a reasonably uniform
people in a statistical sense; furthermore, many of their metrical characters,
THE CENTRAL ZONE 645
as far as we know them, are not markedly different from those of their
Mediterranean Jewish ancestors. The facial diameters, for example, relate
them closely to the Mediterranean prototype, in strong contrast to the
broader faces of the Alpines and Neo-Danubians among whom most of
them live. The head form, on the other hand, shows a partial brachy-
cephalization which must be due to the absorption of Gentile blood.
At the same time the presence of a strong minority with mixed or light
pigmentation makes such an absorption necessary. The Jews are not
simply Judaized central Europeans; they are central-Europeanized Jews.
It has been remarked by some anthropologists that the Jews look
"Armenoid," and that this Armenoid appearance must be due either to
Hittite admixture or to a sojourn in Asia Minor before their arrival in
Europe. This remark implies a misunderstanding of Jewish history as
well as of the nature of the Armenoid race. Many Ashkenazic Jews, it
is true, possess the combination of a brachycephalic head with a narrow
face and convex nose, but there is not enough Alpine in the Jewish body
to make this Dinaricization prevalent or standard. It is found among
blond as well as brunet Jews, and is an individual rather than a group
phenomenon.
Individual central European Jews vary greatly in facial and cranial
appearance. Among them may be picked out without trouble apparently
pure Palestinian types; the convex-nosed, long-faced sub- type, which is
frequently found among Sephardim, and is especially known to the world
through the faces of Disraeli and Lord Reading in England, is on the
whole rare among Ashkenazim; the straight-nosed, more typically Medi-
terranean form, such as is represented by the actors Al Jolson and Eddie
Cantor, is much commoner. Leon Trotsky represents a brachycephalic,
Dinaricized Jewish type, and Albert Einstein is a good example of another.
Among Russian Jews it is not difficult to select individuals with large
malars, broad, snubbed noses, and high alveolar segments of the upper
face, who are as nearly mongoloid 'as many Volga Finns. Among German
Jews may be found individuals who are to all purposes Nordic, and others
who belong to the Borreby race, which is the most numerous single type
among Gentiles in Germany. Alpine Jews are commoner than the inci-
dence of Alpines in central and eastern Europe would perhaps warrant,
and some of their Alpinism must have been derived from their sojourn in
France and in the Rhinelands before their march eastward across central
Europe.
On historical grounds it is very likely that the ancestors of the Ashken-
azim mixed more with Gentiles in western Europe, before the time of the
first Crusade, than their more recent forebears have in Slavic countries.
The heavy beard growth, the abundance of the body hair, and the wavy
646 THE RACES OF EUROPE
hair form of many brachycephalic Jews imply a French or German Alpine
infusion rather than any racial increment which they could have assimilated
in Slavic countries. The racial contribution of the western Jews to the
Ashkenazic body seems to have been far greater than that of their Byzantine
and Crimean colleagues.
Although all of the racial types enumerated above, and, in fact, every
racial type known in Europe, may be picked out of the Jewish body, most
of the Jews represent a blend in one way or other of several of them, and
most of them, for one reason or another, look Jewish.169 There can be
no doubt that the original Mediterranean blend of Palestine is the most
important. If one were to hazard a guess, one might suggest that it
actually accounted for more than half of the whole; that it is strongest in
Poland, and weakest in Germany. As with the Bokharan Jews, its most
persistent metrical features in mixture are to be found in the facial dimen-
sions. A careful study of the soft parts of the nose might reveal further
persistences, but there are apparently no corresponding peculiarities of
the facial skeleton.170
The central European Jews have lived in central Europe since the
beginning of the period when the Germans and Slavs began to grow
brachycephalic. Their recent racial history has, therefore, run parallel
in time to that of their Gentile neighbors, in comparison with whom they
must have remained relatively constant. The racial character of the South
Germans, of the Poles, and of the Russians, has changed much more
during the last millennium than has that of the Jews. The modifications
which the latter have undergone in one generation in America are as
great in some respects as those which have affected their ancestors in
twenty. m
(21) CONCLUSIONS
The conclusions to this chapter have been partly anticipated in the
introduction; an elaborate resume is unnecessary here. There are, however,
several matters which have been brought to light by the survey which
has just been completed, and which were not fully anticipated.
In the first place, the geographical extent of the Alpine racial type is
enormous, reaching from France to China. Throughout this extent it
maintains a nearly constant form, in stature, in the dimensions of the
head and face, in pilosity, and in general morphological features. Its wide
milieu suggests that its presence in Europe is merely an extension of its
"» See Chapter XI, section 7, pp. 441-442.
170 Matiegka, J., AnthPr, vol. 4, 1926, pp. 163-219.
171 For the question of changes in American Jews, see Boas, F., ZFE, vol. 45, 1913,
pp. 1-22, and also, Morant, G. M., and Samson, O., Biomctrika, vol. 28, 1936, pp. 1-
31.
THE CENTRAL ZONE 647
original range, for it could not have gone from Europe to Turkestan.
If, as has been assumed for the purposes of this book, it was originally a
part of the racial complex of the Upper Palaeolithic hunters of Late Pleisto-
cene Europe and North Africa, then the former spatial extent of the cul-
tures in which these hunters participated must reach far into Asia.
The same forces, furthermore, which derived the Alpine from the
larger-bodied and less infantile Upper Palaeolithic group as a whole
must have operated across the entire zone now occupied by Alpines. The
consistency of the Alpines in this zone is clear; what is more difficult to
explain than this consistency is the failure of the northwestern European
relatives of the Alpines to undergo a similar reduction. The difference
in pigmentation between various Alpine groups, and between Alpines
and the unreduced Palaeolithic survivors, is of little importance; we have
seen that the white racial stock is extraordinarily fluid in regard to pigment
changes.
The second phenomenon revealed by our study is the fact that when
Mediterranean racial types are blended in a two to one proportion with
Alpines, something totally different from either results, and this product
is not in all characters intermediate. The facial breadths are Mediterra-
nean, the nose and face are often elongated, the cranial length reduced to an
Alpine dimension, and the breadth similarly increased; at the same time
the foramen magnum and the auricular passages retain a metrical position
in reference to the anterior landmarks of the cranial and facial skeleton
found in the Mediterranean ancestor. The occipital region undergoes a
certain degree of flattening, and the nasal bridge, in harmony with this
motivation from the rear, becomes prominent. The process described
above is one of Dinaricization, and the hybrid types produced by this
principle are Binaries and Armenoids.
There are more Binaries and Armenoids in the world than there are
Alpines; this is due to historical reasons. When the food producers entered
the territory formerly occupied by Upper Palaeolithic hunters, the former
were much more numerous than the latter, who either retired to environ-
mental pockets economically unfavorable to the food producers, or were
absorbed into the ethnic corpus of the latter. The adjustment of the earlier
population element to the new conditions and their reemergence through
the Mediterranean group made a combination of the two basic racial
elements in a genetic sense necessary. Thus the majority of Europeans
are actually permanently blended, secondary hybrids between the old and
the new; pure Mediterranean populations and individuals who are purely
Mediterranean from the genetic as well as the anthropometric standpoint,
are to be found only outside of Europe, except for the Iberian peninsula
and the western Mediterranean islands. At the same time and in the
648 THE RACES OF EUROPE
same strict sense pure Upper Palaeolithic survivors, themselves initially
hybrids, are probably not to be found at all in Europe, although many
individuals who may recapitulate Upper Palaeolithic man of different
varieties, with considerable fidelity, are to be seen.
This survey of the living Europeans which we have just finished sim-
plifies the whole white racial problem enormously; it reduces the white
race to two least common denominators, the Mediterranean and the
Upper Palaeolithic group, which in turn means Mediterranean and
Mediterranean-Neanderthaloid in the widest sense. This simplification
must not be accepted without caution; the Neanderthaloid hybrid hypoth-
esis seems most reasonable in view of present evidence, but that evidence,
while clear in implication, is small in quantity. Furthermore this sim-
plification, if tentatively accepted, must not be overworked. The two
basic stocks which it postulates are each enormously varied and the white
races and sub-races which have resulted from their conjunction are also
numerous. Without a wholesale judgment of Solomon all whites cannot
be divided simply into two groups, any more than they could, in accordance
with Ripley's simplification, into three.
Chapter XIII
CONCLUSION
(1) COMMENTS AND REFLECTIONS
Since the classification of the subdivisions of the white race has already
been given in Chapter VIII, it seems unnecessary to review it here; the
second part of the book has been summarized in advance. The work as a
whole is an attempt to deal with the materials of physical anthropology
in terms of archaeology and of history, in recognition of the facts that the
human body is one unit in a social group of bodies and cannot be studied
profitably out of its biological and social context. Furthermore, it cannot
be studied with more than indifferent profit in the flat two-dimensional
plane of the present; reference must be had to the past, and thoughts may
be legitimately entertained as to the future.
It has been borne home to me, in the perusal of the body of anthro-
pometric literature concerning the living members of the white race,
that one good, accurately measured study of a few hundred men, which
includes all of the more important measurements permitted by the Monaco
agreement and specified by Rudolf Martin, as well as a large number of
accurately taken morphological observations, is better than a general
survey of a few characters on a million. Studies of this nature have so far
been made principally by Americans, Norwegians, Germans, Austrians,
and Russians. In tribute to the volume and accuracy of their observational
data, it is my feeling that we anthropometrists of the rest of the world
must take off our hats to our colleagues in Moscow. Their activities in
both the European and the Asiatic portions of their country have been
extremely productive and have served to cast much light upon the
definition of the mongoloid race, and upon the racial history of the Uralic-
and Altaic-speaking peoples. For a systematic investigation of their own
people, the palm is divided between Norway and Germany; in the latter
case it goes especially to the editors and authors of the Deutsche Rassenkunde.
For many years physical anthropologists have found it more amusing
to travel to distant lands and to measure small remnants of little known
or romantic peoples than to tackle the drudgery of a systematic study of
their own compatriots. For that reason the sections in the present book
which deal with the Lapps, the Arabs, the Berbers, the Tajiks, and the
Ghegs may appear more fully and more lucidly treated than those which
deal with the French, the Hungarians, the Czechs, or the English. What
649
650 CONCLUSION
is needed more than anything else in this respect is a thoroughgoing study
of the inhabitants of the principal and most powerful nations of Europe.
Much more badly needed, however, than data on the living is the
publication of skeletal material of all cultural periods in European pre-
history and history. European museums and private collections abound
with skulls and long bones, only a small proportion of which have as yet
been made available through the literature. Most of these are of Neolithic
or later date; when a skull of alleged or real glacial age is discovered, it is,
as a rule, soon published.
In the reconstruction of the racial history of the white race which
appears in the preceding chapters, the reader may readily discover that
there are many weak places and gaps, which have been bridged by the
use of far too little data. This has been done intentionally, so that the
picture may appear as a whole, and so that a logical, if hypothetical, scheme
may be devised. It is inevitable that between the writing and the printing
of this sentence, some of these gaps will have been filled by the discovery or
collection of new data, and that some of the reconstructions will be proved
false, while others, we hope, may perhaps be confirmed. He who offers a
scheme explaining the totality of anything must be bold or his scheme is
useless; he must not, above all, be afraid of exposure. The theorizers of
one generation furnish pleasure to the fact finders of the next, by giving
them something to tear down, and by daring to be wrong.
Before a second edition of this book is written, or other books compiled
to disprove or replace it, it is my sincere wish that more light will be shed
by the fraternity of diggers and measurers upon at least the following
problems: (a) the skeletal history of the Mediterranean race in pre-food-
producing times; (b) the unveiling of that great European mystery, the
Mesolithic; (c) the origin and history of the Alpines; (d) the same for the
Corded people; (e) the same for the bearers of the Megalithic culture into
the western Mediterranean and northwestern Europe. There are many
other weak spots in our fabric, but these seem, to me at least, to be the
weakest.
(2) THE WHITE RACE AND THE NEW WORLD
Since the recession of the last glacier, the principal movement of the
white race has been northward and westward, until the center of popula-
tion and of civilization has shifted from Africa and Asia to southern
Europe, and from southern Europe to the northwest. From roughly
3000 B.C. until 1492 A.D., the various branches of the Mediterranean race
which had followed the rain belts into Europe were busy expanding in the
countries which they had settled, and in assimilating the stray remnants
of the older hunting population, which they had absorbed.
CONCLUSION 651
Before 1492 A.D., for at least five centuries, the racial history of many
parts of Europe consisted of an internal genetic adjustment, in the process
of which the Mediterranean strains, so much more numerous at the time
of their settlement in Europe than the total of the aborigines, were to a
certain extent bred out and replaced by a reemergence of the old types,
and to a larger extent recombined genetically with the old types in re-
emergence to produce something new. Even within the Mediterranean
stock, different strains in one population have showed differential survival
values and often one has reemerged at the expense of others.
In 1492 A.D., the maximum survival of Mediterraneans (in the widest
sense) in Europe in the face of these reemergences was to be found in pe-
ripheral countries; Spain, Portugal, England, the Netherlands, Sweden,
and parts of Norway. It was precisely these countries, especially Spain,
Portugal, England, and the Netherlands, which furnished the materials
for the initial peopling by Europeans of the New World, and to the New
World in the sense of the two Americas were soon to be added South
Africa, Australia, and New Zealand.
The Mediterraneans who peopled the New World were of two principal
varieties, Nordics and small, or Ibero-Insular (in Deniker's sense), Mediter-
raneans. The Nordics went to North America, South Africa, Australia, and
New Zealand, the Mediterraneans proper to Central and South America.
Wherever the Nordics went, they found lands occupied by scattered tribes
of hunters and gatherers, or of river-side agriculturalists who were too few
to offer them successful resistance. The wars with the Blackfeet and the
Sioux were long and bloody, but the Blackfeet and the Sioux have lost
their racial hold on their land as completely as have the Arunta. Dispos-
session and gradual extinction has been the fate of those who opposed the
English and the Dutch, whether their opponents were Bushmen or Tasma-
nians or Beothuks.
The Spanish, on the other hand, went mostly to countries where a dense
native population lived close to the soil, and where mighty empires had
already arisen; their colonization was largely a matter of conquest and
subjugation, and in all the American countries of Spanish settlement,
excepting Argentina and Chile, the Indian farmer has reemerged, and the
Spaniard forms but an upper crust. The Portuguese, carving out, in
Brazil, a vast empire of river and forest, found but little land suitable for
the habitation of whites, and into this they brought black men from
Africa whose descendants are now the chief possessors of the soil.
The expansion of the Mediterraneans, using the word in the larger
sense, into the New World, was an extension of their earlier expansion into
Europe. North America became, by the nineteenth century, the greatest
Nordic reservoir in the world. But the century which saw the erection
652 CONCLUSION
of this reservoir also witnessed the beginnings of its change in character;
the tide of immigration brought with it members of all the other races of
Europe. The people who came to America, from the time of the Pilgrim
Fathers to the imposition of the laws restricting immigration, were selected;
none were fully representative of the countries from which they came. In
America they were subjected to environmental forces of a new and
stimulating nature, so that changes in growth such as their ancestors had
not felt for centuries produced strange, gangling creatures of their children.
In America we have before our eyes the rapid action of race-building
forces; if we wish to understand the principles which have motivated the
racial history of the Old World, it behooves us to pay careful attention
to the New.
APPENDICES
Appendix I
MEANS OF PRINCIPAL CRANIAL SERIES
USED IN CHAPTERS II-VII
Series
1 . European Upper Palaeolithic
2. Afalou bou Rummel, Algeria
3. TeViec, Brittany
4. Al eUbaid, Sumeria
5. Kish A-Graves, Sumeria
6. Naqada, Predynastic Egypt
7. Upper Egypt, 6-1 2th Dynasties
8. Lower Egypt, 26~30th Dynasties
9. La Solana, Spain
10. Ticuso, Spain
1 1 . Danubian Neolithic
12. Corded, Bohemia and Silesia
13. English and Scottish Neolithic
14. Chamblandes, Switzerland
15. L'homme Mort, France
16. Beaunies Chaudes
17. Neolithic Brachycephals, Belgium
1 8. Swedish Neoli thic dolichocephals
(C. I. - x - 77.9)
19. Swedish Neolithic brachycephals
(C. I. = 78 - x)
20. Bronze Age, Cyprus
21. Bell Beaker, W6rms
Author
Page
Footnote
Morant
30
21
Boule,
Vallois,
Verneau
40
44
Boule,
Vallois
65
18
Keith
87
8
Buxton
88
9
Fawcett,
(Morant)
95
21
Randall,
Mac-Iver,
(Morant)
96
22
Morant
96
22
Hoyos Sainz,
Barras de Aragon
100
32
Barras de Aragon,
Verneau
100
33
f 105
.
47
composite
\ 106
48
Reche,
Stocky
107
50
Morant
110
57
Schenk
115
70
Wallis
116
74
Topinard
(von Bonin)
117
76
composite
118
80
Retzius,
Fiirst
123
88
Retzius,
Fiirst
123
88
Fiirst,
Buxton
138
11
Bartels
156
62
655
656
APPENDIX I
Series
Author
Page
Footnote
22. British Bronze Age, planoccipital
brachycephals
Davis,
Thurman
159
—
23. Same, curvoccipital brachy-
cephals
Davis,
Thurman
159
—
24. Same, Corded type dolichocephals
Davis,
Thurman
159
—
25. Scottish Bronze Age
Reid,
Morant
160
67
26. Irish Bronze Age
composite
161
70
27. Aunjetitz, Lower Austria and
Moravia
Szombathy
163
74
28. Aunjetitz, Bohemia
Stocky
164
76
29. Aunjetitz, Bohemia
Hellich
164
77
30. Esthonian Bronze Age
Fried en thai
167
90
31. Minussinsk, Siberia
Goroshchenko
169
97
32. Austrian Hallstatt
composite
182
16
33. La Tene, Bohemia
Hellich
189
30
34. Gallo-Roman, Marne
Wallis
190
35
35. British Iron Age
Morant
191
39
36. Irish Iron Age and Early Christian
composite
191
—
37. Scythians
Doni£i
199
57
38. Armenian Iron Age
Bunak
201
67
39. Danish Iron Age
Nielsen
203
71
40. Swedish Iron Age
Retzius,
Fiirst
204
72
41. Norwegian Iron Age
Schreiner
204
73
42. Hannover Germans
Hauschild
207
78
43. Anglo-Saxons, London Museum
Morant; Brash,
Layard, Young
f 207
I 209
79
82
44. Bajuvars, Reihengraber
Wallis
211
89
45. Merovingians
Wallis
215
99
46. Old Slavic, Poland
Majewski
218
103
47. Old Slavic, Wends
Asmus
219
104
48. Old Slavic, Bohemia
Matiegka
219
106
49. Anan'ino, Early Finnic
Debetz
224
4
50. Polom, 9th Century Finnic
Debetz
225
6
51. Avars, Margarethen am Moos,
Hungary
Lebzelter
230
9
52. Jutas, Hungary
Bartucz
232
14
53. Tiszaderz, Hungary
Bartucz
232
15
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Appendix II
GLOSSARY
ADRIATIC. A name given by Deniker to the Dinaric race. See p. 282.
AENEOLITHIC. The Copper Age, a period of transition between the Neolithic
and the Bronze Age.
AFALOU TYPE. The rugged, oversized racial type found at Afalou bou Rummel
in Algeria.
AFGHANIAN. Name proposed in the present work for the skeletal counterpart of
the Irano-Afghan race. See p. 85.
AHRENSBURG. A tanged-point culture of the Early Mesolithic in northwestern
Europe. See p. 70.
ALBINO. A person totally deficient in pigmentation.
ALOPECIA. Baldness.
ALPINE. A name proposed by Ripley and used in this work in its original sense.
The main group of reduced Upper Palaeolithic survivors in Europe and in
western and central Asia. See p. 291.
ALTAIC. A linguistic stock widely prevalent in Asia and to a lesser extent in
Europe, including Turkish, Mongolian, Tungusic, and possibly Korean.
See pp. 236-240.
ALVEOLAR. Pertaining to the tooth-bearing segments of the maxillary bones.
ALVEOLAR PROGNATHISM. A protrusion of the jaws, specifically in the region
lying between the nose and the teeth.
ALVEON (also prosthion). The most anterior point on the alveolar border of the
upper jaw, on the median line between the two upper median incisors.
ANAN'INO. An Iron Age culture of east-central Russia, supposedly associated
with Finnic-speaking peoples. See p. 224.
ANCYLUS. Name given the Baltic lake in Boreal times. See pp. 70-71.
ANDRONOVO. A Late Bronze Age culture of southwestern Siberia.
ANGLO-SAXON TYPE. A sub-type of Nordic which contains unreduced Upper
Palaeolithic mixture. See p. 293.
ANNULAR CONSTRICTION. An artificial method of altering the head shape by the
application of bands.
ANTHROPOMETRY. The measurement of the bodily characters of human beings.
ARCTIC CULTURE. An early Post-Glacial Stone Age culture of northwestern
Europe, with marked Upper Palaeolithic survivals.
ARCUS SENILIS. A deposit of fat in the cornea of the eye, which looks gray or
blue and often creates a false impression of partial eye blondism. See p. 244.
ARMENOBD. A Dinaricized Irano-Afghan type. See p. 293.
ARTIFACT. Any object fashioned by man for use.
ASCENDING RAMUS. The paired portion of the jawbone which rises from the
666
GLOSSARY 667
gonial region at the back of the tooth-bearing portion of the jaw to the con-
dyle and coronoid process.
ASH-BLOND (also cendr6). A class of hair-blondism in which rufosity is totally
absent; ash-blond hair has a grayish or "platinum" appearance.
ASSYRIOID. Deniker's name for the Armenoid racial type. See p. 282.
ASTURIAN. A Mesolithic culture of northwestern Spain.
ATERIAN. A protracted and specialized derivative of the Mousterian culture
which persisted along the Atlantic coast of Morocco into presumably Post-
glacial times. See p. 39.
"ATHLETIC." The second of the three constitutional types postulated by the stu-
dents of human constitution; somatic — heavily muscled, heavy-boned, square.
ATLANTIC. Name given Period III of Baltic Mesolithic chronology, 5600-
2500 B.C. See pp. 70-72.
ATLANTO-MEDITERRANEAN. A tall brunet Mediterranean sub-race, the living
equivalent of the skeletal Megalithic. Name originally given it by Deniker.
See p. 282 — see also p. 292 for definition in present classification.
ATLAS. The topmost cervical vertebra, which bears the lower pair of condyles
upon which the skull balances.
AUNJETITZ (Uneticfc). The Early Bronze Age culture of the Danubian region.
AURICULAR. Pertaining to the ear or ear hole.
AURICULAR HEAD HEIGHT. The height of the cranial vault measured from the
top of the ear hole, or from tragion, to vertex. This measurement is taken on
both crania and the living; on the living it is the only head height dimension
commonly taken.
AURIGNACIAN. The first of the three Upper Palaeolithic cultures of western
Europe, beginning in the warm Laufen Interglacial and ending during the
Wurm II advance. More recently found in parts of Asia and Africa.
AUSTRALOID. One of the major racial divisions of mankind, typified by the
aborigines of Australia.
Axis, AXILLARY. The arm pit. Axis also means the second cervical vertebra from
the top.
AZILIAN. A Mesolithic culture of western Europe.
BADARIAN. A predynastic culture of Upper Egypt. See p. 94.
BANDED, A type of Neolithic pottery, found first in Danubian I, decorated by
bands of incisions.
BASION. An anatomical point on the midpoint of the posterior border of the
foramen magnum.
BASION-BREGMA HEIGHT. The height of the cranial vault from basion to bregma.
BATTLE-AXE PEOPLE. Another name for the Corded people, who habitually
buried double-bitted stone battle-axes with their dead.
BEAKER. See Bell Beaker, Zoned Beaker. The term Beaker, used alone, serves
conveniently to designate either or both subdivisions.
BELL BEAKER. A type of Early Bronze Age pottery characteristic of a culture
which is believed to have arisen in Spain, and which had wide ramifications
in western and central Europe.
668 APPENDIX II
BELL-SHAPED CURVE (normal probability curve). A statistical phenomenon; the
distribution curve which results under conditions of random sampling when
frequencies of consecutive metrical categories are plotted in a significant
biometric sample.
BIACROMINAL DIAMETER. Shoulder breadth, the distance between the acromion
processes of the scapulae (shoulder blades) in the living.
BICONDYLAR DIAMETER. The maximum external distance between the condyles
of the mandible.
BIGONIAL DIAMETER. The maximum distance between the external gonial angles
of the mandible, taken both on the dry mandible and on the living.
BI-ILIAC DIAMETER. The distance between the iliac crests of the pelvis; maximum
hip breadth.
BIMAXILLARY BREADTH. The distance between the lower borders of the malar-
maxillary sutures of the facial skeleton.
BIMODAL. The condition which occurs when two metrically distinct factors are
present in a numerically adequate frequency curve so that the curve has two
distinct peaks.
BIOMETRIC. Pertaining to the accurate measurement of living beings.
BIORBITAL DIAMETER. The distance between the outer borders of the two bony
orbits.
BIZYGOMATIC DIAMETER. The maximum distance between the two zygomatic
arches; face breadth.
BOAT-AXE. Another name for the perforated, double-bitted stone battle-axe
used by the Corded people.
BODILY HABITUS. Constitutional type, bodily build.
BOREAL. Period II of the Baltic Mesolithic, from 6800 to 5600 B.C. See pp. 70-71 .
BORREBY. An unreduced brachycephalic Upper Palaeolithic survivor. See
page 291.
BRACHYCEPHALIC. Possessing a cephalic index of 81.0 to 85.4; round or short
headed.
BRACHYCEPHALIZATION. The process of producing brachycephaly within a pop-
ulation.
BRACHYCEREBRAL. A term coined to indicate a round or relatively short-brained
condition.
BRACHYCRANIAL. Possessing a cranial index of 80.0 and over, round- or short-
skulled.
Head height X 100 ^ . f. . L , . .
BREADTH-HEIGHT INDEX. — 1| — -Hr -JTJ- — On the living the height meas-
urement is the auricular height; on the skull the basion-bregma height is
usually employed.
BREGMA-LAMBDA ARC. The sagittal length of the parietal bones, measured on
the outer surface of the cranial vault.
BROCH. A type of corbelled stone tower of Bronze Age date found in Scotland.
See p. 148.
BROWRIDGE. A prominence of the frontal area immediately above the orbits
and nasal root, and, on the living, underlying the eyebrows.
GLOSSARY 669
BRUNN. Name of a city in Czechoslovakia, and of a number of Upper Palaeo-
lithic skulls found nearby. In the present work it also designates a, living
racial type which recapitulates that of the dolichocephalic Aurignacian
peoples of central Europe. See p. 291.
BRYTHONIG. Kyrnric, P-Keltic of England and Wales.
BURGWALL. Name given to Slavic moated villages of the early Christian era.
See p. 216.
BURYAT-MONGOL. A brachycephalic mongoloid race with extreme mongoloid
features.
BUSHMAN. A native of South Africa. The Bushmen and Hottentots form to-
gether one of the primary racial divisions of mankind.
CALVA. The skull cap, lacking the face and the base of the skull.
CALVARIUM. The entire skull with the exception of the mandible.
CANINE FOSSA. A depression in the maxillary bone immediately under the infra-
orbital foramen of the cranium.
CAPPADOCIAN. See p. 85.
CAPSTAN. See p. 35.
CAUCASIC. Languages spoken in the Caucasus, including Georgian, Circassian,
Chechen and Lesghian — these languages, which may or may not be mutu-
ally related, form the nucleus of Marr's "Japhetic" stock. (See Japhetic.)
CELT. A polished stone axe or adze.
CENOZOIC. The division of geological time extending from the end of the Meso-
zoic to the present.
CENTUM. One of the two primary divisions of the Indo-European linguistic
stock, based on the retention of the consonant K.
CEPHALIC INDEX. — p — TT: — J~T The ratio of head length to head breadth;
the most commonly used index of the human body in racial studies.
_ Head length + head breadth + auricular height
CEPHALIC MODULE. ~ — The aver-
age of the three principal diameters of the cranial vault on the living; thus
a measure of absolute head size.
CERVICAL. Pertaining to the neck.
CHALCOHTHIC. The Copper Age. See Copper Age, Aenolithic.
CHAMAEGONCH. Possessing an orbital index of 82,9 and under; low-orbitted.
CHAMAERRHINE. Possessing a nasal index of 51.0 and over on the skull; relatively
wide-nosed.
CHATELPERRONIAN. A division of the Aurignacian of western Europe distin-
guished on the basis of a special flint-chipping technique and formerly known
as the Lower Aurignacian.
^ Maximum clavicle length „« . , ,
CLAVICOHUMERAL INDEX. -— — : , & v • The ratio between the
Maximum humerus length
length of the clavicle (collar bone) and that of the humerus (upper arm bone);
see p. 41.
COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION. See p. 246.
670 APPENDIX II
COMBED POTTERY. See p. 125. A Neolithic pottery type found at various points
in the forest belt stretching across three continents from the Baltic to New
England.
CONDYLES. The paired articulating surfaces of a bone at a movable joint; occipital
condyles are the surfaces of the base of the skull which articulate with the
axis; mandibular condyles are the hinges of the jaw.
CONSTITUTIONAL TYPE. See pyknic, somatic, leptosome. A division of mankind
into specific types on the basis of total bodily form, cutting across conven-
tional racial lines.
COPPER AGE. A period of transition between the Neolithic and the Bronze Age,
also called Aenolithic.
CORDED. A type of pottery decoration made by applying cords to the surface
of the pot when wet; the people who habitually used these pots; the skeletal
racial type of these people. See p. 85.
CORNEA. The outer layer of eye tissue immediately over the iris.
CORRELATION. The established relationship between two or more variables; see
p. 250.
CORRIDOR TOMB. A late Megalithic burial chamber in the form of a long corridor.
Cranial length X 100
CRANIAL INDEX. — ~ . , , , T —
Cranial breadth
CRANIOLOGY, CRANIOLOGICAL. The science of the skull.
CRANIUM. The entire skull, including the mandible.
CRESWELLIAN. A Postglacial culture of Great Britain, Mesolithic with strong
Aurignacian tradition.
CURVOCCIPITAL. Having a curved occipital region.
CUSHITIG. A term used to designate the Hamitic languages of East Africa.
CYPRIOTE. Pertaining to the Bronze Age in Cyprus.
DALO-NORDIG. See p. 285. Paudler's name for dolichocephalic unreduced
Upper Palaeolithic survivors. Also called Falish by Gunther.
DANUBIAN. The small mesorrhine or chamaerrhine Mediterranean racial type
which introduced Neolithic food production into central Europe. See p. 85.
DARDIC. A division of Satem Indo-European speech closely related to Iranian.
DIASPORA. Scattering, migration in many directions, applied specifically to his-
torical Jewish movements.
DINARIC. A racial type concentrated in the mountain zone reaching from Switzer-
land to Epirus. See p. 293.
DINARICIZATION. A special process of hybridization; see Chapter XII, sees. 11,
12, 17; also legend to plate 35.
DOLICHOCEPHALIC. Possessing a cephalic index of 75.9 and under; long- or
narrow-headed, or both.
DOLICHOCRANIAL. Possessing a cranial index of 74.9 and under; long- or narrow-
skulled, or both.
DOLMEN. A megalithic chambered rock tomb, originally covered with earth.
DOMINANCE. In Mendelian terminology, the ability of a given genetic trait or
character to assert itself over a so-called "recessive" trait or character.
GLOSSARY 671
DRAVIDIAN. A language family of southern India and Baluchistan. Also a racial
type designated by Deniker. See p. 282.
EAST BALTIC. A composite race found in eastern Baltic lands, of composite
origin. See p. 292.
ELMENTEITAN. A microiithic culture found by Leakey in East Africa, and called
Mesolithic. Its exact time position is in doubt. See p. 57.
ENDOCRANIAL. Referring to the inner surface of the cranial vault.
ENDOCRINE. Pertaining to the ductless glands.
EPICANTHUS. See mongoloid fold.
EPIPALAEOLITHIC. A name given the early Mesolithic cultures of largely Palaeo-
lithic inspiration.
ERTEB0LLE. A mesolithic culture of the Baltic region during A dan tic times
(Period III). See pp. 70-72.
ETHNIC UNIT. A concept which has both sociological and biological implications:
a community in the larger sense of the word; an intermarrying group of
people united in a cultural sense, and forming an ethnos, but not necessarily
united geographically.
EUR AFRICAN. A name given by Sergi to the entire white group of dolichocephalic
tendency, as opposed to Eurasiatic. Among Mesopotamian archaeologists
this word has taken on a special meaning. See p. 87.
EURASIATIC. Sergi's word to designate the entire body of brachycephalic whites.
See p. 284.
EURYENE. Possessing an upper facial index of 49.9 and under on the skull; short
or broad upper-faced, or both.
EURYPROSOPIC. Possessing (on the living) a facial index of 83.9 and under; short-
or broad -faced, or both.
EYE-EAR PLANE. A conventional or standard level at which the skull is placed
for craniometric study, with the lower border of the left orbit on the same
horizontal plane as the upper borders of the two ear holes.
FACETS (SQUATTING). Supplementary articulary surfaces of the foot and leg bones
thought to be caused by habitual squatting.
FACIAL INDEX. — 2— _ • usec| berth on the cranium and on the
Bizygomatic
living.
FALISH. See Dalo-Nordic.
FATJANOVO. A Neolithic culture of southern Russia and the Caucasus.
FAVUS. A serious scalp disease which causes baldness and reduces the regions
affected to scar tissue.
FEMUR. The thigh bone.
FENNO-Nordic. The name given by von Eickstedt to a hypothetical eastern
branch of the Nordic race. See p. 282.
FIBULA. The outer and thinner of the two long bones of the lower leg.
FiNNO-Ugrian. The major branch of the Uralic linguistic stock, and a possible
element in the formation of Indo-European. See pp. 337-339.
FOETALIZED, FOETALizATiON. See p. 291, footnote 56.
672 APPENDIX II
FOOD-VESSEL. A Bronze Age ceramic type, used in Ireland and western Great
Britain.
FORAMEN MAGNUM. The main opening at the base of skull through which the
brain is connected to the major nerves of the body.
FRONTAL. Pertaining to the bone of the skull which underlies the forehead.
FRONTAL BOSSES. Paired tuberosities or eminences on the forehead.
GERONTOMORPHIC. The opposite of foetalized, paedomorphic, and infantile. A
word coined by Marett to indicate an extremely adult phenotypical condition.
GIBBONOID. Resembling the gibbon, the smallest and most arboreal of the four
man-like apes.
GLABELLA. The area of the frontal bone, usually projecting, which lies immedi-
ately above the root of the nose and which forms the central portion of the
brow region.
GLABELLO-OCCIPITAL LENGTH. The maximum length of the skull taken from
glabella.
GLABROUS. Hairless.
GONIAL ANGLES. The outer posterior angles or corners of the lower jaw, at -the
bases of the ascending rami.
GRIMALDIAN. A local form of Aurignacian, found in Italy, which persisted with-
out interruption to the Neolithic. See p. 69, footnote 30.
GUANCHE. The name given the pre-Spanish inhabitants of the Canary Islands.
Hoo ton's name for the Afalou-like Canarian type of skull.
H ALLSTATT. The first of the two major divisions of the central European Iron Age.
HAMBURG CULTURE. A local Upper Palaeolithic culture of northern Germany,
in part contemporaneous with the French Magdalenian. See p. 70.
HAMITIG. A linguistic stock confined to the continent of Africa. Also used in a
racial sense to designate the slightly negroid tall Mediterranean racial divi-
sion associated locally in East Africa with Hamitic languages.
HEAD-SPANNER. A special anthropometric instrument designed to facilitate
measurement of auricular head height on the living. See p. 243.
HELL AD ic. A Bronze Age cultural period in Greece.
HELLENIC. A branch of Indo-European speech.
HORIZONTAL CIRCUMFERENCE. The maximum circumference of the cranial
vault taken above the browridges.
HUMERUS. The upper arm bone.
HYPERBRACHYCEPHALIC, — Y. Possessing a cephalic index of 85.6 and over; ex-
tremely round- or short-headed.
HYPERDOLICHOCEPHALIC. Possessing an extremely low cephalic index; ex-
tremely long- or narrow-headed, or both.
HYPEREURYENE. Possessing an upper facial index of 44.9 and under on the
skull, extremely long or narrow upper-faced, or both.
HYPERLEPTOPROSOPIC. Possessing (on the living) a facial index of 93.0 or over;
extremely long- or narrow-faced, or both.
HYPERMASCULINE. Possessing in excessive quantity traits which may be con-
sidered to be male secondary sex characters.
GLOSSARY 673
HYPSICEPHALIC. Possessing a length-height index of 62.6 and over on the living;
high headed.
HVPSICONCH. Possessing an orbital index of 89.0 and over; high'orbitted.
IBEROINSULAR. Deniker's name for the short-statured, relatively small Mediter-
ranean sub-race, called in this book Mediterranean Proper, or small Medi-
terranean. See pp. 282-283.
INCIPIENT BLONDISM. A minor incidence of mixed eye color; of reddish or brown
hairs, most frequent on the beard; or both. It is suggested that such occur-
rences of partial blondism in a population remote from Nordic centers may
be an endemic mutative tendency and not the result of mixture with Nordics
or members of other fully blond races.
INCIPIENTLY MONGOLOID. A racial type which has evolved part way in a mongo-
loid direction, and which may have other, non-mongoloid specializations
of its own, is called incipiently mongoloid.
INDO-AFGHAN. Deniker's name for the racial type designated in this book as
Irano-Afghan. See p. 282.
INDO-ARYANS. Name given the Indo-European -speaking invaders of Persia,
Afghanistan, and India.
INDO-EUROPEAN. A linguistic stock to which most languages spoken in Europe
belong; it is thought to have been originally a hybrid between Finno-Ugrian
and Caucasic with an early Altaic infusion. See pp. 178-182.
INFANTILISM. Presence in the adult phenotype of certain features which appear
to be infant-like; a condition which is partially synonymous with foetaliza-
tion and paedomorphism.
INION. A projection in the center of the superior nuchal line of the occipital
bone. Inion may be absent in cases of occipital torus.
INTEGUMENT. Skin, as opposed to membrane.
INTEGUMENTAL LIPS. The entire fleshy section of the outer face, covered with
integument, reaching from chin to nose, which may be designated as upper
and lower lips.
INTERGLACIAL. A geological period of relative warmth falling between two
major glacial advances.
INTEROCULAR DIAMETER. The distance between the inner corners of the eyes.
INTERORBITAL DISTANCE. The distance between the inner borders of the bony
eye-sockets.
INTERPLUVIAL. A geological period of low precipitation between pluvial maxima.
IRANO-AFGHAN. The living replica of the skeletal Afghanian race. See p. 292.
IRIDICAL. Pertaining to the iris.
IRIS. The light-diaphragm of the eye.
JAPHETIC. A hypothetical linguistic stock postulated by Professor Marr. See
p. 175.
KAMMKERAMIK. See Combed pottery.
KELTIC IRON AGE TYPE. A sub- type of Nordic associated with Keltic-speaking
peoples during the Iron Age. See pp. 292-293,
674 APPENDIX II
KHOI-SAN. The Bushman-Hottentot linguistic stock; also, the Bushman-Hotten-
tot people.
KITCHEN-MIDDEN. An archaeological shell deposit, usually occurring along the
sea-shore and often of Mesolithic date.
KURGAN. A type of burial mound used in eastern Europe, especially southern
Russia, from the Neolithic period through the Iron Age.
LADIN. The Rhaeto-Roman language of the Engadine, in the canton of Orisons,
Switzerland; also in the Italian Tyrol.
LADING. The archaic Spanish language of the Sephardic Jews, not to be con-
fused with the Rhaeto-Roman Ladin of the Grisons and Tyrol.
LADOGAN. An eastern European racial type of Upper Palaeolithic origin. See
pp. 291-292.
LAKE DWELLING CULTURE. A lacustrine Neolithic culture of western Switzer-
land, notable because of the preservation of wooden objects, textiles, and
vegetable foodstuffs in the mud under the Lake Dwellings. It is actually a
Mesolithic survival with the addition of a Neolithic economy. See p. 113.
LAMBDOID. Pertaining to the region of lambda, at the juncture of the parietal
and occipital bones.
LAMBDOID FLATTENING. An inheritable and non-artificial flattening or depression
of the segment of the sagittal suture of the skull immediately above lambda.
LAPPISH. A racial type identified with the Lapps in their unmixed form. See
p. 292.
LAPPONOID. Czekanowski's name for the Alpine race. See p. 288.
LA TENE. The second or Keltic Iron Age in central Europe and elsewhere.
LATERAL. A word used in this work to describe stocky, thick-set, wide-bodied
constitutional types or type combinations, implying somatic, pyknic, or both.
LAUFEN. The name given the Wurm I-Wurm II interglacial period of the Late
Pleistocene.
LAUSITZ. A central European Urnfields culture of the Late Bronze Age.
Head height X 100 .... . , , . ,
LENGTH-HEIGHT INDEX. — j| — -y^ r On the living, the height measure-
ment is the auricular height; on the skull, the basion-bregma height is usu-
ally employed.
LiEPTENE. Possessing an upper facial index of 55.0 and over on the skull; long
or narrow upper-faced, or both.
-EPTOPROSOPIC. Possessing (on the living) a facial index of 88.0 to 92.9; long- or
narrow-faced, or both.
-JEPTORRHINE. Possessing a nasal index of 46.9 and under on the skull, or of
69.9 and under on the living; relatively narrow-nosed.
-.EPTOSOME. The third component designated by students of constitutional
types; long, lean, narrow, attenuated.
JEVALLOiso-MousTERiAN. A Middle Palaeolithic culture with both Levalloisian
and Mousterian elements.
-WEAR. A word used in this work to describe slender, wiry, thin-bodied consti-
tutional types or type combinations, implying leptosome, somatic, or both.
GLOSSARY 675
p SEAM. A thin zone of connective tissue separating the membrane of the lips
from the integument.
TORINA. The name given the salt Baltic Sea during Atlantic time, from 5000-
2400 B.C.
ITORAL. An alternate name, employed by Deniker, to designate the Atlan to-
Mediterranean race. See p. 282.
>NG BARROW. An earth covered Megalithic tumulus found principally in the
British Isles. Also, the exaggeratedly long-headed Mediterranean racial
type associated with these burials. See p. 111.
NGBY. An antler ax culture of the Early Mesolithic in northwestern Europe.
See pp. 70-71.
^GDALENIAN. The final cultural division of the Upper Palaeolithic in most of
Europe, lasting through the Wurm II maximum.
\OLEMOSE. A Mesolithic forest culture of northern Europe during Boreal
times (6800-5600 B.C.). See pp. 70-72.
\LARS. The paired cheek-bones.
\NDIBLE. The lower jaw-bone.
\STICATORY APPARATUS. The mandible, maxillae, glenoid fossae, teeth, and
the muscles of chewing.
\STOID CRESTS. See supramastoid ridges.
\XILLAE. The paired bones of the face which bear the teeth of the upper
jaw.
\XIMUM BIPARIETAL BREADTH. The maximum breadth of the skull taken above
the supramastoid crests.
\XIMUM FRONTAL DIAMETER. The distance between the lower anterior extrem-
ities of the frontal bone at the fronto-maiar junctures.
2 AN. The statistical average of a metrical series.
IDITERRANEAN. A name used in this work to designate the entire family of
non-Neanderthaloid dolicho- or mesocephalic whites, including both blond
and brunet varieties. In the narrower sense it refers to the small Mediter-
ranean, Mediterranean Proper, or Ibero-Insular race. See pp. 82—86.
SGALITHIC. A name given in this work to the skeletal protype of the Atlanto-
Mediterranean race. See p. 85.
SLANIN. See definition on p. 273.
EMBRANOUS LIPS. The portion of the lips, exposed when the mouth is nor-
mally closed, which is covered by membrane.
SNDELIAN. Pertaining to the laws of inheritance postulated by Mendel.
SNTAL. Pertaining to the bony chin. Also, the usual meaning of the word.
SNTON. The lowest central point of the symphysis of the mandible, beneath
the bony chin.
SRIMDIAN. An Early Neolithic culture of the Egyptian Delta. See p. 93.
EROVINGIAN. Pertaining to the Germanic inhabitants of France and Belgium
from the days of the Frankish invaders to the fall of the Merovingian dynasty.
ESENE. Possessing an upper facial index of 50.0 to 54.9 on the skull; of moder-
ate or intermediate upper face form.
676 APPENDIX II
MESOCEPHALIC. Possessing a cephalic index of 76.0 to 80.9; intermediate in
head form.
MESOCONGH. Possessing an orbital index of 83.0 to 88.9; of moderate or inter-
mediate orbital form.
MESOCRANIAL. Possessing a cranial index of 75.0 to 79.9; of moderate or inter-
mediate skull form.
MESOLITHIC. See page 56 for definition.
MESOPROSOPIC. Possessing (on the living) a facial index of 84.0 to 87.9; moder-
ate in face form.
MESORRHINE. Possessing a nasal index of 47.0 to 50.9 on the skull, or of 70.0
to 84.9 on the living; of moderate nasal proportions.
METRICAL CHARACTERS. Diameters, circumferences, arcs, and indices; anatom-
ical traits numerically expressed.
MICHELSBERG. A Neolithic pottery culture of southwestern Germany, sup-
posedly of North African inspiration. See p. 110.
MICRO-CEPHALIC. Pathologically very small-headed, with an implication of
mental deficiency.
MICROLITHS. Small flint blades characteristic of the Mesolithic in Europe and
culturally derived from North Africa, western Asia, or both.
MIDDEN. A shell heap.
MINERAL DEFICIENCY. A deficiency, over a long period of time, of certain
minerals in the human diet has been proposed by Marett as one of the basic
causes of human racial differentiation.
MINIMUM FRONTAL DIAMETER. The minimum distance between the temporal
crests of the frontal bone.
MODALITY. The statistical character of possessing a mode or modes.
MODE. The value or values with highest frequency in a statistical distribution
curve.
MONGOLOID. One of the major racial divisions of mankind, centered chiefly
in the continent of Asia. The "yellow race" of Blumenbach.
MONGOLOID FOLD. An internal epicanthic eyefold common among mongoloids,
and creating a slant-eyed or slit-eyed appearance.
MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. Non-metrical, observational attributes of the
human body.
MORPHOLOGICAL FACE HEIGHT. The height of the face from nasion to menton.
Also called total face height and nasion-menton height.
MORPHOLOGICAL UPPER FACE HEIGHT. The height of the face from nasion to
alveon or prosthion; on the living, to the lower border of the gums between
the two upper median incisors. Also called simply upper face height.
MOUSTERIAN. The Middle Palaeolithic culture associated in western Europe
with Neanderthal man.
MUTATION, MUTATIVE. An abrupt evolutionary change of the type postulated
by DeVries.
NAQADA. A Predynastic site in Upper Egypt, from which a large cranial series
has been excavated. See p. 95.
GLOSSARY 677
Nose breadth X 100
NASAL INDEX. ^ . . .
Nose height
NASILI. A form of Indo-European speech employed in Asia Minor during the
Bronze Age. See p. 135.
NASIO-BREGMATIC ARC. The distance, on the external surface of the skull in a
sagittal line, between nasion and bregma; the sagittal arc of the frontal
bone.
NASION. The midpoint on the naso-frontal suture; the root of the nose.
NASION DEPRESSION. The depression in the facial profile below glabella, in the
region of nasion; or the root of the nose.
NASION-MENTON HEIGHT. The total or morphological face height. See mor-
phological face height.
NASO-LABIAL FOLDS. The creases running from the nasal wings to the corners
of the mouth, and delimiting the area of the integumental upper lip.
NATUFIAN. A Mesolithic culture of Palestine. See p. 61.
NAVETA. A type of long barrow found in the Balaeric Islands.
NEGROID. One of the major divisions of mankind, centered in the continent of
Africa.
NEOLITHIC. See p. 78, 1st paragraph.
NORDIC. A blond branch of the greater Mediterranean race, created by the
mixture of Corded and Danubian elements, and divided into several sub-
types. See p. 292. Unfortunately this term is also used by archaeologists to
designate a specific Neolithic cultural complex, without racial implication.
NORDICISM. The misuse of racial terminology for political purposes, based on
the unproved assumption that Nordics are superior in mental and moral
attributes to members of other races.
NORIC. A blond, Dinaricized Nordic. See p. 293.
NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE. See bell-shaped curve.
NORTHWESTERN. A name given by Deniker to a blue-eyed dark-haired racial
element in Ireland, which he considered to be a segment of the Atlan to-
Mediterranean race. See p. 283.
NOSE HEIGHT. The height of the nose; on the skull, from nasion to the lower
borders of the piriform opening; on the living, from nasion to the lowest
point on the posterior border of the nasal septum, where it joins the upper lip.
NURAGHE. A type of corbelled stone tower of Bronze Age date found in Sardinia.
OCCIPITAL. Pertaining to the occiput, the bone which extends from the foramen
magnum to lambda and which forms the lower posterior portion of the
brain case.
OCCIPITAL FLATTENING. A vertical flattening of the occipital bone below lambda;
in some cases of hereditary and in others of artificial causation.
OCCIPITAL TORUS. A pronounced ridging of the superior nuchal line of the
occiput.
OLD STONE AGE. The Palaeolithic.
OLOGENESIS. An evolutionary theory originated by Rosa and expounded by
Montandon. See p. 287.
678 APPENDIX II
OPHYRON. An arbitrary point on the median sagittal line of the frontal bone,
immediately above, and usually posterior to, glabella.
OPISTHION. The midpoint on the posterior border of the foramen magnum.
ORANIAN. An archaeological culture of western Algeria and of Morocco, during
Late Pleistocene and Early Post-Pleistocene times. See p. 39.
ORBIT. The bony eye socket.
ORIENTAL. Deniker's name for an eastern European racial type designated in this
work as Neo-Danubian. See pp. 282-283.
ORTHOCEPHALIG. Possessing a length-height index on the skull of 74.9 or undef ;
on the living of 62.9 or under; relatively low-headed.
ORTHOGNATHOUS. Straight-jawed, as opposed to prognathous.
OSTEOLOGY. The scientific study of bones.
OSTERDAL TYPE. The classic Iron Age Nordic, as found today in the eastern
valleys of Norway.
OSTEUROPID. Von Eickstedt's name for the Neo-Danubian and East Baltic racial
entities.
PAEDOMORPHIC. Child-like in bodily form, a partial synonym of foetalized and
infantile.
PAINTED POTTERY. A widespread type of Neolithic pottery widely distributed in
Asia and coming into Europe in Danubian II. See p. 105.
PALAEASIATIC. A linguistic term designating the non-Altaic languages of eastern
Siberia. The word is also applied by extension to speakers of these lan-
guages.
PALAEOLITHIC. The age of chipped stone; chronologically synchronous, in most
if not all of the Old World, with the Pleistocene.
PALATAL TORUS. A thickening and downward projection of the central, sagittal
line marking the junction of the two sides of the palate.
PALPATION. Feeling with the finger or fingers to locate anatomical land-
marks.
PALPEBRAL OPENING. The distance between the eyelids when the eye is open.
PAPUAN. Pertaining to New Guinea — in the racial sense, a prominent-nosed,
fuzzy-haired, black-skinned Oceanic negroid, probably of composite origin.
PARIETAL. The parietal bones, which lie on either side of the sagittal suture of the
skull, form the upper central portion of the cranial vault.
PASSAGE GRAVE. See corridor tomb.
PERMIAN. A sub-family of Finno-Ugrian.
PHALANGES. The bones of the fingers and toes.
PHRYGIANS. An Indo-European-speaking people who invaded Asia Minor from
the Balkans during the early part of the first millennium B.C. See p. 136.
PILASTER (OF FEMUR). A longitudinal bony crest on the posterior surface of the
thigh bone.
PILE -DWELLING. Czekanowski's name for a hypothetical Mediterranean -Alpine
hybrid race. See p. 288.
PILOUS. Pertaining to hair.
PIRIFORM OPENING. The aperture of the nasal passages in the facial skeleton.
GLOSSARY 679
P-KELTIC. The Kymric branch of the Keltic linguistic family, including Welsh,
Cornish, Breton and all known Continental forms spoken in antiquity. See
pp. 186-187.
PLEISTOCENE. See p, 1, footnote 1; also p. 18, footnote 3.
PLUVIAL PERIOD. A long period of exceptional rainfall in regions remote from
centers of glaciation, and considered by some geologists to have coincided
with maximum glacial advances elsewhere.
POLLEN-ANALYSIS. A specialized study by which palaeobotanists date sites or
specimens, especially in the Baltic Mesolithic. See p. 74.
PONTIC. A variety of Mediterranean or Atlanto-Mediterranean, so named by
Bunak. It is concentrated in Bulgaria and in the Rumanian lowlands: it
also is found in the Caucasus and Ukraine and westward sporadically as far as
Germany, Poland, and Lithuania.
POOLING. Combining samples for statistical purposes.
POST-MORTEM DEFORMATION. Deformation of skulls after burial, owing to earth
pressure or other causes. See p. 119.
PRE -SLAVIC. Czekanowski's name for the type called in this work Neo-Danubian.
PRIMATE. The mammalian order to which belong lemurs, tarsiers, monkeys,
apes, and men.
PROBABLE ERROR. See p. 246.
PROGNATHISM. A forward projection of the jaws.
PROSTHION. See Ale von.
PROTO-GEOMETRIC. A pottery name applied to an archaic, Iron Age cultural
period in Greece.
PSUEDO-MONGOLOID FOLD. A term coined by Seligman to designate a class of
internal eyefold found among Sudanese negroes.
PUBIS, PUBIC. The region of the pubic symphysis, immediately anterior to the
external genitalia. Pubic hair is the sex-linked pilous covering of the genital
region.
PUPIL. The circular aperture in the center of the iris of varying diameter, de-
pending on the brightness of the light to which the eye is exposed.
PUSHTU. A division of the Iranian branch of Satem Indo-European speech,
spoken mostly in eastern Iran, in Afghanistan and in northwestern India.
PYGMY. The negrito group, from the Congo to New Guinea, presumably one
of the major racial divisions of mankind.
PYKNIC. The first component designated by students of constitutional types;
round, broad in proportion to length, possessing of a small surface in relation-
ship to total bulk.
Q-KELTIC. The Goidelic branch of the Keltic linguistic group, including Irish
and Scots Gaelic and Manx. See pp. 186-187.
QUERN. A hand mill for grinding grain.
RACE. See pp. 3 seq.
RACIOLOGIST. A student of race, sometimes used in the political sense.
RADIUS. The rotating long bone of the lower arm.
680 APPENDIX II
RECENT. Post-Pleistocene, post-glacial time.
RECOMBINATION. The genetic union of traits originally associated with diverse
parental stocks.
REDUCED TYPE. A racial type which has grown smaller than its ancestral proto-
type and has consequently changed in certain proportions as a result of this
size reduction.
REEMERGENCE. The reappearance of an older racial entity through the vehicle
of a mixed population by the mechanism of differential selection.
REIHENGRABER. Early Germanic cemeteries, of pre-Christian times. Also a
term applied to the Germanic form of Nordic skull associated with
them.
Biacromial diameter X 100
RELATIVE SHOULDER BREADTH.
Stature
_ Sitting height X 100 _, . r . . ...
RELATIVE SITTING HEIGHT. ^ — • The ratio of sitting height to
Stature
stature.
Span X 100 _. . ,
RELATIVE SPAN, -~ • The ratio of span to stature.
Stature r
RETINA. The posterior surface of the main eye chamber, sensitized for the recep-
tion of images cast upon it by the lens.
ROMANSGH. The Rhae to-Roman languages of the Bunder Oberland in the canton
of Grisons Switzerland.
ROUND BARROW. A tumulus erected over a simple grave. This was the charac-
teristic burial type in Bronze Age Britain. See p. 159.
RUFUS, RUFOSITY. Red-haired.
SAMPLE, SAMPLING. In statistical parlance, the random selection of a part of a
population to represent the whole.
SATEM. One of the two primary divisions of the Indo-European linguistic stock,
based on the consonantal shift from K to S.
SCAPULA. The shoulder blade.
SCHWEINHIRTENKULTUR. See Swineherds.
SEBILIAN. A Mesolithic culture of Upper Egypt. See p. 92.
SEMITIC. A linguistic stock including Hebrew, Babylonian, Arabic, Ethiopic,
among other languages.
SHOE-LAST CELT. A flint hoe-blade used by the Neolithic Danubians.
SHORT CIST. A Bronze Age burial vault of Ireland and Scotland.
SIGMOID NOTCH. The curved upper surface of the ascending ramus of the man-
dible between the coronoid process and the condyle.
SITTING HEIGHT. The height of the human body from chair to vertex, taken while
the subject is sitting erect.
SOLUTREAN. The second of the three cultural periods of the Upper Palaeolithic
in western and central Europe.
SOMATIC. When used by students of constitutional types, this word indicates
their second component, the "athletic," or thick-set, heavily muscled, square;
otherwise simply "pertaining to the body."
GLOSSARY 681
SPAN. The distance between the two middle finger tips when the arms are
stretched in opposite directions; maximum arm stretch.
SPHINCTERS. Concentric "puckering" muscles, as in the iris and around the anus.
STANDARD DEVIATION. See p. 246.
SUB-ATLANTIC. The latest of the post-glacial climatic periods of northwestern
Europe, beginning about 500 B.C. We are still in it.
SUB-BOREAL. The warm, dry climatic period in northwestern Europe which
lasted from approximately 2500 to 500 B.C.
SUB-BRACHYCEPHALIC. Possessing a cephalic index of 80.0 to 82.0; moderately
round-headed.
SUB-NORDIC. Deniker's name for a racial group which would fall partly in the
East Baltic and partly in the Neo-Danubian categories of the present book.
See p. 283.
SUPERCILIARY. The superciliary region is the browridge area, literally the region
above the eyelids.
SUPRAMASTOID RIDGES. Bony crests above the mastoids, usually on the temporal
bones alone, but extending in some cases onto the parietals.
SUPRAORBITAL REGION. The area of the frontal bone immediately above the
orbits.
SUPRAORBITAL TORUS. An exaggerated form of browridge in which the promi-
nence is continuous.
SWINEHERDS. A word used by Menghin to designate the Neolithic invaders who
presumably entered western Europe by way of North Africa and Spain.
SYMPHYSIAL HEIGHT (OF MANDIBLE). The depth of the mandible from the point
between the two lower median incisors to men ton.
TACHE NOIRE. An area of low stature, supposedly due to malnutrition, or to
environmental causes in general.
TALAYOT. A type of corbelled stone tower, of Bronze Age date, found in the
Balearic Islands.
TANGED POINT. A flint point tanged for hafting; found in the Aterian of North
Africa and in some of the Epipalaeolithic cultures of northwestern Europe.
TARDENOISIAN. A microlithic culture of the European Mesolithic, of North
African or Asiatic inspiration, or derived from both sources.
TASIAN. An early Neolithic culture of Upper Egypt. See p. 93.
TAURODONTISM. A dental condition characterized by the enlargement of the
pulp cavities.
TAXONOMY. Zoological classification into species, genera, etc.
TEMPORAL. One of the paired bones of the side of the skull which contains the
auditory mechanism and includes the mastoid process and the posterior seg-
ment of the zygomatic arch.
TEMPORAL MUSCLE. The muscle which passes from the coronoid process of the
mandible under the zygomatic arch to its area of attachment on the frontal,
temporal and parietal bones.
TERP. A habitation mound built on seasonally flooded ground in the Nether-
lands in the days before the dykes were erected.
682 APPENDIX II
TERREMARE. A type of moated village built in northeastern Italy during the Late
Bronze Age.
TEUTONIC. Ripley's word to designate the Nordic race.
TEUTO-NQRDIC. Paudler's name for the Germanic-Nordic type. See p. 285.
TIBIA. The inner and thicker of the two long bones of the lower leg.
TOKHARIAN B. An extinct Centum Indo-European language spoken in the
early centuries of the present era in Chinese Turkestan.
TORUS. One of the several bony ridges or crests which may occur on the cranium.
TOTAL FACE HEIGHT. See morphological face height.
TRAGION. A point on the upper side of the fleshy projection, called tragus, which
lies immediately in front of the ear hole. This point is used as a landmark for
taking auricular head height on the living.
TRANSVERSE CIRCUMFERENCE. The circumference of the skull across the two
porions (ear holes) and bregma.
TREPHINE. To remove a portion of the skull-vault surgically.
TR0NDELAGEN TYPE, TR0NDER TYPE, A variety of Nordic with an excessive
Corded element and Upper Palaeolithic mixture.
TUMULUS, TUMULUS. A burial mound. In the late Bronze Age of central Europe
there was a specific Tumulus culture.
TUNGUSIC. A mesocephalic mongolid racial type common among the living
Tungus and the historic Huns.
TURANID. Von Eickstedt's name for a hybrid mongoloid- white racial type found
commonly among certain Turkish-speaking peoples of central Asia.
TYMPANIC PLATE. That portion of the temporal bone which forms the anterior
border of the auditory opening, or bony ear hole.
ULNA. The non-rotating long bone of the lower arm.
UPPER FACE HEIGHT. On the skull, the distance from nasion to alveon; on the
living, the distance from nasion to the lowest point on the gums between the
two upper median incisors, corresponding as nearly as possible to the
measurement on the skull.
TT Upper face height X 100 TT , , , . . ,
UPPER FACIAL INDEX. — rr _. %~. Used both on the cranium and
Bizygomatic
on the living.
URAL-ALTAIC. A term designating the two linguistic stocks Uralic and Altaic.
URALIC. A linguistic stock including Samoyedic and Finno-Ugrian. For the
divisions of Finno-Ugrian, see p. 339.
URNFIELDS. A group of Late Bronze Age cultures in central Europe, charac-
terized by cremation.
VASCULARITY. Redness of the skin, especially when exposed to the sun and air.
VEDDOID. The racial group to which the Vedda of Ceylon, the Toala of the
Celebes, the Shorn Pen of the Nicobars, etc., belong; presumably one of the
major racial divisions of mankind.
VERTEX. The highest point on a skull when held in the eye-ear plane.
VILLANOVA. An Iron Age culture of northern Italy.
GLOSSARY 683
VISTULAN. Deniker's name for a supposed sub-variety of the Oriental or Neo-
Danubian racial group. See p. 283.
VQLKERWANDERUNG. The main period of Germanic migrations.
WILTON A. A Mesolithic culture of East Africa, associated with ancestral
Bushmen.
WINDMILL HILL. A Neolithic pottery culture of England, supposedly of North
African inspiration. See p. 110.
WURM. The last of the four Pleistocene glacial advances, now divided into Wurm
I and Wurm II, with the Laufen interglacial between.
ZONED BEAKER. A late Beaker pottery form which shows Corded influence in
decoration.
ZYGOMATIC ARCH. The bony arch, formed of portions of the malar and temporal
bones, which encloses the temporal muscles and serves as the upper attach-
ment of the masseter.
Appendix III
LIST OF SERIALS AND THEIR ABBREVIATIONS
Note: Every title of more than one word has been abbreviated. Single word titles
such as "Biometrika" and "Man" have been spelled out. Capitals refer to initial letters
of words, or of sections of words in German, i.e., RK is equivalent to "Rassenkunde."
The use of the lower case refers to consecutive letters within words. Standard abbrevia-
tions have been followed when possible.
Abbreviations Serials
AA American Anthropologist, Menasha, Wis., etc.
AAM Anthropologischer Ausstellung, Moskau.
AAnz Anthropologischer Anzeiger, Stuttgart.
AAPP Annaes scientificos de Academia Polytechnica do Porto, Oporto.
AASF Annales Academiae Scientiarum Fennicae (Toimituksia Suomen
tiedeakatemia), Helsingfors.
AAW Anzeiger der Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vienna. Philoso-
phisch-historische Klasse.
ACAP Acts of the 15th International Congress of Anthropology and
Prehistoric Archaeology, Coimbre, Porto and Lisbon, 1930.
(Published in Paris, 1931.)
ACIA Actes du congr£s de PInstitut International d'Anthropologie.
lime Session, Prague, 1924. Illme Session, Amsterdam, 1927.
(Published in Paris.)
AE Annals of Eugenics, London.
AEPC Asociacion Espanola para el progreso de las ciencias.
AF Antropol6giai fiizetek, Budapest.
AFA Archiv fur Anthropologie, Brunswick.
AFSA Anzeiger fur schweizerische Alter tumskunde, Zurich.
AG Annales de Geographic, Paris.
AH Archaeologia Hungarica, Budapest.
AIPH Archives de 1'Institut de Pal6ontologie Humaine, Paris.
AJA American Journal of Archaeology, Concord, N. H.
AJKS Archiv der Julius Klaus-Stiftung fur Vererbungsforschung, Sozial-
anthropologie, und Rassenhygiene, Zurich.
AJPA American Journal of Physical Anthropology, Philadelphia, Pa.
AJSL American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Chicago,
111.
AMFM Anthropological Memoirs of the Field Museum of Natural
History, Chicago, 111.
AMSE Actas y Memorias de la Sociedad Espanola de Antropologia,
Etnografia, y Prehistoria, Madrid.
684
LIST OF SERIALS AND THEIR ABBREVIATIONS
685
AMSL Archives des Missions Scientifiques et Litteraires, Paris.
ANAW Archiwum Nauk Antropologicznych. Towarzystwo naukowe
warszawskie, Warsaw.
ANOH Aarbjzfger for Nordisk Oldkyndighed og Historic, Copenhagen.
Anth L'Anthropologie, Paris. (1890-; formerly Revue d'Ethnographie,
Revue d? Anthropologie RDAP; and Materiaux pour Phistoire
de PHomme.)
AnthPr Anthropologie, Prague.
Anthropos Anthropos, Vienna.
Antiquity Antiquity, Southampton, England.
AntrK Antropologiia, Kiev.
AntrM Antropolozhifa, Moscow.
ANYA Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, N. Y.
APA Archivio per Fantropologia e la etnologia, Florence.
APAM Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural
History, N. Y.
APAW Abhandlungen der Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Berlin. Philosophisch-historische Klasse.
APL Archivo de Prehistoria Levantina, Valencia.
APSL Academic Polonaise des Sciences et des Lettres, Krakow. (The
Bulletin of this Society is BAPS.)
AR Anthropological Review, London.
ARAL Atti Regia Accademia dei Lincei, Rome.
ARBS Annual Report of the British School at Athens, London.
Archaeologia Archaeologia, Copenhagen.
ARGB Archiv fur Rassen- und Gesellschaftsbiologie, einschliesslich
Rassen- und Gesellschafts-hygiene, Berlin and Munich.
ARSI Annual Reports of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.
(The Miscellaneous Collections of this Institution are MCSI.)
ASAG Archives suisses d'anthropologie g6n£rale, Geneva.
ASE Actas de la Sociedad Espanola de Historia Natural, Madrid.
ASRA Atti della societa Romana di antropologia, Rome.
ATNL Archiwum Towarzystwa Naukowego we Lwowie, Lemberg.
ATS Antiqvarisk Tidskrift for Sverige, Stockholm.
AZM Antropologicheskif Zhurnal, Moscow.
BAG Bulled de l'Associaci6 catalana d'antropologia, etnologia i pre-
historia, Barcelona.
BAPS Bulletin de PAcad6mie Polonaise des Sciences et des Lettres,
Krakow.
BASP Bulletin of the American School of Prehistoric Research, Old
Lyme, Conn.
BAUB Beitrage zur Anthropologie und Urgeschichte Bayerns, Munich.
BBMF Bulletin of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
BGSC Bulletin of the Geological Society of China, Peiping.
BIKB Bericht des Internationalen Kongresses fur Bevolkerungs-wissen-
schaft, Berlin, 1935. (Published in Munich, 1936.)
686
APPENDIX III
Biometrika Biometrika, London.
BIPH Bulletin et Archives de PInstitut de Pal6ontologie Humaine, Paris.
BJ Biochemical Journal, Liverpool and Cambridge.
BMSA Bulletin et rne'moires de la Societe" d'anthropologie de Paris, Paris.
BNAV Bijblad der Nederlandsche anthropologidsche Vereeniging, Leiden.
BRAH Boletin de la Real Academia de la Historia, Madrid.
BRGK Bericht der romisch-germanish Kommission, Leipzig and Berlin.
BRSG Boletin de la Real Sociedad Geografica de Madrid, Madrid.
BSAB Bulletin de la Societe" d'anthropologie de Bruxelles, Brussels.
BSAL Bulletin de la Soci6te* d'Anthropologie de Lyon, Lyons.
BSAP Bulletin de la Soci£te* d'Anthropologie de Paris, Paris.
BSGA Bulletin der Schweizerischen Gesellschaft fur Anthropologie und
Ethnologic, Bern.
BSPF Bulletin de la Soci6t6 pr6historique Franchise, Paris.
BSRB Bulletin de la Soci£t£ royale beige de geographic, Brussels.
BSRS Buletinul, Societatea roma'na de sciinte din Bucurescf, Bucharest.
BSSM Bulletin de la Soci6t6 Scientifique et M6dicale de 1'Ouest, Rennes.
BTTK Belleten Turk Tarih Kurumu, Ankara.
BUMP Bulletin of the University Museum, University of Pennsylvania,
Philadelphia, Pa.
BZB Biochemische Zeitschrift, Berlin
BZL Biologisches Zentralblatt, Leipzig.
CEAP Contribui'Qoes para o Estudo da Antropologia Portuguesa,
Universidad de Coimbra, Coimbra.
CIPP Comitato Italiano per lo studio dei problemi della popolazione,
Rome.
CL fiesky Lid, Prague.
COIG Communications of the Oriental Institute of Chicago University,
Chicago, 111. (The Publications of this Institute are POIC.)
CRAS Comptes-rendus des S6ances de I' Academic des Sciences, Paris.
CRCA Compte-rendu, Session du Congr£s International d'Anthro-
pologie et d'Arch6ologie Pr6historique, 8me session, Budapest,
1876; lime session, Moscow, 1892; 14me session, Geneva, 1912.
CRIC Compte-rendu, International Congress of Anthropological and
Ethnological Sciences, London, 1934.
CRSB Comptes-rendus des Stances de la Socie"te* de Biologic, Paris.
DESM Dictionnaire Encyclop6dique des sciences medicales, Paris.
DGT Dansk Geografisk Tidsskrift, Copenhagen.
Dolgozatok Dolgozatok, Szeged. Tudomdnyegyetem. Archaeologiai int6-
zet6bol, Budapest.
DRK Deutsche Rassenkunde, Jena.
EA Eesti Arst, Tartu.
ESA Eurasia Septentrionalis Antiqua, Helsingfors.
Ethnographic L'Ethnographie, Paris.
Ethnolog Ethnolog, Ljubljana.
Fennia Fennia, Helsingfors,
LIST OF SERIALS AND THEIR ABBREVIATIONS
687
FKVA Fornvannen, Kungliga Vitterhets historic oche antiqvitets aka-
demien, Stockholm.
FUL Forhandlingar, Uppsala Lakarefdrening, Uppsala.
FVO Forhandlinger, Videnskabsselskab i Oslo, Mat.-Nat. Klasse,
Oslo (formerly Kristiana).
Globus Globus, Brunswick.
GM The Geographical Magazine, London.
GR The Geographical Review, New York.
GT Geografisk Tidsskrift, Copenhagen.
HAS Harvard African Studies, Cambridge, Mass.
HB Human Biology, Baltimore.
Hesperis Hesperis, Paris.
HKSV Handlingar Kungliga Svenska Vetenskapsakademiens, Stockholm.
Homme L'homme, Journal Illustr6 des Sciences Anthropologiques, Paris.
HTR Henderson Trust Reports, Edinburgh.
IILE Izvestiia Imperatorskago Obshchestvo liuvitelef estestvoznaniia,
antropologi'i, i etnografii, Moscow.
INJ Irish Naturalists' Journal, Belfast.
ITL Izdanifa Tashkentskago Obshchestvo dlia izucheniia Tadzhikis-
tana i iranskikh narodnostet za ego predelami, Tashkent.
JA Journal of Anatomy, London.
JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society, New Haven.
JAPL Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, London.
JGAS Journal of the Galway Archaeological and Historical Society,
Galway.
JNVH Jahrbuch des nordfriesisches Verein fur Heimatkunde und
Heimatliebe, Husum.
JRAI Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of London, London.
JSAI Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, Dublin.
JVST Jahresschrift fur die Vorgeschichte der Sachsisch-Thuringischen
Lander, Halle.
KAWA Koninklijk Akademie van Wetenschappen, Amsterdam. Afdeeling
naturkunde.
KDGA Korrespondenzblatt der Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Anthropologie,
Ethnologic, und Urgeschichte, Brunswick.
KMV Kazanskii Muzeinii Vestnik, Kazan.
Kosmos Kosmos, Rozprawy Polskiego Towarzystwa Przyrodnikow imienia
Kopernika, Lwow.
Language Language, Journal of the Linguistic Society of America, Baltimore.
LMB Logan Museum Bulletin. Beloit College, Beloit, Wisconsin.
LUA Lunds Universitets Arsskrift, Lund.
LUR Latvijas Universitates Raksti, Riga.
MAAA Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association, Menasha,
Wis., etc.
MAAE Materyaly antropologiczno-archeologiczne i etnograficzne,
Komisya antropologiczna, Akademja umieje.tnosci, Krakow.
688
APPENDIX III
MAGW Mitteilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien, Vienna.
MAGZ Mitteilungen des Antiquarischen Gesellschaft in Zurich, Zurich.
Man Man (Published by the Royal Anthropological Institute), London.
MannusB Mannus-Bibliothek, Wurzburg.
MannusZ Mannus, Zeitschrift fur Vorgeschichte, Wurzburg.
MASB Mernorie dell' Accademia delle scienze dell' Istituto di Bologna,
Bologna.
MASI Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India, Calcutta.
MASL Memoirs read before the Anthropological Society, London.
MBM Memoirs of the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Honolulu.
MCSI Miscellaneous Collections of the Smithsonian Institution, Wash-
ington, D. C.
MDSS Memoires et documents de la Soci6t6 Savoisienne d'histoire et
d'archeologie, Chambery.
MEM Mensch en Maatschappij, Groningen.
MKEI Materialy Komissia ekspeditsionnykh issledovanii, Akademifa
Nauk SSSR, Leningrad.
MKIS Materialy Osobogo Komissia po Issledovaniiu Soiuznikh i
Autonomiikh Respublik, Akademifa Nauk, SSSR, Leningrad.
MMSC Mitteilungen des K. und K. Militar-Sanitats-Comites, Vienna.
MODA Meddelelser om Danmarks Antropologi, Copenhagen.
MOG Meddelelser om Gr^nland, Copenhagen.
MOKI Materialy Osobyf komitet po issledovaniiu somznikh i avtonom-
nykh respublik, Akademiia nauk SSSR, Leningrad.
MSAE Memorias de la Sociedad Espanola d'Antropologia, Etnografia, y
Prehistoria, Madrid.
MSAP M6moires de la Societ6 d'Anthropologie de Paris, Paris.
MSGP Memoires de la Societe de Geographic, Paris.
MSSR Memoriile Sec^iuni S^iinpfice, Academia RomAna*, Bucuresti.
NDSN Neue denkschriften der schweizerischen naturforschende Gesell-
schaft, Zurich.
NMN Nyt Magazin for Naturvidenskaberne, Oslo.
NMNM N£prajzi osztalyanak 6rtesitoje, Magyar nemzeti muzeum, Buda-
pest.
OFVS Oversigt af forhandlingar, Finska Vetenskaps-Societeten, Helsinki.
OMM Opisanie Minusinskogo Muzeia, Minussinsk, 1900.
PAAS Proceedings of the Anatomical and Anthropological Society of
Aberdeen University, Edinburgh.
PAn Przeglad Antropologiczny, Posen.
PAr Przeglad Archaeologiczny, Posen.
PAUB Publications of the American University of Beirut. Social Science
Series, Beirut.
PBSS Proceedings of the Bristol Spelaeological Society, Bristol.
PCAS Proceedings of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society, Cambridge,
PCZA Proceedings of the 4th Congress of Zoologists, Anatomists, and
Histologists of the USSR, Kiev, 1930.
LIST OF SERIALS AND THEIR ABBREVIATIONS 689
PGA Proceedings of the Geologists' Association, London.
PICA Proceedings of the 23rd International Congress of Americanists,
New York, 1928. (Published in N. Y., 1930.)
PICP Proceedings of the 1st International Congress of Prehistoric and
Protohistoric Sciences, London, 1932. (Published in London,
1934.)
PIIA Publications de 1'Institut Internationale d'Anthropologie, Paris.
PMP Peabody Museum Papers, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.
POIC Publications of the Oriental Institute of Chicago University,
Chicago, 111.
Portugalia Portugalia, Oporto.
PPS Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society, Cambridge.
PPSC Proceedings of the 5th Pacific Science Congress, Toronto, 1933.
PRAO Protokoly, Russkoe antropologicheskoe obshchestvo, St. Peters-
burg.
PR I A Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, Dublin.
PSAS Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, Edinburgh.
PZ Praehistorische Zeitschrift, Berlin.
QRB Quarterly Review of Biology, Baltimore, Md.
QRMS Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, London.
RA Revue Anthropologique, Paris. (191 2-, formerly Revue de
1'Ecole d'Anthropologie de Paris, REAP.)
RAJ Russkiif antropologicheskil zhurnal, Moscow.
RBAA Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science,
London.
RCA Rozpravy Cesk£ Akademie FrantiSka Josefa, Prague.
RDAP Revue d'Anthropologie, Paris. (1872-89; continued as L'Anthro-
pologie, Anth.)
RDAR Ri vista di Antropologia, Rome.
Real Reallexikon der Vorgeschichte, edited by Max Ebert, 15 vols.,
Berlin, 1924-32.
REAP Revue de Fficole d'anthropologie de Paris. (1891-191 1, continued
as Revue Anthropologique, RA.)
REHF Revue des Etudes Hongroises et Finno-ougriennes, Paris.
RP Revue Pr6historique, Paris.
RPN Rudolf Pochs Nachlass, Serie A. Physische Anthropologie, Vienna.
RSBH Reports of St. Bartholomew's Hospital, London.
SAM Severnaia Aziia, Moscow. (Title changed to Sovietskaia Aziia.)
SAWV Sitzungsberichte der Akademie *der Wissenschaften, Vienna.
Philosophisch-historische Klasse.
Science Science, Lancaster, Pa,
SISK Skrifter, Institutet for Sammenlignende Kulturforskning, Oslo.
Serie B: Skrifter.
SKNV Skrifter af det Kongelige Norske Videnskabers Selskabs, Trond-
heim.
Skythika Skythika, Prague.
690
APPENDIX III
SM Scientific Monthly, Lancaster, Pa.
SNVO Skrifter utgitt av det Norske videnskaps-akademi i Oslo, I, Mat.
Naturv. Klasse, Oslo (formerly Kristiana).
SPFM Spisy PHrodov£deck£ Fakulta Masarykova, Brno Universita,
Briinn.
STNW Sprawozdania Towarzystwa Naukowego Warszawskiego, Warsaw.
(Soci6t6 des Sciences et des Lettres de Varsovie.)
Swiatowit Swiatowit, Warsaw.
TAM Turk Antropologi Mecmuasi, Istanbul.
TBFG Transactions of the Buchan Field Club, Peterhead, Scotland.
TESE Trudy fugozapadnyK otdiel, Etnograficheskii'-staustichesktf eks-
peditsii v zapadno-russkii kral. Gosudarstvennoe russkoe
geograficheskoe obshchestvo, Leningrad.
TESL Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London, London.
TIAE Travaux de PInstitut d'anatomie et d'embryologie, Faculte" de
m6decine de Bucarest, Bucharest.
TKIP Trudy Komissiia po izuchenim plemennogo sostava naseleniil,
Rossii, Akademiia nauk SSSR, Leningrad.
TKU Trudy, Kazan. Universitet Obshchestvo estestvoispytalele!, Kazan.
TPNW Towarzystwo Przyjacio! Nauk w Wilnie, Vilna.
TRSE Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Edinburgh.
TSPA Trabalhos da Sociedade portugu£sa de antropologia e etnologia,
Oporto.
TVMA Trudy antropologicheskoe obshchestvo, Voenno-meditsinskail,
akademiia, St. Petersburg.
TYNU Transactions of the Yorkshire Naturalists' Union, Hull, England.
VGPA Verhandlungen der Gesellschaft fur Physische Anthropologie,
Stuttgart.
VMZ Voenno-Meditsinsktf Zhurnal, St. Petersburg.
VNGZ Vierteljahrsschrift der Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Zurich.
VUR Volk und Rasse, Munich.
WAnt Wiadomos'ci Antropologiczne, Warsaw.
WArc Wiadomos'ci Archaeologiczne, Warsaw.
WBKL Wiener Beitrage zur Kulturgeschichte und Linguistik, Vienna.
WMBH Wissenschaftliche Mitteilungen aus Bosnien und der Herzegowina,
Vienna.
WPZ Wiener Prahistorische Zeitschrift, Vienna.
Ymer Ymer, Stockholm.
ZBFA Zentralblatt fur" Anthropologie, Brunswick.
ZDSJ Zeitschrift fur Demographic und Statistik der Jiiden, Berlin.
ZFAE Zeitschrift fur Anatomic und Entwickelungsgeschichte, Leipzig.
ZFE Zeitschrift fur Ethnologic, Berlin.
ZFKL Zeitschrift fur Konstitutionslehre. Munich, Berlin, etc.
ZFMA Zeitschrift fur Morphologic und Anthropologie, Stuttgart.
ZFRK Zeitschrift fur Rassenkunde, Berlin and Leipzig.
ZFRP Zeitschrift fur Rassenphysiologie, Munich.
LIST OF SERIALS AND THEIR ABBREVIATIONS 691
ZGTK Zhurnal geologo-geografkhnogo tsiklu, Kiev.
ZIGO Zapiski Imperatorskago russkoe Geograficheskoe Obshchestvo, po
otdieleniui statistiki, St. Petersburg.
ZRGO Zapiski Otdielenie statistiki, Etnograficheskit-statistchesktf ekspe-
ditsit v zapadno-russkiK krat Gosudarstvennoe russkoe geogra-
ficheskoe obshchestvo, Leningrad.
ZVAK Zapiski Vseukrai'ns'kiK arkheologichnilf Komitet, Vseukrains'ka
akademiia nauk, Kiev.
ZWAK Zbior wiadomos'ci do antropologii krakowej, Komisya antro-
pologiczna, Akademija umiejetno^ci, Krakow.
Appendix IV
LIST OF BOOKS
AICHEL, OTTO, Der deutsche Mensch, Jena, 1933.
AMAT, C., Le Mzab et les Mzabites, Paris, 1886.
AMMON, O., Anthropologische Untersuchungen der Wehrpflichtigen in Baden,
Hamburg, 1890.
ANONYMOUS, Anthropometric Data from Baluchistan, Ethnographic Survey of
India, Calcutta, 1908.
ARANZADI, T. DE, El Pueblo Euskalduna, San Sebastian, 1889.
— , and BOSCH GIMPERA, P., Excavacio de Sepulcres Megalitics, Barcelona, 1920.
BARONOV, S. F., BUKE!KHAN, A. N., and RUDENKO, S. I., Kazaki. Anthropolo-
gicheskie ocherki. MKIS, Vip. 3, Leningrad, 1927.
BARONS, S. W., A Social and Religious History of the Jewish People, New York,
1937.
BATES, O., The Eastern Libyans, London, 1914.
BAUR, E., FISCHER, E., and LENZ, F., Human Heredity, New York, 1931.
BAXTER, J. H., Statistics, Medical and Anthropological, U. S. Army, Washington,
D. C., 1875. 2 vols.
BEDDOE, J., The Races of Britain, Condon, 1885.
— , The Physical Anthropology of the Isle of Man, Bristol, 1887.
— , On the North Settlements of West Saxons, London, 1895.
BELLOWS, H. A., Poetic Edda. American Scandinavian Foundation, New York,
1936. (Translation.)
BENHAZERA, M., Six Mois chez les Touareg du Ahaggar, Alger, 1908.
BENT, T. J., The Sacred City of the Ethiopians, London, 1893.
BERTHOLON, L., and CHANTRE, E., Recherches Anthropologiques dans la BeYberie
Orientale, Lyons, 1913.
BOAS, F., Materials for the Study of Inheritance in Man, New York, 1928.
BOB, J., and NUMMEDAL, A., Le Finnmarkien, SISK, Serie B, Oslo, 1936.
BOULE, M., VALLOIS, H., and VERNEAU, R., with ARAMBOURG, C., Les Grottes
PalSolithiques des Beni Seghoual. AIPH, Memoire 13, Paris, 1934. Deuxi^me
Par tie, Anthropologie.
BOWLES, GORDON T., New Types of Old Americans at Harvard, Cambridge,
Mass., 1932.
— , Data on Afghanistan and India (unpublished).
BRAY, SIR DENIS, Ethnographic Survey of Baluchistan, Bombay, 1913. 2 vols.
BREIG, A., Eine anthropologische Untersuchung einer schwabische Alb, DRK,
vol. 13, Jena, 1935.
BRENNSOHN, I., Zur Anthropologie der Litauer, Dorpat, 1883.
692
LIST OF BOOKS 693
BRION, M., Attila, the Scourge of God, London, 1929.
BRYN, H., Der nordische Mensch, Munich, 1929.
— , Homo Caesius. SKNV, #2, Trondhjem, 1931.
— , and SCHREINER, K, E., Somatologie der Norweger. SNVO, #1, Oslo, 1929.
BUNAK, V. V., Crania Armenica, Moscow, 1927.
BUXTON, L. H. D., Appendix on the Human Remains Excavated at Kish, in
Langdon, S., Excavations at Kish, I, Paris, 1924, pp. 115-125.
CAMERON, JOHN, The Skeleton of British Neolithic Man, London, 1 934.
CASTRO, L. de, Nella Terra dei Negus, Milan, 1915.
CHANTRE, E., Recherchcs Anthropologiques dans 1'Asie Occidentale, Lyons, 1895.
— , Recherches Anthropologiques dans FAfrique Orientale, Egypte, Lyons, 1904.
CHILDE, V. GORDON, The Dawn of European Civilization, London, 1925.
— , The Danube in Prehistory, Oxford, 1929.
— , The Most Ancient East, New York, 1929.
— , The Bronze Age, Cambridge, 1930.
— , New Light on the Most Ancient East, London, 1935.
— , The Prehistory of Scotland, London, 1 935.
— , Man Makes Himself, London, 1936.
CLARKE, J. G. D., The Mesolithic Age in Britain, Cambridge, 1932.
— , The Mesolithic Settlement of Northern Europe, Cambridge, 1936.
COMAS, JUAN, Aportaciones al Estudio de la Prehistoria de Menorca, Madrid, 1936.
COON, C. S., Tribes of the Rif. HAS, vol. 9, Cambridge, Mass., 1931.
— , Contribution to the Study of the Physical Anthropology of the Ethiopians and
Somalis, MS.
— , The Physical Anthropology of Northern Albania, MS.
DAVENPORT, C. B., and LOVE, A. B., Army Anthropometry, Washington, 1921.
DAVIS, J. B., and THURMAN, J., Crania Britannica, London, 1865.
DECHELETTE, J., Manuel de 1'Archaeologie Prehistorique. vol. 3, Celtique et
Gallo-Romaine, Paris, 1910.
DE GEER, S., The Kernel Area of the Nordic Race within Northern Europe, in
Lundborg, L., and Linders, F., Racial Character of the Swedish Nation,
Uppsala, 1926.
DENIKER, J., The Races of Man, New York, 1912.
DIEBOLD, V., Ein Beitrag zur Anthropologie der Kleinrussen, Dorpat, 1886.
DUBNOW, S., Die neueste Geschichte des judipchen Volkes, 1789-1914, Berlin,
1920-1923.
— , History of the Jews in Russia and Poland, Philadelphia, 1916.
DUVEYRIER, H., Les Touareg du Nord, Paris, 1864.
ECKER, A., Crania Germaniae meridionalis occidentalis, Freiburg, 1863.
EHRICH, R. W., Appendix in Starr, Richard F. S., Nuzi, vol. 1, Cambridge, Mass.
(in preparation).
---, Measurements on Bohemians and Moravians (unpublished).
— , Measurements on Montenegrins (unpublished).
694 APPENDIX IV
EICKSTEDT, E. VON, Rassenkunde und Rassengeschichte der Menschheit, Stuttgart,
1934.
ELLIOT-SMITH, SIR G., Appendix B, in Leakey, L. S. B., The Stone Age Races of
Kenya, London, 1935.
ENGBERG, R. M., and SHIPTON, G. M., Notes on the Chalcolithic and Early
Bronze Age Pottery of Megiddo. Oriental Institute, Studies in Ancient
Oriental Civilization, #10, Chicago, 1934.
EVANS, SIR A., Palace of Minos at Knossus, London, 1921, vol. 1.
FIELD, HENRY, Arabs of Central Iraq, AMFM, vol. 4, Chicago, 1936.
FISCHER, E., Die Rehobother Bastards, Jena, 1913.
FLEURE, H. J., The Races of England and Wales, London, 1923.
FOURNEL, H., Les Berbers, Paris, 1875.
FRANKOWSKA, M. z R., Czazki z Lwowskiej Katedry Lacinskiej z XVII i XVIII
w i Lwow, Lemberg, 1925.
FRASETTO, F., Note Anthropologiche Sulla Populazione del Bolognese, Bologna,
1932.
FURST, CARL M., Zur Kranologie der Schwedischen Steinzcit. HKSV, #1,
vol. 49, Stockholm, 1912.
GALLOWAY, A., The Skeletal Remains of Mapungubwe, in Fouch£, L., Mapun-
gubwe, Cambridge, 1937, pp. 127-174.
GARSON, J. G., Appendix in Bent, J. T., The Sacred City of the Ethiopians, New
York, 1893.
GAUTIER, E. F., Les Siecles Obscurs dans 1'Histoire du Magbreb, Paris, 1927.
Sahara, The Great Desert. New York, 1935.
GJESSING, R., Die Kautokeinolappen. SISK, #25, Oslo, 1934.
GLODT, H. R., Melanogenesis, 1936. Thesis in Peabody Museum Library,
Harvard University.
GOBINEAU, A. DE, Essai sur 1'inegalite des races humaines, Paris, 1853-55.
GOLLNER, H., Volks- und Rassenkunde der Bevolkerung von Friedersdorf, DRK,
vol. 9, Jena, 1932.
GORING, C., The English Convict, London, 1913.
GOROSHCHENKO, K., Kurgannie Cherepa Minusinskago Okruga. OMM, Minus-
sinsk, 1900.
GOULD, B. A., Investigations in the Military and Anthropological Statistics of
American Soldiers. Cambridge, Mass., 1869.
GRAY, J., and TOCHER, J. F., The Ethnology of Buchan, Peterhead, Scotland, 1895.
GRAU, R., Die Questenberger, DRK, vol. 11, Jena, 1934.
GREENLEE, R. F,, The Association and Interrelation of the Microlithic Cultures of
Europe and Africa. Privately printed, 1935.
GRUBE, O., Anthropologische Untersuchungen an Esten, Dorpat, 1878.
GSELL, S., Histoire Ancienne de FAfrique du Nord, Paris, 1913.
GUHA, B. S., The Racial Affinities of the Peoples of India. Census of India,
vol. 1, part III, Simla, 1931.
GUNTHER, H., Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes, Munich, 1923.
— , Rassenkunde des jiidischen Volkes, Munich, 1930.
LIST OF BOOKS 695
HADDON, A. G. and BROWNE, C. R., The Ethnography of the Aran Islands,
Dublin, 1893.
HAECKEL, E. H., Natiirliche Schopfungsgeschichte, 7th ed., 1879.
HALL, H. R. H., and WOOLLEY, C. L,, Al-'Ubaid, Ur Excavations. Vol. 1,
Oxford, 1927.
HANNESSON, G., Korpermasse und Korperproportionen der Islander, Reykjavik,
1925.
HATT, G., Notes on Reindeer Nomadism. MAAA, vol. 6, #2, 1919.
HAWES, C. H., and H. B., Crete, the Forerunner of Greece. London and New
York, 1909.
HELLICH, B., Praehistoricke lebky v Cechach ze Sbirky Musea Kralovstvi Cesk6ho,
Praha, 1899.
HERMANN, A., Die deutschen Bauern des Burgenlandes. DRK, vol. 15/16, Jena,
1937.
HESCH, M., Letten, Litauer, Weissrussen. RPN, vol. 3, Vienna, 1933.
HOOTON, E. A., The Ancient Inhabitants of the Canary Islands. HAS, vol. 7,
Cambridge, Mass., 1925.
— , Indians of Pecos Pueblo, New Haven, 1930.
— , Up from the Ape, New York, 1931.
— , The American Criminal, Cambridge, Mass., vol. 1, 1938.
Houz£, E., Les indices cephaliques des Flamands et des Wallons, Bruxelles, 1882.
HRDLI&KA, A., The Natives of Kharga Oasis, Egypt. MCSI, vol. 59, #1,
Washington, 1912.
— , The Old Americans, Baltimore, 1925.
— , The Skeletal Remains of Early Man. MCSI, vol. 83, Washington, 1930.
HUBERT, H., The Rise of the Celts, London, 1934.
HUGHES, BYRON O., The Physical Anthropology of Native Born Armenians, 1938.
Thesis in Widener Library, Harvard University.
HULSE, F. P., The Comparative Physical Anthropology of Andalusians and Cubans,
1934. Thesis in Widener Library, Harvard University.
JANKO, J., Magyar Typuszok, Elso Sorozat: A Balaton Mell6keroL Budapest, 1900.
JOCHELSON, W., Peoples of Asiatic Russia, New York, 1928.
KAJAVA, Y., Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Rasseneigenschaften der Lappen Finlands.
* AASF, ser. A, vol. 25, #1, Helsingfors, 1925.
KAPPERS, C. U. A,, The Anthropology of the Near East, PAUB, no. 2, 1932.
— , and PARR, L. W., An Introduction to the Anthropology of the Near East,
Amsterdam, 1934.
KASTEIN, J,, History and Destiny of the Jews, New York, 1933.
KEITER, F., Schwanzen und die Schlei, DRK, vol. 8, Jena, 1931.
— -, Russlanddeutsche Bauern. DRK, vol. 12, Jena, 1934.
KEITH, SIR A., The Antiquity of Man, London, 1916.
— , A Report on the Galilee Skull, in Turville-Petre, F., Researches in Prehistoric
Galilee, London, 1927.
— , Report on the Human Remains, Ur Excavations, vol. 1, in Hall, H. R. H.,
and Woolley, C. L., Al-Ubaid, Ur Excavations, Oxford, 1927.
696 APPENDIX IV
— , New Discoveries Relating to the Antiquity of Man, New York, 1930,
— , and KROGMAN, W. M., Appendix I, in Thomas, B., Arabia Felix, New York,
1932.
KENDRICK, T. O., and HAWKES, C. F. C., Archaeology in England and Wales,
1914-1931. London, 1932.
KHANIKOFF, N., M6moire sur P Ethnographic de la Perse. MSGP, Paris, 1866.
KLENKE, W., and SGHEIDT, W., Niedersachsische Bauern. DRK, vol. 1, Jena,
1929.
KLENKE, W., Die Deutsche und ihre Nachbarvolker, Munich, 1929.
KOSSINNA, G., Die Indogermanen. MannusB, #26, Wurzburg, 1926.
— , Ursprung und Verbreitung der Germanen. MannusB, #6a, Wurzburg, 1928.
KROGMAN, W. M., Cranial Types from Alishar Hiiyuk, in Osten, H. H. von der,
The Alishar Hiiyuk. POIC, part IV, #30, Chicago, 1937, pp. 213-293.
LAMMENS, H., Islam, Beliefs and Institutions, New York, 1926.
LANSEL, P., The Raeto-Romans, Chur, 1937.
LARSEN, C. F., Om Jaedertypen. SNVO, #4, Oslo, 1900.
LAWRENCE, COL. T. E., The Seven Pillars of Wisdom, New York, 1935.
LAUFER, B., The Reindeer and its Domestication. MAAA, vol. 4, #2, 1917.
LEAKEY, L. S. B., The Fossil Races of Kenya, Oxford, 1935.
— , The Stone Age Races of Kenya, London, 1935.
— , Stone Age Africa, Oxford, 1936.
LE PONTOIS, BERNARD, Le Finistere pr6historique, ACIA, I lime Session, Amster-
dam, 1927, pp. 9-311.
LIVI, R., Antropometria Militare, Rome, 1896. 2 vols.
LORIMER, D. L., The Burushaski Language. SISK, Oslo, 1935.
LUNDBORG, H., and LINDERS, F. J., The Racial Character of the Swedish Nation,
Uppsala and Stockholm, 1926.
LUSCHAN, F. VON, and PETERSEN, E., Reisen in Lykien, Milyas, und Kibyratis.
Vienna, 1889.
LUSCHAN, F. VON, Uber eine Schadelsammlung von den Canarischen Inseln, in
Meyer, H., Die Insel Teneriffe, Leipzig, 1896.
MACCURDY, G. G., Human Origins, New York, 1924. 2 vols.
MALES, B., Antropoloska Ispitivanja, Belgrad, 1932.
MARGOLIS, M., and MARX, A., History of the Jewish People, Philadelphia, 1927.
MARETT, J. R. DE LA H., Race, Sex, and Environment, London, 1936.
MARMOL CARAVAIAL, LUYS DEL, Descripcion de Affrica, Granada, 1573.
MARTIN, C. P., Prehistoric Man in Ireland, London, 1935.
MARTIN, R., Lehrbuch der Anthropologie, 2nd ed., Jena, 1928. 3 vols.
MASPERO, G., The Struggle of the Nations, London, 1896.
MATIEOKA, J., Crania Bohemica, Prague, 1891.
McGovERN, WM. M., The Early Empires of Central Asia, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina, 1939.
MEILLET, A., and COHEN, M., Les Langues du Monde, Paris, 1924.
MENDES-CORREA, A. A., Os Povos Primitives da Lusitania, Oporto, 1924.
LIST OF BOOKS 697
MENGHIN, O., Weltgeschichte der Steinzeit, Vienna, 1931.
MERKENSGHLAGER, F., Zur Volks- und Rassenkunde des Spreewaldes, Cottbus,
1933.
MEYER, H., Die Insel Teneriffe, Leipzig, 1896.
— , Uber die Urbewohner der Canarischen Inseln, in Adolf Bastians Festschrift.
MINNS, E. H., Scythians and Greeks, London, 1913.
MOLLISON, T., Some Human Remains Found in the North Kurgan at Anau, in
Pumpelly, R., Explorations in Turkestan, vol. 2. (See Pumpelly.)
MONTANDON, G., La Race, Les Races. Paris, 1933.
— , L'Ethnie Franchise, Paris, 1935.
MOSGHEN, L., Crani Romani della Primera Epoca Cristiana, Torino, 1894.
MULLER, F., Allgemeine Ethnographic, 2nd ed., Vienna, 1879.
MUSIL, A., The Manners and Customs of the Ruwalla Bedawin. Oriental Explora-
tions and Studies of the American Geographical Society, #6, New York,
1928.
MYRES, J. L., Who Were the Greeks? Berkeley, 1936.
NIEDERLE, L., Slovansk6 Starozitnosti, Prague, 1925.
NIKOLSKI, D. P., Bashkiri, St. Petersburg, 1899.
NORDENSTRENG, R.} Origin, Growth, and Racial Components of the Swedish
Nation, in Lundborg, H., and Linders, J. F. (see Lundborg).
— , Europas Manneskoraser, och Folkslag, 3rd ed., Stockholm, 1926.
NYESSEN, D. J. H., The Passing of the Frisians, The Hague, 1927.
OBERMAIER, H., Fossil Man in Spain, New Haven, 1924.
OESTERLEY, W. O. E., and ROBINSON, T. H., A History of Israel, Oxford, 1932.
OLORIZ Y AquiLERA, F., La Talla Humana en Espafia, Madrid, 1896.
OUVAROV, A. S., Archaeologie de la Russie, Moscow, 1881.
PALLAS, PROFESSEUR, Voyages du Professeur Pallas, etc., Paris, 1772.
PAUDLER, F., Die hellfarbigen Rassen, etc., Heidelberg, 1924.
PENNIMAN, T. K., A Note on the Inhabitants of Kish Before the Great Flood, in
Watelin, L. C., Excavations at Kish, Paris, 1934.
PITTARD, E., Les Peuples des Balkans, Geneva, 1920.
— , and REVERDIN, L., £tude de diverses series de cranes anciens de la vall£e du
Rh6ne (Valais), Neuchatel, 1899.
POLLERA, A., I Baria e I Cunama, Roma, 1913.
PRINCE, J. DYNELEY, Materials for a Sumerian lexicon, Leipzig, 1908.
PUCCIONI, N., Antropologia e Etnografia delle Genti della Somalia, Bologna, 1931.
2 vols.
— , Antropometria delle Gente della Cyrenaica, Florence, 1934.
PUMPELLY, R., Explorations in Turkestan, Washington, 1908.
RAINER, F. L, Enqueues Anthropologiques dans trois Villages Roumains des
Carpathes. TIAE, #1, Bucharest, 1937,
698 APPENDIX IV
RANDALL-MAC!VER, D., and WILKIN, A., Libyan Notes, London, 1901,
RASWAN, C., Black Tents of Arabia, Boston, 1935.
RECK, H., Oldoway, die Schlucht des Urmenschen, Leipzig, 1933.
RETZIUS, G., Crania Suecica Antiqua, Stockholm, 1900.
— , Finska Kranier, Stockholm, 1878.
— , and FURST, G. M., Anthropologia Suecica, Bcitrage zur Anthropologie der
Schweden, Stockholm, 1902.
RICHTER, B., Burkhards und Kaustoss. DRK, vol. 14, Jena, 1936.
RIED, H., Miesbacher Bevolkerung. DRK, vol. 3, Jena, 1930.
RIPLEY, W. Z., The Races of Europe, New York, 1899.
ROBERTS, C., Manual of Anthropometry, London, 1878.
ROCCA, P., Les Corses devant 1' Anthropologie, Paris, 1913.
ROTH, C., A Short History of the Jewish People, London, 1936.
RUPPIN, A., The Jew in the Modern World, London, 1934.
RUTIMEYER, L., and His, W., Crania Helvetica, Basel and Geneva, 1864.
SALLER, K., Die Keuperfranken. DRK, vol. 2, Jena, 1930.
— , Die Fehmaraner. DRK, vol. 4, Jena, 1930.
— , Suderdithmarsische Geestbevolkerung. DRK, vol. 7, Jena, 1931.
SANCHEZ FERNANDEZ, L., El Hombre Espanol. AEPC, Congreso de Granada,
June 20, 1911.
SCHACHERMEYER, FRITZ, EtTuskische Friihgeschichte, Berlin, 1929.
SCHEIDT, WALTER, Die eiszeitlichen Schadelfunde aus dcr Grossen Ofnet-hohle
und vom Kaufertsberg bei Nordlingen, Munich, 1923.
— , Die Rassen der jiingeren Steinzcit in N. W. Europa, Munich, 1924.
— , Alemanische Bauern. DRK, vol. 6, Jena, 1931.
— , and WRIEDE, H., Die Elbinsel Finkenwarder, Munich, 1927.
SCHLAGINHAUFEN, O., Die menschlichen Skeletrester aus der Steinzeit des Wau-
wilersees, Jena, 1925.
SCHLIEMANN, H., Ilios, City and Country of the Trojans. London, 1880; Leipzig,
1885.
SCHREINER, A., Die Nord Norweger. SNVO, no. 2, Oslo, 1929.
— , Anthropologische Lokaluntersuchungen in Norge; Valle, Halandsdal, und
Eidfjord. SNVO, #3, Oslo, 1929.
— , Anthropologische Lokaluntersuchungen in Norge; Hellemo (Tysfjordlappen).
SNVO, #1, Oslo, 1932.
SCHREINER, K. E., Zur Osteologie der Lappen. SISK, Oslo, 1935.
SCHWERZ, Franz, Die Volkerschaften der Schweiz, Stuttgart, 1915.
SELIGMAN, C. G., and B. Z., Pagan Tribes of the Nilotic Sudan, London, 1932.
SELTZER, C. C., The Physical Anthropology of the Mediaeval Icelanders. MS. in
Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass. (Unpublished.)
— , The Racial Characteristics of Syrians and Armenians. PMP, vol. 13, #3,
1936.
SERGI, G., Crani Preistorici della Sicilia, vol. 6, 1889.
— , Specie e varieta umane, Torino, 1 900.
— , Crani Antichi della Sardegna, Rome, 1906.
LIST OF BOOKS 699
— , Description of some skulls from the North Kurgan, Anau; in R. Pumpelly,
Explorations in Turkestan, vol. 1, 1908.
— , Europa (L'origine dei popoli europei), Torino, 1908.
— , L'Uomo, Torino, 1911.
- — , Crania Habessinica, Rome, 1912.
— , Le Origini Umane, Torino, 1913.
— , The Mediterranean Race, London, 1914.
SEWELL, R., and GUHA, B., Report on the Bones excavated at Nal. MASI, vol.
35, Calcutta, 1929, Appendix 5, p. 56.
SHAPIRO, H. L., The Heritage of the Bounty, New York, 1936.
— , Migration and Environment, New York, 1939.
SHETELIG, H., FALK, H., and GORDON, E., Scandinavian Archaeology, Oxford,
1937.
SIRELIUS, LI. T., The Genealogy of the Finns, Helsinki, 1925.
SONNABEND, H., L'Espansione degli Slavi. CIPP, ser. 1, vol. 1, Rome, 1931.
SPEISER, E., Mesopotamian Origins, London, 1930.
STEIN, SIR AUREL, Serindia, Oxford, 1921.
STORRS, SIR RONALD, The Memoirs of Sir Ronald Storrs, New York, 1937.
STURLASON, SNORRE, Heimskringla, edited by E. Mousen, Cambridge, 1932.
SUK, V., Anthropological Notes on the Peoples of Carpathian Ruthenia, Briinn,
1932.
TALKO-HRYNCEWICZ, J., Przyczynek do Poznania. Swiata Kurhanowego Ukrainy,
Krakow, 1899.
TAMAGNINI, E., Os Antiquos Habitantes das Canarias, CEAP, vol. 12, 1933.
TAPPEINER, F., Studien zur Anthropologie Tirols, Innsbruck, 1883.
THOMAS, BERTRAM, Arabia Felix, New York, 1932.
TWARJANOWITSCH, J. K., Materialien zur Anthropologie der Armenier (in
Russian), St. Petersburg, 1897.
UJFALVY, K. E. VON, Aus dem westlichen Himalaja, Leipzig, 1884.
— , Les Aryens au Nord et au Sud dc PHindou Kouch, Paris, 1896.
VALLOIS, H., Les Ossements Bretons de Kern6, Toul-Bras, et Port Bara. Vannes,
1935.
— , Notes sur les T£tes Osseuses, in Conteneau, G., and Ghirshman, A., Fouilles de
T6p6 Giyan. Mus£e du Louvre, D6partment des Antiquit£s Orientales,
Serie Arch6ologique, vol. 3, Paris, 1935.
VAN DEN BERG, L. W. C., Le Hadhramout et les Colonies Arabes dans 1'Archipel
Indien, Batavia, 1886.
VAVILOV, N., Studies on the Origin of Cultivated Plants, Leningrad, 1926.
VERNEAU, R., Cinq Ann6es de Sejour aux iles Canaries, Paris, 1891.
— , Appendix in Duchesne-Fournet, Mission en Ethiopie, Paris, 1909.
VISHNEVSKY, B. N., Antropologicheskiia Danniia o Naselentf Permskaga Uezda,
Perm, 1916.
700 APPENDIX IV
WAEBER, O., Beitr&ge zur Anthropologie der Letten, Dorpat, 1879.
WALDHAUER, F., Zur Anthropologie der Liven, Dorpat, 1879.
WARNER, LANGDON, Report on Skeletons Excavated at Anau, in Pumpelly, R.,
Explorations in Turkestan, vol. 2 (see Pumpelly).
WEISSGERBER, H., Les Blancs d'Afrique, Paris, 1910.
WENIGER, J., Rassenkundliche Untersuchungen an Albanern. RPN, serie A, vol. 4,
Vienna, 1934.
WETTSTEIN, E., Zur Anthropologie und Ethnographic des Kreises Dissentis,
Zurich, 1902.
WHATMOUGH, J., The Foundations of Roman Italy, London, 1937.
WILLIAMS, G. D., Maya Spanish Crosses in Yucatan. PMP, vol. 13, #1, Cam-
bridge, Mass., 1931.
WISCHNITZER, M., Die Juden in der Welt, Berlin, 1935.
WILMER, W. H., Atlas Fundus Oculi, New York, 1934.
WILSKMAN, L, Tilsfstollisia tietoja Suomen kansan ruumiilisesta "kehityksesta,"
III. Miesten kasvutilastoa. Helsinki, 1922.
WITT, H., Die Schadelform der Esten, Dorpat, 1879.
ZOLOTAREV, D. A., Etnichesktf Sostav Naselenia Sev.-Zap. Oblasti i KarePsko*
ASSR, TKIP, Vyp. 12, Leningrad, 1927.
— , KoFskie Lopari, MKEI, Vyp. 9, Leningrad, 1928.
— , Kareli SSSR, MKEI, Vyp. 24, Leningrad, 1930.
INDEX OF AUTHORS
Abercromby, J., 463.
Adloff, Paul, 22.
Aguilo, Juan C., 149.
Aichel, Otto, 27, 28, 50, 52, 53, 54, 74, 123.
Alexandrova, A. I., 345, 349.
Amat, C., 475.
Andree, R., 374.
Andrews, T. H., 396.
Annandalc, N., 336.
Anonymous, 588.
Anserov, N. I., 425.
Anton, M., 150.
Anuchin, D. N., 573.
Apostolides, 605.
Appolinaris, 229.
Aranzadi, Telesforo de, 148, 149, 152,
493, 502.
Arbo, C. O. E., 166, 309, 313, 314, 316,
336.
Aristotle, 279.
Aruntinow, A., 630, 632.
Ashley-Montagu, M. F., 8, 243.
Asmus, R., 219, 562.
Atgier, E. A., 513.
Aubert, 513.
Augusta, K., 562.
Backman, G., 242, 362.
Baer, C. E., von, 200.
Bailly, Ren6, 60.
Baranov, S. F., 579.
Baranowska-Malewska, Z., 565.
Bardenfleth, K. S., 332.
Barge, J. A. J., 531, 532.
Barnard, 209.
Baronas, I. O., 365.
Barons, S., 435.
Barras de Aragon, F, de las, 47, 100, 149,
152, 153, 206, 491, 492.
Barros e Cunha, J. G. de, 100, 495, 496.
Bartels, P., 156.
Bartucz, L., 155, 156, 229, 230, 232, 233,
234, 585, 586.
Baschmakoff, A., 224.
Basler, A., 164.
Bates, O., 98, 463, 464.
Batista i Roca, J. M., 149.
Battaglia, R., 148.
Baudoin, M., 191.
Baur, E., 5, 276.
Bayer, J., 105.
Baxter, D., 573.
Beddoe, J., 209, 374, 377, 385, 387, 389,
390, 392, 528, 532, 642.
Bedot, M., 549.
Bekri, el, 463.
Belloc, H., 284-85.
Bellows, H. A., 321.
Beloded, F. S., 569.
Benhazera, M., 471.
Bennett, 111.
Benoit, M. F., 472, 475, 480, 484, 643.
Bent, T. J., 448.
Benyon, E. D., 585.
Benzengre, B., 582.
Bercerot, J., 472.
Berthillon, 520, 528.
Berthoion, L., 98, 153, 463, 475, 476, 477.
Biasutti, R., 585, 587, 588, 614.
Bieiskii, P. A., 614.
Birket-Smith, K., 48.
Black, D., 49.
Bloch, A., 147.
Bloxam, G. W., 386, 388, 390.
Blurnenbach, 280.
Boas, F., 556, 646.
Bochenek, A., 566.
Boe, J., 69.
Bogdanov, A. P., 103, 125.
Bolk, L., 532.
Bonch-Osmolovskii, G., 69.
Bonin, G. von, 30, 31, 34, 48, 117.
Borrow, G., 505.
Bosch-Gimpera, P., 150.
Bouchereau, A., 457, 513, 516.
Bouchet, Dr., 171.
Boule, M., 40, 43, 44, 45, 52, 54, 60, 62,
65, 67, 99.
Boureau, R., 138.
Bowles, G. T., 9, 201, 416, 419, 420, 431.
Bradbrooke, W., 386.
Brash, J. C., 209.
Breig, A., 543,
Bremer, W., 192.
Brennsohn, I., 365.
Breuil, Abb6, 75.
Brezina, E., 551.
Brion, M., 233.
701
702
INDEX OF AUTHORS
Broca, P,, 169, 515.
Brooks, G. E. P., 10.
Browne, G. R., 195, 377.
Browne, Brig.-Gen. J. G., 630.
Bruni, E., 147.
Brunton, G., 93.
Bryce, T. H., Ill, 211.
Bryk, J., 566, 567.
Bryn, H., 9, 275, 301, 302, 304, 309, 310,
312,317,319,330,477.
Buketkhan, A. N., 579.
Bunak, V. V., 201, 234, 339, 346, 573,
575, 617, 625.
Burrau, C., 332, 334, 335.
Buxton, L. H., 88, 138, 625.
Callander, J. G., 160.
Calori, C. L., 555.
Oameron, J., 148.
Capus, G., 590.
Cardoza, F., 495, 497.
Carlier, G., 513, 517.
Garret, J., 513.
Carriere, G., 513, 517.
Castro, L. de, 448, 450.
Cervinka, J. L., 219.
Chadwick, Nora K., 179.
Chantre, E., 98, 169, 418, 421, 425, 457,
459, 476, 477, 625, 630, 632, 641.
Chassagne, A., 513.
Childe, V. G., 16, 78, 79, 92, 93, 107,
113, 115, 125, 141, 148, 150, 155, 160,
162, 165, 286.
Chomiakov, M. N., 347, 348.
Chubinski, P. P., 569.
Cipriani, L., 408, 448.
Claerhout, J., 528.
Clarke, J. G. D., 49, 56, 67, 69, 73, 74,
123.
Cline, W. B., 468.
Cohen, M., 445.
Cole, Fay-Cooper, 40, 59.
Collignon, R., 10, 153, 502, 503, 513, 515,
516, 518, 519, 522.
Comas, J., 148.
Conitzer, H., 274.
Coon, C. S., 41, 463, 495, 597, 600.
Cooper, J., 387.
Coutil, L., 167.
Craig, J, 459.
CrawJ. H., 160.
Cripps, L., 390.
Crowfoot, J. W., 619, 621.
fiucukala, G. J., 605.
Cunningham, I. J., 273.
Cvijid, J., 588.
Cwirko-Godyki, M., 587.
Czarnowski, S. J., 103.
Czekanowski, J., 249, 286, 288-89, 306,
560, 564, 567.
Czortkower, S., 168.
Danilov, N. P., 418.
Davenport, C. B., 377, 385, 556, 565, 642.
Davies, E., 386.
Davis, J. B., 194.
Debetz, G., 126, 168, 169, 171, 200, 219,
224, 225, 231, 234, 238.
Debierre, C., 513, 517.
Dechelettc, J., 115.
Deckert, E., 642.
De Geer, S., 254.
Demianowski, A., 571.
Deniker, J., 280, 281.
DcPauw, L., 526.
Derry, Douglas, 94.
Dershinsky, J. E., 566.
Derviz, D., 219, 573.
Deslaers, M. H., 150.
Diebold, V., 571.
Dingwall, D., 210.
Dirr, A., 632.
Dixon, R. B., 420, 421.
Djavakhov, A., 632.
Djawachischwili, A., 425, 630, 632.
Donift, A., 106, 199, 200, 614.
Dos Santos, J. R. Jr., 495, 497.
Dow, D. R., 160.
Downes, R. M., 390.
Drontschilow, K., 155, 610.
Dubnow, S., 435.
DuBois, E,, 264.
Dubowski, W., 642.
Duckworth, W. L. H., 141, 209, 264, 498,
500, 501.
Duncan, J. W., 387.
Dunlop, A., 386.
Dupertuis, C. W., 376.
Durand de Gros, J. P., 513, 516.
Dus, F., 126.
Duveyrier, H., 471.
Dzhavakhov, A. N., 641.
Ecker, A., 211.
Edwards, A. J. H., Ill, 160.
Enrich, R. W., 88, 101, 105, 411, 421,
422, 562.
Eichholz, E. R., 568.
Eickstedt, E. von, 249, 286-88, 289, 386,
391, 396, 397, 398, 635.
Elderton, E. M., 390.
Eliseev, A. V. (Elisiev, A.), 358, 619.
INDEX OF AUTHORS
703
El'kind, A., 434.
Elliot-Smith, Sir G., 23.
Engberg, R. M, 138.
Erckert, R. von, 425, 625, 632.
Erikson, E., 632.
Evans, Sir Arthur, 141.
Falk, H., 202.
Fallot, A., 499.
Fawcett, E., 112.
Fewkes, V. J., 69, 101, 105.
Field, Henry, 47, 68, 86, 410, 411, 412,
413, 418.
Fischer, E., 5, 244, 264, 276, 487, 539.
Fishberg, M., 443, 642, 643.
Fisher, R. A., 248.
Fleming, R. M., 386.
Fleure, H. J., 385, 386, 389, 390, 396.
Fleury-Cuello, E., 212.
Fligier, Cl, 642.
Flower, W. H., 386.
Folmer, H. C., 531.
Forbes, A., 387.
Fouche", L., 25.
Fourncl, H., 463.
Fox, A. L., 386, 390.
Frankfort, H., 89, 90.
Frankowska, M. z R., 565.
Frasctto, F., 448, 558.
Freire-Marecco, B., 386.
Friedcnthal, A., 32, 167.
Frizzi, E., 538, 553.
Furst, Carl M., 73, 101, 123, 138, 144,
145, 156, 326.
Galloway, A., 25.
Galton, E., 388.
Gardiner, J. B., 387.
Gardner, B., 605.
Garnicr, M., 513.
Garrod, D. A. E., 33, 40, 44, 61, 75.
Garson, J. G., 110, 111, 386, 388, 390,
448.
Caspar, J., 233.
Caster, M., 504.
Gaul, J., ix.
Gautier, E. F., 463.
Genna, G. E., 147.
Geyer, E., 163, 213, 301, 302, 303.
Gieseler, W., 44, 45.
GiPchenko, N. V., 632.
Gini, C., 556.
Giuffrida-Ruggeri, V., 147.
Gjessing, R., 301, 302, 305.
Gladstone, R. J., 264, 392.
Glodt, H. R., 273.
Glubb, Maj., 411.
Gliick, L., 504.
Gobineau, A. de, 285.
Gochkevitch, 169.
Goldman, H., 101, 105.
Gollner, H., 546.
Golomshtok, E., 170.
Gordon, E. V., 202.
Gordon, J. T., 160.
Goring, C., 386, 391, 393, 394.
Goroshchenko, K., 169.
Gotze, A., 184.
Gotze, Walther, 109.
Gould, B. A., 377, 385.
Grau, R., 545.
Gray, J., 387, 395.
Greenlee, R. F., 69.
Greenwell, W., 192.
Greenwood, R., 390.
Gregor, W., 387.
Greguss, P., 231.
Griffiths, G. B., 392.
Grilliere, 513, 517.
Gromov, V. L, 235.
Grube, O., 353.
Griinbauni, O. F. F., 386.
Gsell, S., 463.
Guha, B., 87, 420.
Gunther, H., 289.
Guthe, C., 642.
Haberlandt, A., 591, 597.
Haddon, A. C., 112, 161, 377, 386.
Haeckel, E. H., 280.
Halka, S., 565.
Hamy, E. T., 191,214.
Hannesson, G., 323, 324, 325, 332, 334.
Hanscn, A. M., 332.
Hansen, Fr, C. C., 10.
Hansen, S., 332, 334, 336.
'Hasluck, M. M., 605, 610, 616, 622.
Hatt, G., 305.
Hauschild, M. W., 207.
Hausman, L. A., 274.
Hawes, C. H., 141, 500, 517, 608.
Hawes, H. B., 141.
Heberer, G., 109, 164.
Heiberg, P., 332.
Heinzel, R., 324.
Helena, Ph., 149.
Helena, Th., 149.
Hell, M., 213.
Hellich, B., 164, 189, 212, 560.
Henckel, K. O., 138, 211.
d'Hercourt, G., 476, 478, 500.
Hermann, A., 537.
704
INDEX OF AUTHORS
Hermann, O., 585.
Herodotus, 196, 198, 339, 463, 464.
Herv6, G., 100, 513.
Hesch, M., 360, 362, 365, 568.
Hilaire, G. de St., 280.
Hilden, K., 354, 357.
Hillebrand,J., 155, 166.
Himmel, H., 571, 614, 643.
Hippocrates, 198, 279.
Hisinger-Jagerskiold, E., 304.
Hoadley, M. F., 372.
Hochstetter, F. von, 182.
Hofler, M., 538.
Holder, H., 211.
Holl, M., 538.
Holter, F., 212.
Hooke, B. G. E., 113, 375, 376.
Hooton, E. A., 5, 29, 41, 42, 209, 249, 287,
321, 325, 376-77, 385, 393, 463, 485,
486, 487, 556, 557.
Hopwood, A. T., 18,33.
Horvath, A., 185.
Houssay, M., 418.
Houz£, E., 215, 526, 527, 528, 529.
Hovelacque, A., 513.
Howells, W. W., 377.
Hoyos Sainz, L., 100, 491, 492.
Hrdlitka, A, 28, 377, 460, 461, 556, 565,
573, 585, 588, 605, 643.
Hubert, H., 186, 188, 203, 372.
Huck, M., 539.
Hughes, B. O., 430, 625, 629.
Hulse, F. S., 493.
Humphreys, R., 209.
Hiis, 211.
Huszar, G., 220.
Huxley, H. M., 439.
Huxley, T.H., 111,280.
larkho, A. I. (larcho), 422, 425, 579, 633.
Ivanovsky, A. L., 200, 349, 574.
Izzeddin, N., 410, 623.
Jacob, G., 188.
Jacobs, J., 643.
Jacques, V., 150, 526.
James, T. C., 396.
Janko, J., 585.
Jankowsky, W., 156, 274.
Jantschuk, N. A., 365.
Jaubert, L. J., 499.
Jelinek, B., 219.
Jendyk, R., 200.
Jerums, N., 362.
Jochelsen, W., 306, 337, 348, 577, 631,
634.
Jordan, J., 88.
Jordanes, 229.
Joyce, T. A., 414, 420, 448.
Junge,J., 196.
Kajava, Y., 301, 302, 304, 338, 357.
Kansu, S. A., 619, 622.
Kappers, C. U. A., 418, 421, 422, 623,
630.
Karpeles, B., 504.
Karvonen, J. J., 357.
Kastein, J., 435.
Kazantsev, A. L, 235.
Keiter, F., 12, 537, 540, 552.
Keith, Sir Arthur, 21, 26, 33, 48, 49, 53,
62, 87, 110, 111, 171, 428.
Kendrick, T., 208.
Khaldun, Ibn, 463.
Khanikoff, N., 418.
Kharusin, A. N., 583.
Khonuakov, 347.
Kidder, H. H., 477, 478.
Kimball, S., 605.
Kirkoff, N., 610.
Klenke, W., 540, 546.
Klimek, S., 236, 307, 448.
Klinke, K., 274.
Knobl, G., 552.
Knorre, G. von, 354, 362.
Koettlitz, R., 448.
Kollman, J., 114, 211.
Kolmogorov, A. J., 358.
Konstantinovic, B., 589.
Kopernicki, L, 218, 504, 571, 643.
Koppers, W., 179.
Korolev, S. R., 583.
Korosi, M., 587.
Kossinna, G., 54, 55, 73, 74, 123, 180,
286.
Kossovitch, N., 443, 480, 484, 643.
Koumaris, J., 144, 145, 605.
Krasnov, A., 569.
Krauss, F. S., 590.
Krecsmarik, E., 230.
Krischner, H., 442.
Krischner, Mrs. H., 442.
Krogman, W. M., 50, 136, 428.
Kurdov, K., 632.
Lagneau, G., 513.
Lagotala, H., 189.
Laing, S., 111.
Lammens, H., 623.
Langdon, S., 88.
Lansel, Peider, 548.
Lapouge, G. V. de, 149, 513.
INDEX OF AUTHORS
705
Larsen, G. F., 205, 309, 313.
Laufer, B., 305.
Lawrence, Col. T. E., 410.
Layard, D., 209.
Leakey, L. S. B., 22, 37, 40, 44, 45, 57, 92.
Leblanc, E., 472.
Lebzelter, V., 105, 106, 185, 189, 214,
230, 231, 232, 504, 552, 562, 589, 591,
597, 609, 610, 614, 622.
Lehmann, O., 534.
Lehmann-Nitsche, R. 211.
Lempertowna, G., 643.
Lencewicz, Stanislaw, 109.
Lenz, E., 5, 276.
Leo Africanus, 463.
le Pontois, Bernard, 166.
Lester, P., 448.
Levit'kyj, I , 103.
Leys, N. M., 408, 414, 448.
Lindcrs, F., 287, 326, 329, 330, 331.
Lipiec, M., 643.
Livi, R., 500, 555.
Lorimer, D. L., 175.
Love, A. G., 385, 556, 565, 642.
Low, A., Ill, 160, 161.
Lowrnan, G. S., 179.
Lundborg, H., 287, 326, 329, 330, 331.
Luschan, E. von, 141, 385, 388.
Luschan, F. von, 189, 285, 289, 380, 385,
388, 608, 619, 621.
Luther, M., 302, 357, 358.
MacAuliffe, L., 491, 504, 513, 517, 519,
528.
MacCurdy, G. G., 125.
MacDonnell, W. R., 375, 390.
Maciesza, A., 565.
Mackeiiprang, E., 332.
Maclcay, K. S., 387.
Mahoudeau, P. G., 499.
Mainov, V. N., 345.
Majer, J., 571, 643.
Majewski, E., 200, 218.
Makarenko, Nicholas, 103.
MaleS, B., 589, 591.
Maliev, N., 346, 347, 348, 349, 350, 351,
578.
Malinin, K., 632.
Maly,J., 212, 560.
Manouvrier, L., 214, 513.
Mantegazza, P., 153.
Marett, J. R. de La H., 6, 50, 305.
Marett, R. R., 110.
Margolis, M., 435.
Marie, A., 504, 517, 519, 528.
Marmol Caravaial, Luis del, 463, 465.
Marshall, J., 390.
Martin, C. P., 112, 161, 191, 211, 377.
Martin, R., 12, 15, 241, 243, 244, 649.
Maspero, G., 464.
Matiegka, J., 164, 183, 219, 560, 562, 646.
Mattei, A., 499.
Mayet, L., 516.
McGown, T. D., 26, 53, 61, 62.
McGovern, W. M., 196, 227.
McGregor, J. H., 53.
Meillet, A., 445.
Mendes-Gorrea, A. A., 100, 495.
Menghin, O., 40, 93, 115, 286.
Merkenschlager, F., 562.
Merlin, H., 213.
Meyer, A. B., 165.
Meyer, H., 285.
Michelsson, G., 353.
Mies, J., 264.
Minns, E. H., 196.
Mochi, A., 147,408,409.
Modrezewski, L. T., 567.
Mollison, T., 44, 45, 66, 102.
Montandon, G., 34, 286, 287, 502, 503,
548.
Moore, A. W., 386.
Morant, G. M., 15, 20, 28, 30, 32, 33, 91,
94, 95, 96, 100, 113, 158, 160, 191, 192,
207, 209, 248, 372, 376, 503, 610, 616,
622, 646.
Mortimer, J. R., 191,209.
Moschen, L., 194.
Movius, H. L., Jr., 112, 161, 171.
Muffang, M. H., 386.
Muhlmann, W. E., 538, 539.
Muller, E., 605.
Muller, F., 280.
Muller, G., 213.
Muller, W., 219.
Mulligan, J. H., 387, 390.
Murray, G. W., 457.
Musil, A., 410.
Mydlarski, J., 306, 564, 565, 567.
Myers, C. S., 459.
Myres, J. L., 141, 143, 145.
Nalimov, 349.
Nassonoff, N. W., 421.
Nazarov, P. S., 578.
Nefedov, J. W., 582.
Nehring, A., 178, 180, 222, 238.
Neophytos, A. G., 605.
Nestor, I., 106.
Neuville, R., 138.
Newbold, E. M., 390.
Niceforo, A., 500,
706
INDEX OF AUTHORS
Nickul, K., 357.
Nicolaeff, Lon, 574.
Nicolucci, G., 555.
Niederle, Lubor, 212, 216, 218, 560.
Nielsen, H. A., 167, 203.
Nikolski, D. P., 578.
Nikolsky, B., 346.
Nordenstreng, R., 287, 327, 328.
Nosov, A. Z., 569, 583, 610.
Nurk, L., 349.
Nyessen, D. J. H., 531.
Obermaier, H., 40, 47, 63.
Oesterley, W. O. E., 432, 435.
Olechnowicz, W., 365, 565.
Oloriz y Aquilera, F., 491, 498, 502.
Ornstcin, 605.
Ortmann, R., 188.
Oshanin, L. V., 579.
Ouvarov, A. S., 126.
Palliardi, J., 156.
Pantuchov, J., 632, 643.
Papilian, V., 614.
Papillault, G. F., 476, 477, 513, 517.
Parr, L. W., 623.
Parsons, F. G., 373, 374, 385, 386, 387,
392, 393, 539.
Paudler, F., 285.
Pavlov, A., 47, 126.
Peake, H., 210.
Pearson, K., 158,248,386.
Peate, I. C., 390, 396.
Penniman, T. K., 88.
Pequart, Marthe, 65.
P6quart, Saint-Juste, 65.
Perez de Barrados, J., 206.
Petersen, E., 619.
Pexiederova, M. R., 560.
Pfeiffer, R. E., 432.
Piette, E., 66.
Piroutet, M., 165, 171.
Pittard, E., 86, 114, 165, 504, 538, 589,
591, 597, 605, 609, 610, 612, 614, 622,
643.
Pitt-Rivers, A. H. L., 386, 388, 390.
Ploy, H., 552.
Poch, H., 189, 569.
Pollera, A., 457.
Pommerol, F., 513.
Poschen, P., 583.
Prelov, E. L, 345.
Priebsch, R., 524.
Priman, J., 354.
Prince, J. D., 175.
Priscus, 229, 233.
Probstl, L., 194, 195.
Procopius, 463.
Pruner-Bey, F., 289.
Puccioni, N., 448, 468.
Quatrefages, de, 280.
Radlauer, C., 448.
Rainer, F. L, 614.
Ramstedt, G. J., 223, 306.
Randall-Maclver, D., 476, 477, 478.
Ranke,J., 538.
Raswan, C., 410.
Rau, P., 169.
Raymond, P., 190.
Reche, O., 73, 74, 105, 107, 207, 529,
531, 532.
Reck, H., 44.
Rehak, J., 562.
Reicher, M., 538.
Reid, R. W., 387, 390.
Reisner, G. A., 98.
Rctzius, G., 54, 123, 166, 204, 327, 355,
358.
Reuss, K., 219.
Reverdin, L., 538.
Ribbing, L., 325, 332, 335.
Rice, D. T., 88.
Richter, B., 542.
Ried, H. A., 211, 538, 543.
Ripley, W. Z., 10, 284-85, 518.
Ritchie, J., 160.
Roberts, C., 391.
Robinson, T. H., 432, 435.
Rocca, P., 499.
Rochet, C., 194.
Rodjestvensky, A. N., 568.
Roguinski, A., 231, 579.
Rosensprung, L. M., 182.
Rosinski, B., 7, 109, 141, 565, 608.
Roth, C., 435.
Routil, R., 513, 521.
Rudenko, S. I. (Roudenko), 307, 350.
Ruhlman, A., 150.
Ruhnau, K., 533.
Ruppin, A., 435.
Rutimeyer, L., 211, 538.
Rutkowski, L., 218, 565, 643.
Ryland, 209.
Sailer, K.5 103, 126, 156, 211, 244, 265,
533, 540, 542, 643.
Sallust, 463, 464.
Salmon, P., 116, 117.
Samson, O., 646.
Sanchez Fernandez, L., 492.
INDEX OF AUTHORS
707
Sant'Anna Marques, S. de, 495.
Santelli, 457.
Sapir, E., 180.
Sasse, A,, 531.
Sasse, J., 532, 533.
Sawtellc, R. (Mrs. Wallis), 66, 116.
Schachermeyer, F., 155.
Scheiber, S. H., 585.
Scheldt, W., 11, 66, 99, 330, 395, 540, 543.
Schenk, A., 114, 115, 165.
Schicker,J., 211.
Schiff, F., 605, 608.
Schlaginhaufen, O., 114, 115, 165, 184,
189, 450, 548, 549, 550.
Schliemann, H., 137.
Schliz, A., 156, 182, 183, 188, 189, 206.
Schmidt, E., 555.
Schneider, L , 562.
Schreincr, A., 8, 309, 315, 316, 317, 321,
325.
Schreiner, K. E., 33, 205, 300, 301, 302,
304, 305, 307, 309, 313, 321.
Schiick, A., 616.
Schugaiew, W. S., 219.
Schumacher, O., 145.
Schumann, H., 219.
Schiirer von WaJdheim, Hella, 106, 164,
182.
Schuster, E., 390.
Schwerz, F., 212, 550,555.
Schwidersky, N., 632.
Schwidetsky, I., 249, 564.
Sedlaczek-Komorowski, L., 156, 168.
Seeland, N., 574.
Scligman, C. G., 408, 457.
Seltzer, C. C., 10, 326, 623, 625.
Seraczin, A., 213.
Sergeev, V. I., 346.
Sergent, E., 614.
Sergi, G., 101, 102, 104, 141, 147, 155,
194, 283-84.
Sergi, S., 448.
Serra i Vilaro, 152.
Sevastianov, 349.
§evket Aziz Kansu (Shevket, Chevket,
see Kansu).
Sewell, R., 87.
Shanklin, W. M., 410, 623.
Shapiro, H. L., 5, 8, 38, 48, 538.
Shea, S., 112, 161.
Shetclig, H. F. & G., 166, 202.
Shipton, G. M., 138.
Shrubsall, F. C., 386.
Shugaiev, U. S., 573.
Sidonus, 229.
Sirelius, U. T., 337.
Skerlj, B., 587.
Smirnov, M., 169.
Smith, J., 387.
Smith, W., 386.
Snigirev, V. S., 573.
Sobolski, K., 568.
Sommier, S., 236, 307, 350, 578, 632.
Sonnabend, H., 216.
Speiser, E., 90, 175.
Ssilinitsch, J. P., 234.
Steensby, H. P., 332.
Stefko, V. H., 219, 573.
Steggerda, M., 532.
Stein, Sir A., 420, 431.
Stephanos, C., 605.
Stocky, A., 107, 164.
Stoessiger, B. N., 374.
Stojanowski, K., 168.
Stotyhwo, K., 201.
Storrs, Sir R., 625.
Strauch, K., 109.
Stshukin, J., 632.
Sturlason, S., 321, 322.
Suk, V., 562, 571.
Szinnyei, 223.
Sziraky, S., 220.
Szombathy, J., 163, 219, 560.
Szpidbaum, H., 443.
Tagliaferro, N., 147.
Talko-Hryncewicz, J., 47, 200, 365, 367,
564, 565, 566, 568, 569, 571, 582, 583,
585, 642, 643.
Tallgren, A. M., 169,224.
Tamagnini, E., 485, 492, 495, 496.
Tappeiner, F., 538, 552.
Taylor, J. J., 386.
Tebebinskaia-Schenger, N., 583.
Teit, J. A., 387, 393.
Teploukhov, S. A., 347.
Thalmann, G., 214.
Themido, A. A., 495, 496.
Thomas, B., 403, 427-28.
Thompson, C. M., 390.
Thooris, A., 517.
Thurman,J., Ill, 158, 194.
Tildesley, M. L., 241, 597.
Tippett, L. H. C., 386.
Titiev, M., 605.
Tkafc, M., 569.
Tocher, J. F., 387, 391, 392, 395.
Toldt,C., 219, 538, 552, 553.
Topinard, P., 280, 332, 475, 513, 519, 520.
Tormo, I. Ballester, 148.
Tratman, E. K., 112.
Trauwitz-Hellwig, J. von, 156.
• 708
INDEX OF AUTHORS
Tur, Jail, 168.
Turner, Sir W., 75, 376.
Twarjanowitsch, J. K., 625.
Uhlenbeck, C. C., 178.
Ujfalvy, K. E. von, 420, 634.
UP, E. F., 345, 349.
Uriay Riu,J., 491.
Vallois, Henri V., 40, 43, 44, 45, 54, 55,
60, 61, 64, 65, 67, 87, 99, 149, 191.
ValSik, J., 591.
Van den Berg, L. W. C., 402.
Van den Broek, A. J. P., 530, 532.
Vanderkindere, L., 528.
Van Overloop, M., 530.
Vaufrey, R., 40, 47, 59-
Vavilov, N., 444.
Venn,J., 390.
Verneau, R., 33, 40, 54, 99, 285, 448, 450,
472, 485.
Vervaeck, L., 526, 527.
Vildes,J., 352, 353.
Virchow, R., 106, 109, 124, 126, 155, 167,
169,189,212,219,354.
Vire, A., 476.
Vishnevsky, B. N., 102, 235, 349, 577,
635, 636, 639.
Vishogrod,J., 632.
Vitols, T. M., 362.
Volkov, Th., 571.
Vorobiev, V., 583, 632.
Vram, Ugo, 213, 591.
Wacker, R., 538, 554.
Waeber, O., 362.
Wagenseil, F., 443, 619.
Wain wright, G., 181.
Waldhauer, F., 352, 353.
Walk, C. S., 386.
Wallis, Mrs. R. S., 190, 211, 214.
Wankel, H., 219.
Warner, Langdon, 102.
Wastl,J., 551.
Wateff, S., 610.
Waterston, D., 161.
Weidenreich, F., 554.
Weisbach, A., 182, 184, 264, 551, 552,
562, 571, 587, 588, 590, 591, 605, 609.
Weissenberg, S., 439, 442, 443, 578, 625,
639,641,642,643.
Weissgerber, H., 477,
Weninger, J., 597.
Weslawawa, Eleanora, 109.
Westergaard, H., 332.
Westerlund, F. W., 355, 357, 358.
Wettstein, E., 538.
Whatmough, J., 180, 182, 193, 194.
195.
White, MissJ. M., 112.
Wiazemsky, Prince, 589.
Wichman, Y., 337.
Wiklund, K. B., 299, 300.
Wilkin, A., 476, 477, 478.
Wilier, O., 582.
Williams, G, D., 492,
Willoughby, R. R., 556, 562.
Wilmer, W. H., 276.
Wilskman, L, 357.
Windle, B. C. A., 386.
Wischnitzer, M., 435.
Witt, H., 354.
Wolfel, J., 487.
Wolfson, H., 432, 435, 638.
Wood bury, George, 11.
Worobjew, B. W., 574.
Wriede, H., 540.
Wright, W., 191.
Wrzosek, A. (Worozek), 565, 589.
Wrzoskowa, M., 565.
Young, M., 209, 210, 375.
Young, W. J., 273.
Zaborowski, S., 103, 145, 147, 231, 234.
Zakrzewski, A., 564.
Zampa, R., 193, 591.
Zbinden, F., 550.
Zdroevski, A., 568.
Zejmo-Zejmis, S., 565.
Zeland, N. L., 573, 574.
Zeltner, F., 472.
Zimmerman, G., 106.
Zograf, N. J., 307, 574, 578.
Zolotarev, D. A., 301, 302, 337, 343, 344,
345.
Zuckerkandi, E., 182,538.
Zupanic, N., 155, 619.
SUBJECT INDEX
Abydos, cranial material, 91, 100.
Abyssinia, Neolithic, 78. See also Ethiopia.
Abyssinians: see Ethiopians.
Acheulean culture, skull ill., 52, Jig. 4.
Adlersburg crania, compared with Food
Vessel, 161.
Aegean Islands, as source of Neolithic,
101; Bronze Age, 132-33, chart.
Aenolithic: see Copper Age.
Afalou crania, described, 40-44; #28,
described, 40, cojnpared with Gamble's
Cave, 44, 45, compared with Asselar
man, 60, relation to Mediterranean
race, 83; #12 ill., 54, fig. 10; compared
with Asselar man, 60, with Erg el Ah-
mar, 62, with Ofnet, 68, with Scandi-
navian Neolithic brachycephals, 124;
relation to Tasian, 93, to Algerians, 99;
as origin of Alpine brachycephals, 119;
as large brachycephals, 265; survival in
Europe, 291, in N. Africa, 467, among
Arabo-Bcrbers, 470, among Riffians,
483, in Canary Islands, 488.
Afar: see Danakil.
Afghanian, Neolithic, defined, 85; Luris-
tan skulls, 87; areas occupied by, in
Dark Ages, 176-77, chart. See also
I rano- Afghans.
Afghanistan, climate in Neolithic, 78;
Aryans in, 180; invasion by Huns, 228;
Iranians in, 238; dolichocephaly in,
256; racial study of, 417-18.
Afghans, in Iran, 417; racial characteris-
tics, 419-20; ill., Plate IB, fig. 5.
Africa, Aurignacian man in East, 44-46;
Upper Palaeolithic hunters of N., 39-
44; Mesolithic man in, 57—61; Neo-
lithic N., 98-99; as origin of French
Neolithic, 115; Bell Beaker and N,, 157;
E., stature in, 255; N., weight, 255;
dolichocephaly in, 256-57; N., head
size in, 265; N., pigmentation, 272;
Deniker's classification in, 281; Jews in,
437, 438; Mediterranean races, 444-58,
462-89, ill., Plate 21, figs. 1-6; N.,
Gypsies in, 504.
African Bushmen: see Bushmen.
Afridis, identified, 417; face measurement,
41 9; i//., Plate 18,^.7.
Agau, identified, 438; classified, 446; racial
characteristics, 449; ill., Plate 20, fig. 2.
Aginocastrians, racial characteristics, 602
03.
Ahrensburg culture, origin, 70; placed,
71 ; and Maglemose, 72.
Am Jebrul crania, placed, 1 38.
Ainu, hair, 278; in Deniker's system, 282.
Aissores: see Assyrians.
Akeydat, identified, 623.
Alans, placed, 196; and Goths, 197; cra-
nial type, 200; under Turks and Mon-
gols, 229.
Alawiya, racial characteristics, 261, 623.
Albania, Illyrians in, 185; Slavic inva-
sion, 217; language distribution, 561,
map; Serbs in, 589; tribal divisions in
N., 596, map; Vlachs in, 614; Osmanli
Turks in, 617.
Albanians, teeth modifications among, 29;
speech origin, 179; nasal characteris-
tics, 279; in Crimea, 582; in Yugo-
slavia, 587; racial study of, 595-604;
in Greece, 604; compared with Ar-
menians, 627; ill., Plate 8, figs. 4-6;
Plate 14, figs. 3, 4; Plate 39, figs. 2-5;
Plate 30, fig. 3.
Alemanni, origin, 206; described, 212;
Keltic mixture with, 215; distribution,
537; relation to Genkingen Germans,
544.
Alexandropol crania, described, 200.
Algeria, skeletons described, 99; races
described, 474-79.
Alishar, in Palestine, 138; compared with
Minoans, 141, with Etruscans, 154.
Alishar Hiiyuk crania, described, 136.
Almeria, Los Millares culture, 148.
Alouites: see. Alawiya.
Alpine race, discussed, 113-20, 129; com-
pared with Borreby, 124, with Bronze
Age Cypriotes, 139-40, with Kumans,
234; areas occupied by, in Iron Age,
176-77, chart; head size, 266; hairiness,
278; in Deniker's system, 283; in Rip-
ley's classification, 284, 285; in von
Eickstedt's system, 287; in Czekanow-
ski's system, 288, 289; classified, 289,
290; survivors in Europe, 291; and
709
710
SUBJECT INDEX
Lapps, 300; and W. Norwegians, 319;
and Mediterraneans, 400; and Canary
Islands, 486, 487; in central Europe,
introduction, 510-11; in France, 511-
22; in Belgium, 529; in Germany, 535,
538-39, 543, 544, 545, 546, 547; in
Switzerland, 549, 550, 553; in Austria,
551; in Italy, 554-59; and Czechs,
560-62; in Poland, 563, 566, 567; and
Ruthenians, 572; and Magyars, 585,
586; and Montenegrins, 594; and Al-
banians, 601; and Dinarics, 601, 602;
and Toscs, 603; and Greeks, 606-07;
and Vlachs, 615, 616; and Osmanli
Turks, 619, 621, 622; and Armenoids,
629; and Ossetes, 632; and Caucasic-
speakers, 633, 634; and Tajiks, 637,
638; and Turkestan Jews, 641; and
Caucasus Jews, 641 ; and Ashkenazim
Jews, 645; geographical extent of,
646—47; result of blend with Mediterra-
neans, 647; in Germany, ill., Plate 11,
figs. 1-4; W. and central Europe, *//.,
Plate 12, Jigs. 1-4; aberrant forms, W.
and central Europe, *//., Plate 13, Jigs.
1-4; central, E., S. E. Europe, til.,
Plate 14, figs. 1-5; Asiatic, ill., Plate 15,
Jigs. 1-6; Nordic blends, ill., Plate 34,
figs. 1~4.
Alps, glaciation and, 1 9.
Altaic speech, languages based on, 236;
conclusions discussed, 236-40; Euro-
pean distribution, 338, map; Scyths
and, 196; surplanting Iranian, 197-98;
speakers, 223; in Caucasus, distribu-
tion, 631, map.
Altenburg crania, described, 109.
al 'Ubaid crania, described, 86, 87, 88;
compared with Long Barrow, 112, with
Corded, 104.
Amber, as medium of exchange, 134, 166;
Bell Beaker search for, 155.
America, Gypsies in, 506, 507; Italians in,
556-57; Toscs in, 603; Greeks in, 606-
07; Armenians in, 625; Jews in, 643-
44; New Englander, ill., Plate 25, fig. 2;
Plate 27, fig. 4; Jews, ill., Plate 45,
figs. 3, 4, Plate 46, figs. 1-5.
American Indian, derivation of, 2; re-
semblance to Upper Palaeolithic man,
32; linked with Eskimo, 48; language
compared with Japhetic, 175; pig-
mentation, 277; in Deniker's system,
281; hybrid origin, 602.
Amharas, distribution, 447; racial char-
acteristics, 449-57.
Ammonites, identified, 434.
Amorites, described, 432-34; ill., 433,
fig- 36.
Anan'ino culture, described, 224-25.
Anatolia, Neolithic movement from, 82;
Neolithic sites, 86; as source of Neo-
lithic, 101, 102; Bronze Age in, 136-37;
as iron center, 181; Turks in, racial
characteristics, 618-20.
Anatolians, movements traced, 80-81,
map 2.
Anau crania, described, 102-103; com-
pared with Maruipol remains, 103;
painted pottery, 105; compared with
Alishar, 136.
Andalusians, described, 491 ; racial char-
acteristics, 493-94.
Andronovo: see Minussinsk.
Anghelu Ruju crania, described, 147.
Angles, origin, 333; in British Isles, 372.
Anglo-Saxons, origin, 206; skulls com-
pared with Hannover, 207; described,
208-11; skulls compared with Thu-
ringians, 212; relation to Prankish
skulls, 214; compared to Polish Slavs,
218; classified, 293.
Animal husbandry: see Domestic animals.
Anjera, distribution, 480.
Arabia, dolichocephaly in, 256-57; racial
study of Mediterranean race in, 401™
11.
Arabic, as source of information on race,
174, 218; distribution in E. Africa, 446,
map; in N. Africa, 467.
Arabs, racial characteristics, 266, 278;
racial classification by, 279 ; in Deniker's
system, 281, 282; as rulers of ancient
Jews, 435; in Egypt, 458; in N. Africa,
465; Arabo-Berbers, racial character-
istics, 468-71; Tuareg, 471-74;
tribesmen of Algeria and Tunisia, 476;
in Morocco, 484; in Portugal, 495;
Syrian Bedawin, 623; in Turkestan,
634, ill., Plate 3, fig. 6; Mediterra-
neans, ill., Plate 16, figs. 1-6; ill.,
Plate 2\,fig. 2; Dinaric, #/., Plate 43,
figs. 1, 3.
Aran Isles, racial study of, 379, 381; ill.,
Plate 29, figs. 5, 6.
Arcadia crania, placed, 101.
Ardennes, Neolithic sites, 117.
Argolis crania, described, 144-45.
Ariege crania, placed, 149.
Arii, origin, 602.
Arm length; see Body form.
Armenia, Neolithic sites, 86; Neolithic
SUBJECT INDEX
711
remains, 102; Iron Age crania, 201;
Gypsies in, 504; Seljuks in, 618; racial
study of, 622, 625-29.
Armenians, and Bronze Age Cypriotes,
139, 140; areas occupied by, in Iron
Age, 176-77, chart; speech classified,
179; Iron Age crania and Avars, 232;
racial characteristics, 261, 266, 268,
625-29; in Iran, 416; in France, 512;
in Rumania, 612; in Turkey, 618; dis-
tribution, 631, map; ill., Plate 15, fig. 3;
Plate 17, fig. 3; Plate 42, figs. 1-4.
Armenoids, and Ofnet K 1809, 67; in
Mesopotamia, 88; among Magyars,
233; mandible, 268; in Deniker's
system, 281, 282; in Czekanowski's
system, 288, 289; classified, 293; geo-
graphic distribution, 294-95, map; ele-
ment in Italy, 558, in Poland, 567, in
Ukrainians, 571, in Kirghiz, 581, in
Tajiks, 637; discussed, 628-29; com-
pared with Jews, 645; blend resulting
in, 647; ill., Plate 42, figs. 1-4.
Art, Sumerian, ill. 89, * figs. 17-20, 90,
fig. 21 , Egyptians, ill. 97, figr. 22-25;
Hittite, ill. 137, fig. 26; Egyptian pic-
tures of Asiatics, 138; Minoan, 141;
Greek, evidence on pigmentation, 145,
146; Greek and Roman sculpture of
Kelts, 190; Scythian, 198-99; Ger-
manic, 202-203; Egyptian drawings of
Jews, i//., 433,,/far. 33-36; Italian and
Bologncse, 559.
Artificial deformation: see Deformation,
artificial.
Ashkenazim Jews, described, 437, 438;
racial study of, 642-46; ill., Plate 45,
jfe- 2.
Asia, Bronze Age in, 135-40; origin of
Indo-Europeans, 179; Iron Age in,
226-27; stature, 255; head sizes, 266;
hairiness, 278; nasal changes, 279;
Denikcr's classification in, 281.
Asia Minor, invasion of Nasili speakers,
135; origin of Dinarics, 140; Greek
colonies in Bronze Age, 145; modern
brachycephals compared with el Argar,
151; Keltic invasion, 187; brachy-
cephaly in, 261 ; nasal index, 268.
Asine crania, described, 144.
Asselar skeleton, described, 60—61.
Assyrians, language, 175; identified, 623;
racial characteristics, 630; Dinaric,
ill., Plate 40, fig. 4.
Assyrioid, in Deniker's system, 281, 282.
Aterian culture, described, 39-41.
Athenians, modern resemblance to, 146.
Atlanto-Mediterraneans, in Deniker's sys-
tem, 281; classified, 289, 290, 292; geo-
graphic distribution, 294-95; among
Yemenis, 408; element in Mesopota-
mia, 413, in Portugal, 498, in Basques,
504, in France, 522, in Germany, 535,
545, in Austria, 552, in Italy, 554, 555,
556, 559, in Dalmatia, 591, in Albania,
601, in Dinarics, 602, in Greeks, 606,
607, in Cretans, 608, 609, in Bulgars,
611, 612, in Vlachs, 617; S. W. Europe,
ill., Plate 23, figs. 1-4; blue-eyed, ill.,
Plate 24, figs. 1-4.
Augst crania, described, 212.
Aunjetitz culture, described, 162-65;
forerunner of Hallstatt, 182; and Illyri-
ans, 186; compared with "Danes*
Grave," 191, 192, with Scyths, 199,
with Germanics, 207; survivals, 260;
in Germany, 536.
Aurignacian culture, crania of, 30; chron-
ological and geographical differentia-
tion in Europe, 33-39; described, in
E. Africa, 44-46; compared with Mag-
dalenian, 47; cranium, ill., 52, figs. 5,
9; survival into Mesolithic, 57; com-
pared with Elmenteitans, 59, with
Asselar man, 60, with Teviec, 65, with
Iron Age Norwegians, 204; in Pales-
tine, 61; Tanged-point derived from,
70; Creswellian and, 75; as origin of
Alpine brachycephals, 119; in Spain,
489.
Australians, survival of, 17; and Indo-
European speech, 180; hair, 278; in
Deniker's system, 281, 282; relation to
Veddoids, 430.
Australoid, as race, 5,
Austria, Bell Beaker in, 156, 157; Bronze
Age in, 162, Hallstatt culture in, 182-
83; Keltic in, 189-90; Alemanni in,
206; W. Germanics in, 211; Lombards
in, 213; Slavic invasion, 217; brachy-
ccphaly in, 260; racial study of, 547,
550-54; language distribution, 561,
map; Jews in, 642; Neo-Danubian, ill.,
Plate 31,^. 4.
Avars, influence on Hungarian Slavs, 220 ;
racial characteristics, 228-30; relation
to Huns, 231 ; European influence,
296; migrations, 577; in Hungary, 584;
element in Magyars, 584.
Aveline's Hole skull C, as Cr6-Magnon,
49.
Aveyron crania, placed, 149.
712
SUBJECT INDEX
Awjila people, racial characteristics, 468-
69.
Azerbaijani, origin, 239, 240; speech, 416;
racial characteristics, 264, 268, 424-25;
identified, 630; distribution, 631, map.
Azilian culture, in France, 65-66; rela-
tion to Ofnet crania, 67; influence on
Greswellian, 75.
Babylonians, politics and language, 174,
175; capture of Jews, 432, 435-36.
Badarian culture, described, 94-95; com-
pared with Naqada, 95, with N. Afri-
cans, 99.
Baden, Danubian settlers, 105; crania,
109, 539.
Ba'ij Bedawin, identified, 413.
Baikal, Lake, crania placed, 126.
Bairaks, defined and described, 595—97.
Bajuvars, described, 211-12, 537; and
Miesbachers, 545. See also Bavarians.
Bakhtiari, described, 418.
Balearic Islands, in Copper Age, 148-49;
racial characteristics, 257, 498.
Balkans, as route of Neolithic, 101; in-
vasion by Turks, 229; pigmentation in,
269; hairiness in, 278; migration of
Jews to, 436; Gypsies in, 507; language
distribution, 561, map; racial history
discussed, 589. See also individual coun-
tries and races.
Baltic Finns, classified, 223; language
stock, 339, chart; migrations, 217, 339-
40; racial study of, 351-59. See also
Finns.
Baltic States, glaciation and, 19; Meso-
lithic chronology in, chart, 70, fig. 16;
speech, 179; stature, 254.
Baltics, E., classified, 292; geographic dis-
tribution, 294-95, map; ill., Plate 7,
figs. 1-5.
Baits, distribution in Iron Age, 176-77,
chart, 216; relation to White Russians,
568.
Baluchi, language distribution, 416; in
Iran, 417; racial characteristics, 430—
31.
Baluchistan, Copper Age cranium, 87;
head size in, 266.
Banded pottery, described, 105.
Barbary, E., races described, 474-79.
Baria, identified, 447-48; described, 457.
Barrows, described, 110.
Bashkirs, language distribution in Europe,
339, map; classified, 577; racial charac-
teristics, 578-79; ill., Plate 3,Jfe. 3.
Basques, Bronze Age, 152; language, 178,
512; head size, 265; racial study of,
501-504; i//., Plate 12, fig. 1; Plate 23,
fig- 4.
Basses Pyrenees crania, placed, 149.
Batavii, distribution, 529.
Bath, Roman burials, 195.
Battle- Axe people: see Corded people.
Bavaria, Ofnet skulls in, 66-68; Danu-
bian settlers in, 105; Bavarians enter,
206; W. Germanics in, 211; brachy-
cephaly in, 260.
Bavarians, origin, 206; pigmentation, 272;
Miesbachers, racial characteristics, 545;
compared with Czechs, 562. See also
Bajuvars.
Bazaiha cranium, described, 126.
Beaker: see Bell Beaker, Zoned Beaker.
Beaune crania, placed, 191.
Bedawin, described, 402; Syrian, racial
characteristics, 623; Ruwalla, /// ,
Plate 16, fig. 4; Plate 19, fig. 6.
Bedawin, Veddoid: tee Hadhramis.
Beja, distribution, 457; ill , Plate 20, fig. 5.
Bcktashi, identified, 621.
Belgae, in British Isles, 371; in Belgium,
523; in Netherlands, 529.
Belgium, glaciation and, 19; Neolithic in,
117-18, 124; Kelts in, 187; Franks in,
206, 214-15; stature, 254; cranial
measurements in, 257, 260, 264, 265;
racial study of, 522-29.
Bell Beaker culture, in Spain, 148-50;
in lands north of Mediterranean, 155-
57; in British Isles, 157-62; influence
on Aunjetitz, 162, 163; influence on
Rhine, 164; in France, 165-66, in
Poland, 168; relation to Hallstatt, 184,
to Glasinac, 185, to German Kelts, 189;
movements in Bronze Age, 132-33,
chart; stature survival, 254; in Nether-
lands, 530; in Germany, 535, 536; in
Poland, 563.
Beni Amart, identified, 480.
Beni Amer, described, 457.
Beni Bu Yahi, identified, 480.
Beni Hillal, invasions, 467.
Beni Khattab, identified, 480.
Beni Said, cranial measurement, 481.
Beni Soleim, invasions, 467.
Beni Urriaghel, identified, 480; racial
characteristics, 483.
Berbers, teeth modifications among, 29;
stature, 255; dolichocephaly in, 257; in
Deniker's system, 281, 282; Judaism
and, 438; language distribution in
SUBJECT INDEX
713
N. Africa, 462, described, 463, 467;
Arabo-Berbers, racial characteristics,
468-71; Barbary, Algeria, Tunisia,
racial characteristics, 474—79; moun-
tain, racial characteristics, 474, 476—
79; in Morocco, 480-84; in Portugal,
495; relation to Corsicans, 499.
Berkshire crania, described, 192.
Berr ibn Botr, identified, 463.
Berr ibn Branes, identified, 463.
Bessarabia, Neolithic remains, 1 02 ; Scyth-
ian crania, 199.
Bibliography, 692-700.
Bilikani Kurds, racial characteristics, 422.
Biniatap crania, placed, 149.
Bisharin, described, 457, ill., Plate 20,
fig- 5.
Black Hats: see Kara Kalpaks.
Blondisrn: see Pigmentation.
Bodrogkcresztur crania, described, 155.
Body form, discussed, 251-56; Danes,
334; Carelians, 343; Syryenians and
Permiaks, 349; Ostiaks and Voguls,
350; Livs, 352; Esths, 354; Finns, 357;
Letts, 362; Lithuanians, 366; Irish,
377, 379; Aran Islanders, 379; Great
Britain, 391-92; Yemenis, 403-04;
Hejaz, 409, Mesopotamians, 412; Ku-
waitis, 413; Persians, 418; Afghans and
Pathans, 419; Turkomans, 423; Had-
hramis, 427; E. African Hamitics,
449-50, 456; modern Egyptians, 459;
Awjila, 468; Tuarcgs, 472; Mzabites,
475; Kharejites, 475; Kabyles, 478;
Riffians, 480-81; Basques, 502; French,
515; Flemings and Walloons, 527;
Frisians, 533; Fehmarn Germans, 540-
41; Genkingen Germans, 544; Italians,
556; Poles, 564-65; Volhyn Ukrain-
ians, 570; Bashkir, 578; Meshcheryaks, ,
578; Kirghiz, 579; Serbs, 589; Monte-
negrins, 592; Albanian Ghegs, 597;
Toscs, 602; Lebanese, 623; Armenians,
626; Tajiks, 636. See also Skeletal
measurements.
Bohemia, Neolithic invasion of, 82; Danu-
bian settlers in, 104; Corded skulls in,
107; amber trading route, 134; Bell
Beaker in, 156, 157; Bronze Age in,
162; Hallstatt culture in, 184; bound-
ary of Kelts, 186; La T£ne culture in,
189; Kelts in, 191; Thuringians in,
206; Slavs in, 219, 560; brachycephaly
in, 260; migration of Jews to, 437, 642.
Boii, and Thuringians, 213.
Bokharans, Jews, z//., Plate 46, figs. 6, 7.
Bolgars, classified, 223; entry into Bul-
garia, 224; joined by Huns, 228, 341.
See also Bulgars.
Bolognese, racial characteristics, 558—59.
Bornholm, racial study of, 335-36.
Borreby culture, placed, 124; described,
129; in Bronze Age Britain, 158, 159;
extent of, in Iron Age, 176-77, chart;
relation to Hallstatt, 184, to German
Kelts, 189, to Iron Age Norway, 205;
survival in Germany, 265, 535, 539,
540, 543-44; head size survival, 266;
classified, 289, 290; survivors in Europe,
291; geographic distribution, 294-95,
map; survival in Norway, 319, in
Sweden, 332, in Denmark, 333, 334,
335, in Great Britain, 371, 396, in Bel-
gium, 526, 529, in Netherlands, 530-
31, 534, 535, in Albanians, 598, 600;
and Alpine in central Europe, 511; and
French Alpines, 518; survivors in
North, ill., Plate 5, figs. 1-5; survivors
in Germany, White Russia and Italy,
ill., Plate 6, figs. 1-5; survivors in Car-
pathians and Balkans, ill., Plate 8, figs.
1-6; Nordic blend, ill., Plate 34, Jigs.
1-4.
Bosnia, Hallstatt culture in, 182, 184.
Bosnians, language distribution, 561,
map; classified, 587; racial study of,
590-91.
Boulogne crania, described, 214.
Brabers, speech, 462, 467; origin, 463;
distribution, 480; racial characteristics,
484.
Brachycephaly, as environmental re-
sponse, 10-11; Alpine, hypotheses con-
cerning, 119; in modern Europe, 257,
260-61 ; associated with large head size,
265, 266. See also Cephalic index,
Cranial measurements.
Brahui, racial characteristics, 266, 431.
Bretons, language, 512; racial charac-
teristics, 514, 520.
Bristol crania, described, 374-75.
British Isles, glaciation and, 19; Meso-
lithic in, 75-76; Megalithic invasion,
82; Englishmen compared with Sume-
rians and Egyptians, 83; Neolithic in,
109-113; Bell Beaker culture in, 148;
Bronze Age in, 131, 157-62; Urnfields
invasion, 171; Kelts in, discussed, 187,
191-93; Romans in, 194-95; invasion
by Anglo-Saxons, 208, by Danes, 211,
by Normans, 211; Iron Age language,
214; Bronze Age crania compared with
714
SUBJECT INDEX
Turks, 235; stature, 254; dolichoceph-
aly in, 257; brachycephaly in, 261;
pigmentation, 276; Norwegian migra-
tion, 308; Norse invasions, 323; settlers
in Iceland, 324; thralls in Sweden, 327;
Danish settlements, 333; racial study of,
370-99; Mediterranean types, *//.,
Plate 25, figs. 1-4; Danubian type, til.,
Plate 28, fig. 2; Hallstatt and Keltic
types, ill., Plate 29, figs. 2-6; Dinaric,
ill., Plate 36, fig. 1. See also Great
Britain, Ireland, Scotland.
Brittany, Bronze Age in, 165. See also
Bretons.
Bronze Age, discussed, 131-73; in W.
Asia, 135-40; Minoans in, 140-42; in
Western Mediterranean, 146-52,
Basques, Phoenicians, Etruscans, 152-
54; in central Europe, 162-66; in
Scandinavia, 1 66—68 ; in Eastern Plains,
168-70; cremation and final stage,
170-71; survival in British Iron Age,
192; in British Isles, 371; survival in
Scotland, 376; in France, 512; in
Italy, 554.
Briinn crania, described, 36; survival of
head size, 265; classified, 289, 290; sur-
vivors in Europe, 291 ; strain, geo-
graphic distribution, 294-95, map;
types, in Sweden, 332; as Irish ances-
tor, 378; element in Netherlands, 531,
534; survivors in Scandinavia, ill.,
Plate 4, figs. 1-4.
Brythonic: see P-Keltic.
Bulgaria, Copper Age crania in, 155;
movement of Bulgars to, 224.
Bulgars, racial characteristics, 272, 609-
12; language, 341 ; language distribu-
tion, 561, map; in Crimea, 582; in
Yugoslavia, 587; invasion of Bulgaria,
610; in Dacia, 613; i//., Plate 26, fig. 1.
See also Bolgars.
Burgundians, speech, 205; origin, 327;
migration, 536.
Burgwall villages, and Slavic origins, 216.
Burials, and racial study, 14; Swiss cist,
114-15; French Neolithic, 117; Bronze
Age W. Mediterranean, 148; Bell
Beaker, 150; Food Vessel, 160; Scyth-
ian, 197, 200; Germanic Iron Age, 202;
ship, 202.
Burushaski, language, placed, 175, 417;
racial characteristics, 421.
Buryats, compared with Huns and Avars,
231; racial type, 235; European influ-
ence, 296.
Bushmen, as race, 5; survival of, 17; com-
pared with Wiltonians, 59; relation to
Asselar man, 61; in Deniker's system,
281; ancestry, 445.
Byzantines, placed, 146; mention of Slavs
in writings of, 218.
Canaanitcs, described, 432.
Canary Islanders, speech, 462; racial
characteristics, 485-88.
Cappadocians, described, 85; Luristan
crania, 87; in Bronze Age, 137-39;
distribution, in Iron Age, 176-77,
chart; classified, 289, 290; element in
ancient Jews, 434, in Spain, 491, in
Italy, 559, in Dinarics, 60 J, in Osmanli
Turks, 621, 622, in Caucasic-spcakers,
634.
Capsian culture, described, 39—41; in
Spain, 47; in N. Africa, 59.
Carelia, Baltic Finns in, 340.
Carelians, language distribution in Eu-
rope, 339, map; language stock, 339,
chart; described, 340-41 ; racial study of,
342-45; compared with Permians, 349,
with Livs, 352.
Caries, early examples, 43.
Carniola crania, described, 184, 185.
Carthagians: see Phoenicians.
Carthage crania, described, 153.
Catalan, in France, 512.
Catalonia, Hallstatt culture, 182.
Caucasic languages, origin, 175; speakers
of, 631 ; distribution, 631, map.
Caucasus, glaciation and, 19;*Bronzc Age
in, 169; Iron Age language, 175; as iron
center, 181; racial study of, 622, 630-
34; distribution of races in, 631, map;
Jews in, 641—42.
Celts: see Kelts.
Centum, described, 179.
Cephalic index, in modern Europe,
256-61, 258-59, map. See also Cranial
measurements.
Cerdic, conquests, 208.
Cerro de Tomillo crania, described, 150.
Chalcolithic: see Copper Age.
Chamblandes skeletons, described, 115.
Chancelade crania, described, 47, 48;
compared with Afalou, 41, with Teviec,
66; in racial classification, 290, chart;
compared with Lapps, 298.
Chatelperronian skeletons, described, 33.
Chatti, origin, 206; in Germany, 537.
Chaudir, stature, 422; racial character-
istics, 424.
SUBJECT INDEX
715
Chechens, distribution, 631, map; racial
characteristics, 633.
Cheremisses, distribution in Europe, 338,
map; language stock, 339, chart; placed,
340; Bolgars and, 341 ; racial character-
istics, 342, 345-47; compared with
Great Russians, 575-76.
Cherkesses, in Bulgaria, 610; distribution,
631, map; racial characteristics, 633—
34; ill., Plate 17, fig. 4.
Chersonese crania, described, 206.
China, Upper Palaeolithic man in, 49-50;
historians, 174; Iranians in, 227; Jews
in, 438; Assyrians in, 630.
Chinese, in Turkestan, 634.
Chiusella crania, described, 147.
Chou Kou Tien crania, described, 49-50.
Chude, described, 300.
Chuvash, language distribution in Eu-
rope, 338, map; origin, 341 ; and Votiak
speech, 347; racial characteristics,
577-78; ill., Plate 5, figs. 1, 2; Nordic,
ill., Plate 30, fig. 2.
Gift, identified, 614.
Ciempozuelos crania, described, 150.
Cimbri, origin, 333; in Netherlands, 530.
Cimmerians, ousted by Scyths, 196; com-
pared with Scyths, 201 ; contact with
Finno-Ugrians, 224; element in Ukrain-
ians, 569; in Crimea, 582.
Cipley crania, described, 214.
Circassians: see Cherkesses.
Classification, of races, 279-96; Blumen-
bach's, 280; Topinard's, 280; Deniker's,
280-83; , Sergi's, 283-84; Ripley's,
284-85; von Eickstedt's, 286-88; Cz'ek-
anowski's system, 288-89; author's,
289-96; schematic representation, 290,
chart; geographic, 294-95, map.
Climate, shifts and glacial retreat, 56; and
Palaeolithic culture, 69; Neolithic, 78, '
79; post-glacial in Egypt, 92; Bronze
Age, 134-35, 168, 170; effect on Neo-
lithic Age, 220-21; relation to body
weight, 256; and head size, 267; and
pigmentation, 276-77; effect on Nor-
wegians, 308-309; in ancient Spain,
489.
Clothing, effects of, 16; appearance of,
20; trousers, Iron Age, 188; Scythian,
199; Lapps, 298.
Cockney, origins, 375.
Collognes, crania described, 214.
Combe Capelle cranium, described, 34;
compared with Briinn #1, 36, with
Gamble's Cave, 44, 45, with Chance-
lade, 48, with Elrnenteitan, 57, with al
fUbaid, 87, with Afalou #28, 40; cranial
measurements, 37; ill., 52 fig. 5; rela-
tion to Mediterraneans, 83; in racial
classification, 290, chart.
Combed Pottery culture, described, 125.
Coopers, identified, 506.
Copper Age, Baluchistan and Sumeria
crania, 87; crania in Italy, 101 ; relation
to Bronze Age, 131 -32; north of Medi-
terranean lands, 154—57. See also Bronze
Age.
Coptic, classified, 445.
Copts, described, 96; racial characteris-
tics, 459-61.
Corded people, example of selection, 7;
origin, 82; characteristics, 85; de-
scribed, 107-109; compared with Long
Barrow, 111, with French Neolithic,
116; invasion of Switzerland, 113; in-
fluence on Danish Neolithic, 122-23;
route traced, 128; in Asia Minor, 136;
in Bronze Age Greece, 144, 145; in
Copper Age Hungary and Switzerland,
155; amalgamation with Bell Beaker,
156, 157; element in Bronze Age
Britain, 158, 159; influence on Aunje-
titz, 162; clement in Saxo-Thuringia,
164; and Esthonian Bronze Age, 167—
68; in Bronze Age Scandinavia, 168;
language, 178, 237, 238; and diffusion
of Indo-European, 180; and Hallstatt,
183, 184; and Iron Age Norwegian,
204; movements in Bronze Age, 132—33,
chart; influence on Anan'ino, 225; racial
influence, 239; European survivals,
254, 265, 286, 319; classified, 289, 290,
in Sweden, 327, 330, 332; in Denmark;
333; in British Isles, 371; in Turko-
mans, 424; in Frisians, 534; in Neo-
lithic Germany, 535, 536; in Poland,
563-64, 567; in Great Russians, 575;
survivals, ill., Plate 27, figs. 1-4.
Corneto Tarquinia cemetery, contents
described, 194; compared with Rhein-
zabern, 195.
Cornwall, speech, 373; pigmentation, 389;
stature, 390; racial characteristics, 389,
390, 396; Cornishmen in France, 512,
514.
Corsica, Copper Age in, 147; dolicho-
cephaly in, 257,
Corsicans, racial characteristics, 498-500.
Crania, number studied in prehistoric
periods, 14; criteria in measurement of,
15. See also individual crania.
716
SUBJECT INDEX
Cranial measurements, criteria for, 15;
techniques discussed, 241-42; difficul-
ties of varying techniques, 243-44;
measuring anthropometric differences,
247-48; distributions in modern Eu-
rope, 256-68; cephalic index in modern
Europe, 258-59, map; head size in
modern Europe, 261—67; head size,
262—63, map; and pigmentation, 277;
means of principal cranial series, 655-
65; negro-whites and Ethiopians, 4-5.
Pleistocene: Galley Hill man, 21-22;
Kanjera skulls, 23; Skhul, 27-28; Upper
Palaeolithic, 32, 37, 84; Combe Capelle,
34; Cr6-Magnon, 35; Solutre #2, 36;
Neanderthal, 37, 38-39; Predrnost #5,
37; Afalou, 41; Gamble's Cave and
Oldoway, 45; Elmenteitan, 58; Asselar
man, 60; Erg el Ahmar, 61; Natufians,
62; Muge midden dwellers, 63-64;
Tevicc, 65; Ofnet, 67; Stangenas, 73;
Pritzerber, 73; Mac Arthur Cave B.,
75. Neolithic: Mediterraneans, 84;
Danubian, 85; Megalithic, 85; al
'Ubaid, 87; Eurafrican, 88; Kish, 88;
Tasian, 93; Badarian, 94; Copts, 96;
ancient Egyptians, 96; Megalithic
N. Africans, 99; Anau I, 102; Banded
and Painted, 106; Corded, 109; Long
Barrow, 111; Lake Dwellers, 114;
French Neolithic, 116, 117; L'Homme
Mort, Lozere, 116; Belgian Neolithic,
118; Danish and Swedish Neolithic,
122; Scandinavian Neolithic brachy-
cephals, 123; Salis Roje, 126. Bronze
Age: Alishar, 136; Megiddo, 138; early
Cypriote, 138; Minoan, 141; Hagias
Kosmas, 144; Asine, 144; Copper Age
Sicilians, 147; Minorca, 149; el Argar,
151; Carthage, 153; Etruscan, 154;
Bodrogkeresztur, 155; Bell Beaker, 156,
158, 159; Irish Food Vessel, 161;
Gemeinlebarn, 163; Aunjetitz, 164;
Franche Comt6, 165; Esthonian Bronze
Age, 167; Bronze Age Ukraine, 168;
Minussinsk, 169, 170. Iron Age: Hall-
statt, 183; Glasinac, 184; German
Kelts, 188-89; La Tene, 189; Gauls,
190-91; Goidelic, 191; Berkshire skulls,
192; early Roman, 194; Novilara
Illyrians, 195; Scyths, 199, 200; Sarma-
tian, 200; Sevan skulls, 201; Iron Age
invaders of Scandinavia, 203; Norwe-
gian Iron Age, 204; Anglo-Saxon, 209,
210; Bajuvars, 211; Alcmanni, 212;
Nikitsch and Vinzen, 213; Franks, 215;
Iron Age slavs, Polish, 218; Wends,
219; Ukrainian Slavs, 219; Russian
Slavs, 219; Anan'ino, 225; Mordvins,
225; Huns, 230; Avars, 230; non-
Mongoloid Avars, 232; Petcheneg and
Kuman, 234. North: Lapps, 303;
Norwegians, 309, 310, 312, 313, 315,
316, 317, 318, 319, 320; Icelanders,
325; Swedish, 329, 331; Danish, 334;
Faroe Islanders, 336; Carelians, 343;
Ijores and Vodes, 345; Vepses, 345;
Mordvins and Cheremisses, 346, 347;
Votiaks, 347; Livs, 352; Esths, 354;
Runo Swedes, 355; Finns, 357; Letts,
362; Lithuanians, 366; Lithuanian
Tatar, 368. British Isles: Scotsmen, 376,
392-93; Irish, 377-78, 379; and re-
ligion, in Ireland, 378; Aran Islanders,
379; Great Britain, 392; Welsh, 392, 398;
British, correlation with stature and
pigmentation, 395-98. Mediterranean:
Yemenis, 404, 407; Hcjaz, 409; Ru-
walla, 410; Mesopotamians, 412; Ku-
waitis, 413; Omanis, 414; Lenja, 414;
Persian, 418; Afghans and Pathans,
419; Dardic speakers, 420; Burushaski,
421; Kurds, 421; Bilikani Kurds, 422;
Turkomans, 422; Azerbaijanis, 425;
Hadhramis, 427, 428; Baluchis and
Brahui, 431; Samaritans, 439; Palestine
Jews, 439; Yemenite Jews, 440; Meso-
potamian Jews, 442, 443; N. African
Jews, 443; E. African Hamites, 450-51;
modern Egyptian, 459; Khargan, 461;
Siwans and Awjila people, 468; Magia-
bras, 469; Marabutic tribes, 470;
Arabo-Berbers, 470; Tuareg, 472;
Mzabites, 475; Kharejites, 475-76;
Kabyles, 478; Riffians, 481; Ghomara,
483; Shluh, 484; Guanche, 486; Gana-
rians, 487; Spaniards, 491, 492-93;
Spanish Moors, 495; Portuguese, 496-
97; Corsicans, 499; Sardinians, 500;
Basques, 502, 503; Gypsies, 506-07.
Central ^one: French, 515-17, 518;
Saaftigen, 526; Belgians, 527-28; Friter-
pian and Groterpian, 531 ; West Fri-
sian, 531 ; Groningen people, 531 ; Ztiid
Beveland, 531-32; Netherlands, 532;
Frisian, 533-34; old South German,
538-39; German, 539; Fehmarn Ger-
mans, 265, 540; Vogclberg Germans,
542; Keuperfranken Germans, 543;
Lake Constance Germans, 543; Ale-
manni, 545; Miesbacher Germans, 545;
Questenberger Germans, 545; Sudeten
SUBJECT INDEX
717
Germans, 546; Swiss, 549; Lower and
Upper Austria, 551; Tyrol, 552-53;
Pompeiian, 555; Italians, 555, 556,
558; Bohemian Czechs, 560; Czechs,
562; Wends, 562; Poles, 565-66; White
Russians, 568; Kiev Ukrainians, 571;
Ruthenians, 571; Huziil Ruthcnians,
572; Great Russians, 573-74; Chuvash,
577; Bashkirs, 578; Mcshcheryaks, 578;
Kirghiz, 579-80; Crimean Tatars, 583;
Kalmucks, 583; Magyars, 585; Slo-
venes, 588; Croats, 588; Serbs, 589-
90; Bosnians, 590; Dalmatians, 591;
Montenegrins, 593; Albanian Ghegs,
597-98; Toscs, 602-03; Greeks, 604-
05, 606; Cretans, 608; Bulgars, 610-
11; Vlachs, 614-15, 616-17; Osmanli
Turks, 619, 621, 622; Syrian Bedawin,
623; Syrians, 623; Cypriots, 625-; Ar-
menians, 626; Assyrians, 630; Tats, 632;
Ossetes, 632; Caucasic-speakers, 633;
Tajiks, 636; Turkestan Jews, 639-40;
Caucasus Jews, 641; Karaite Jews, 642;
Ashkenazim Jews, 644.
Cremation, and racial study, 14; growth
of, 166; at end of Bronze Age, 170-71;
effect on Lausitz culture, 188; Slavic,
217-18; Bronze Age, in British Isles,
371.
Crcswellian culture, appearance of, 75.
Cretans, later, compared with Minoans,
142; language group, 175; racial char-
acteristics, 272, 608-09; ill., Plate 22,
fig. 1. Cretans, Bronze Age: see Mi-
noans.
Crete, Neolithic in, 82, 101, Bronze Age
in, 135, 140-42.
Crimea, racial study of, 582-83; Jews in,
641-42.
Crimean Tatars, racial characteristics,
577, 582-83.
Croatia crania, described, 184.
Croats, language distribution, 561, map;
racial characteristics, 587, 588; Dinaric,
ill., Plate 38,/£. 3.
Cr6-Magnons, described, 35-36; /'//., 35;
compared with Afalou, 41—44; facial
characteristics, 42; relation to Lake
Ladogia, 125—26; European survivals,
285-86, 291 ; as Irish ancestor, 378.
Cruithrii, language, 187; in Ireland,
372.
Cumans: see Kumans.
Cunama, identified, 447-48; described,
457.
Cushites, Highland, distribution, 446.
Cushitic, language classified, 445; dis-
tribution in E. Africa, 446, map.
Cycladic, influence on Minoan, 142; in
Bronze Age Greece, 144.
Cypriots, racial types in Bronze Age, ills.,
139, figs. 27, 28; in Bronze Age Greece,
1 45 ; compared with Minoans, 1 42, with
Narbonne, 149, with Etruscans, 154,
with British Bell Beakers, 159, with
Short Cist, 160, with Glasinac, 185;
racial characteristics, 625.
Cyprus, Bronze Age in, 135, 138-40; ra-
cial study of, 624-25.
Cyrenaicans, language, 467.
Czechoslovakia, Bell Beaker in, 156; lan-
guage distribution, 561, map.
Czechs, racial study of, 559-62; ill.,
Plate 12, fig. 4; Plate 26, fig. 4.
Dacians, described, 613.
Daggatuns, identified, 438.
Dalrnatia, Vlachs in, 614.
Dalmatians, classified, 587; racial charac-
teristics, 591.
Dalo-Nordic, in von Eickstedt's system,
288.
Danakil, distribution, 447; described, 457.
Danes, in British Isles, 211, 373, 389; ra-
cial characteristics, 254, 273, 332-37;
Neolithic culture in Netherlands, 530;
Borreby type, ill., Plate 5, fig. 1 ; Corded
type, ill., Plate 27, fig. 3; Upper Palaeo-
lithic Nordic, z//., Plate 33, fig. 2. See
alw Denmark.
"Danes' Grave," contents discussed, 191 —
92.
Danubians, movement traced, 81-82,
map 2; characteristics, 85; in S. Russia,
104; as culture bearers, 105-07; com-
pared with French Neolithic, 116; route
traced, 127; in Bronze Age Greece, 144;
origin of, 172; speech unknown, 178; as
original Indo-Europeans, 180; relation
to Hallstatt, 184; movements in Bronze
Age, 132-33, chart; crania compared to
Finns, 225; migration and language,
237; survivals, 254, 260, 265; classified,
289, 290; geographic distribution, 294-
95, map; element in Germany, 535, in
Ukrainians, 570, in Great Russians,
574, in Caucasic-speakers, 633—34; i//.,
Plate 2^ figs. 1-4.
Dardic language, distribution, 416; Ka-
firs, 417; speakers described, 420—21.
Deformation, artificial, in Cyprus and
Egypt, 139; in Caucasus, 169; Thurin-
718
SUBJECT INDEX
gian, 212; in Albania, 600; Armenians,
628.
Deir Tasa, site of Tasian culture, 93.
Denmark, Erteb^lle culture in, 72; Neo-
lithic skulls, 122; brachycephaly in,
123; amber trading route, 134; Bell
Beakers in, 157; Bronze Age in, 166-67;
Germanic expansion, 181; Germanic
peoples in, 202; Iron Age crania, 203-
04, 207. See also Danes.
Dibra, classified, 595; distribution, 596,
map,
Dinarics, first appearance and origin,
140; and Bronze Age Cypriots, 140;
type, in Bronze Age Greece, 145; Cop-
per Age sailors, 1 46-47 ; arrival in Cop-
per Age Italy, 148; Bell Beaker people
in Spain as, 150; among Basques, 152;
in Carthage, 153; in Rhincland, 156—
57; modern derivation, 157; element in
British Bell Beaker, 159; influence on
Aunjetitz, 163, appearance of, 172-73;
distribution in Iron Age, 176—77, chart;
among Magyars, 233; racial charac-
teristics, 254, 266, 268, 278; in Deniker's
system, 282, 283; in von Eickstedt's
system, 287; in Czekaiiowski's system,
288, 289; classified, 293; geographic
distribution, 294-95, map; in British
Isles, 371; in Ireland, 377, 383; element
in ancient Jews, 434, in Spain, 490,
491, in Portugal, 497, in Basques, 503,
in France, 521, 522, in Frisians, 534, in
Germany, 535, 536, 538-39, 541, 542,
543, 544, 545, 546, 547, in Switzerland,
550, 552, 553, in Austria, 551, in Italy,
554, 555, 559, in Czechs, 562, in
Poland, 563, 566, 567, in Ukrainians,
571 , in Ruthenians, 572, in White Rus-
sians, 576, in Magyars, 586, in Yugo-
slavia, 587, in Slovenes, 588, in Serbs,
589, in Montenegrins, 592, 594, 595, in
Albanians, 597, 598, 599, 600, 601, in
Greeks, 606, 607, in Bulgars, 611, 612,
in Vlachs, 615, 616, 617, in Lebanese,
624, in Cypriots, 625, in Ossetes, 632,
in Tajiks, 637, 638, in Turkestan Jews,
640, in Caucasus Jews, 641 ; theory of
hybridization discussed, 601—02; re-
lation to Armenoids, 626, 627, 629;
blend resulting in, 647; principle of,
ill., Plate 35, figs. 1-4; types, ill., Plate
36,figs. 1-4, Plate 37, figs. 1-4, Plate 38,
figs. 1-4, Plate 39, figs. 1-6, Plate 40,
figs. 1-4, Plate 41, figs. 1-4, Plate 43,
figs, 1 6.
Dobruja district, language distribution,
561, map; racial complexity, 612-13.
Dolichocephaly, in modern Europe, 256,
257-59. See also Cephalic index, Cra-
nial measurements.
Domestic animals, in Mesolithic period,
56; of Muge midden dwellers, 63; Neo-
lithic husbandry, 78; date of beginning,
79; Fayum, 93; Danubian, 105; Corded,
107, 108; horse as traction animal, 135;
Indo-Europeans and, 178; influence on
Indo-European vocabulary, 180; Ira-
nian, 227; horse culture, 235, 237, 238,
239, 323; reindeer culture, 239, 299;
cattle complex in Africa, 444—45; cam-
els in Africa, 445, 466.
Domitz crania, described, 74.
Dorians, invasion of Crete, 142; relation
to Sphakiots, 608.
Drang nach Osten, racial origin, 537.
Dravidians, relation to Badarians, 95;
in Deniker's system, 281, 282.
Druzes, identified, 623; brachycephaly,
261; til., Plate 15, fig. 2; Dinaric, til.,
Plate 41, fig. 4.
Dukagin, classified, 595, distribution,
596, map; racial characteristics, 597,
598, 600, 601.
Dunstable crania, described, 210.
Dutch: see Netherlanders.
East ShefFord crania, described, 210.
Edomites, identified, 434.
Egypt, Neolithic, 78, 91-98; use of metal,
131-32; invasion of Hyksos, 135; in-
fluence in Bronze Age Spain, 148;
Gypsies in, 504; Turks in, 618.
Egyptians, compared with Englishmen
and Neolithic Swiss, 83, with Long
Barrow, 111, with Chamblandes, 115,
with Minoans, 141; Neolithic, 91-98,
128; study of, through politics and lan-
guage, 174; language, 175, 445; burials
compared with Scythians, 197; dolicho-
cephaly, 256; racial classification by,
279; drawings of Jews, til., 433, figs.
33-36; modern, racial characteristics,
458-62; on ancient Libyans, 464.
Eire: see Ireland.
el Argar crania, described, 150-51; com-
pared with Etruscan, 154.
Elmenteitan culture, men described, 57-
59; facial characteristics, 85; compared
with Corded, 108.
England, Magdalenian crania in, 47;
Magdalenian survival in, 65; Neolithic
SUBJECT INDEX
719
invasion, 82; head size, 265; migration
of Jews to, 437; Gypsies in, 505, 506,
507. See also British Isles.
Environmental response, discussed, 9-12.
Epirotes, racial characteristics, 604—05.
Erg el Ahrnar cranium, described, 61—62.
Eritreans, classified, 445.
Erteb^lle culture, described, 72.
Eskimos, modification in masticatory
muscles, 29; Magdalenian ancestry,
47-48.
Esthonia, crania described, 167—68; Meso-
lithic survivals in, 226; language, 338;
Baltic Finns in, 340, 351.
Esths, classified, 223; racial characteris-
tics, 254, 257, 353-55; language dis-
tribution in Europe, 338, map; language
stock, 339, chart.
Ethiopians, relationship with Badarians,
95; in Deniker's system, 281, 282;
classified, 445; in Egypt, 459; ill.,
Plate 20, fig. 3. See also Amharas.
Etruscans, Bronze Age, 152, 153-54; lan-
guage, 175; distribution, 554.
Eurafrican, crania, 87, 88, compared with
Neolithic Spanish, 100, with Bronze
Age Trojans, 137; in Sergi's classifica-
tion, 284.
Eurasiatics, in Sergi's classification, 284.
Eurybates, pigmentation, 145.
Euskarians, compared with Bronze Age
Basques, 152; as linguistic stock, 178.
Evrcrneiset, language classified, 339.
Eye color: see Pigmentation.
Eye width: see Facial characteristics.
Facial characteristics, in modern Europe,
267-68, 278; and pigmentation, 277;
til., Plates 1-46. Pleistocene: Grimaldi,
33; Combe Capclle, 34; Lautsch, 36;
Pfedmost #3, 37; Afalou, 41-42;
Chancelade, 48; Elmenteitan, 58; As-
selar man, 60; Erg el Ahmar, 61 ; Natu-
fians, 62; Muge midden dwellers, 64;
Teviec, 65; Ofnet, 67; Murzak Koba,
68; Pritzerber, 73. Neolithic: Mediter-
raneans, 84; Danubians, 85; Megalithic,
85; al rUbaid, 87; Kish crania, 88;
Sumerian, ill., 89, figs. 17-20; Assyrian,
90-91; Tasian, 93; Badarian, 94-95;
Egyptian, *//., 97, figs. 22-25; Naqada,
95-96; Lower Egyptians, 96; Anau I,
102, 103; Banded and Painted, 106;
Corded, 108; Long Barrow, 111; Lake
Dwellers, 114; Alpine, 118; Swedish
and Danish, 1 22 ; Scandinavian brachy-
cephals, 123-24; Lake Ladoga, 125-26;
Salis Roje, 126. Bronze Age: Alishar,
136; Megiddo, 138; Umm Qatafa, 138;
Early Cypriote, 138; Minoan, 142;
Hagias Kosmas, 144; Asine, 144; Mi-
norca, 149; el Argar, 151; Carthage,
153; Etruscan, 154; Bell Beaker, 156,
159; Irish Food Vessel, 161; Gcmeinle-
barn, 163; Esthonian, 167; Caucasian,
168; Minussinsk, 169. Iron Age:
Hallstatt, 183; Glasinac, 185; German
Kelts, 189; LaTenc, 189; Goidelic, 191;
early Roman, 194; Novilara Illyrians,
195; Scythian, 199; Sevan crania, 201;
W. Germanics, 207; Anglo-Saxon, 209,
210; Nikitsch, Vinzen, 213; Slavs,
Polish, 218; Wends, 219; Anan'ino,
225; Hun, 230; Avars, 230; Petcheneg
and Kuman, 234. North: Lapps, 303-
04; Samoyed, 307; Norwegians, 310,
311-12, 314, 316, 317-18, 319; Ice-
landers, 325; Swedish, 329-30; Danes,
334; Faroe Islanders, 336; Carelians,
343, 344; Mordvins and Cheremisses,
346, 347; Votiak, 348; Syryenians and
Permiaks, 349, Ostiaks and Voguls,
350-51; Livs, 352-53; Runo Swedes,
354; Finns, 357-58, 359; Letts, 363,
364; Lithuanians, 366, 367; Lithuanian
Tatars, 368. British Lies: seventeenth
century Londoners, 375; Scotsmen,
376; Irish, 378, 379, 381-82; Aran
Islanders, 379, 381 ; Upper Palaeolithic,
383-84; Great Britain, 393 -97; com-
posite English, 394, fig. 32; Welsh, 398.
Mediterranean: Yemenis, 404, 406-07,
408; Hejaz, 409; Ruwalla, 410; Meso-
potamians, 412-13; Kuwaitis, 413, 414;
Lcnja, 414, 415; Persian, 418; Afghans
and Pathans, 419; Dardic speakers,
420-21; Burushaski, 421; Kurds, 421;
Turkomans, 423, 424; Veddoid and
Negroid, 426; Hadhramis, 427-28,
429; Baluchis and Brahui, 431 ; Samari-
tans, 439; Palestine Jews, 439; Yemen-
ite Jews, 440; Jewish, discussed, 441-42;
Mesopotarnian Jews, 442, 443; N.
African Jews, 443 ; E. African Hamites,
450, 451-52, 454-55; modern* Egyp-
tians, 460; Khargan, 461 ; ancient
Libyans, 464; Siwans and Awjila peo-
ple, 468, 469; Arabo-Berbers, 470;
Tuareg, 472, 473; Mzabites, 475, 476;
Kharejites, 476; Algerian tribesmen,
476; Shawia, 477; Kabyles, 478, 479;
Riffians, 481, 482-83; Shluh, 484;
720
SUBJECT INDEX
Guanche, 486; Canarians, 487; Span-
iards, 492, 493; Andalusians, 493, 494;
Portuguese, 497; Sardinians, 500-01;
Basques, 502, 503; Gypsies, 507.
Central Zone; Frenchmen, 517-18, 521;
Mendonck Belgians, 528-29; Frisian,
534; Fehmarn Germans, 540, 541;
Vogelberg Germans, 542; Lake Con-
stance Germans, 543; Genkingen Ger-
mans, 544; Questenberger Germans,
545-46; Sudeten Germans, 546; Swiss,
549-50; Tyrolese, 553; Pompeiian, 555;
Italians, 556-57, 558; Poles, 566-67;
White Russians, 568; Volhyn Ukrain-
ians, 570-71; Ruthenians, 572; Great
Russians, 574, 575; Chuvash, 577; Bash-
kirs, 578-79; Meshcheryaks, 578-79;
Kirghiz, 580, 581; Kalmucks, 583;
Magyars, 585, 586; Slovenes, 588;
Croats, 588; Serbs, 590; Montenegrins,
592, 593-94; Albanian Ghegs, 598, 599-
600; Toscs, 603; Greeks, 606-07;
Cretans, 608; Bulgars, 611; Vlachs,
615-16, 617; Osmanli Turks, 619-20,
621; Lebanese, 624; Armenians, 626-
27, 628; Assyrians, 630; Ossetes, 632;
Caucasic-speakers, 633; Tajiks, 636,
637-38; Turkestan Jews, 640; Cau-
casus Jews, 641—42; Karaite Jews, 642;
Ashkenazim, 644.
Faki, identified, 447.
Falasha, identified, 438.
Faliscans, language classified, 193; origin,
554.
Falster, brachycephaly in, 123.
Faroe Islanders, settlers in Iceland, 324;
racial characteristics, 336.
Farringdon Street crania, described,
375.
Fatjanovo culture, placed, 104; compared
with Corded, 107.
Fayum people, described, 93.
Fehmarners, racial characteristics, 265,
540-41; ill., Plate 6, fig. 1.
Fellahin, racial characteristics, 459-61.
Fenno-Nordic, in von Eickstedt's system,
288.
"Fertile Crescent," placed, 175.
Finger-chopping, during Upper Palaeo-
lithic, 43.
Finland, glaciation and, 19; Lapps in,
299, 301, 302, 303; Baltic Finns in,
340; county divisions of, 355, map;
Gypsies in, 505.
Fiimroark, survival of Upper Palaeolithic
implements, 57; Lapps in, 299.
Finno-Ugrian peoples, hypothesis con-
cerning, 125; relation with Sumerian,
175; discussed, 223-26; relation to
Samoyedic, 306; racial study of, 337-
68; language relationships of peoples
speaking, 339, chart.
Finns, racial history placed, 125; distribu-
tion in Iron Age, 176—77, chart; com-
pared with Scyths, 197; Slavic invasion,
217; language, 236; racial characteris-
tics of Finns as whole, 254, 257, 261,
265, 268, 278, 337-59; language dis-
tribution in Europe, 338; language
stock, 339, chart; in Deniker's system,
283; mixture with Samoyeds, 307; in-
fluence on E. Norwegians, 313; influ-
ence in Sweden, 328; racial study of
E., 342-51; racial study of Baltic,
351-59; Livs compared with true, 353;
racial study of, in Finland, 355-59;
compared with Great Russians, 575-76;
element in Mongoloid Russia, 578;
Borrcby types, ill., Plate 5, fig. 5; East
Baltic type, til., Plate 7, fig. 5; Upper
Palaeolithic survival, ill., Plate 9, fig. 4;
Corded, ill., Plate 27, fig. 1 ; Dinaric,
i//., Plate 35, fig. 4. See also Finno-
Ugrians.
Fis, defined and described, 595-97.
Fjelkinge cranium, ill., 54, fig. 12.
Flanders: see Flemings.
Flemings, language distribution, 512;
racial characteristics, 519, 523, 524-25,
526-29; Nordic blend, ill., Plate 34,
fig- 2.
Food Vessel peoples, movements in Bronze
Age, 132-33, chart; described, 160-61;
in Ireland, 161-62; routes of invasion,
162; in British Isles, 371.
France, Magdalenian skulls in, 47; Meso-
lithic man in, 64-66; Danubian settlers
in, 104; Neolithic in, 115-18; Bronze
Age in, 165-66; Kelts in, 187; invasion
by Goths, Gepidae, Vandals, 205;
Franks in, 206, 214-15; invasion by
Huns, 228; Norwegian migration to,
308; migration of Jews to, 437; Basques
in, 501-04; Gypsies in, 505, 506-07.
See also Frenchmen.
Franche Comt6 crania, described, 165.
Franks, origin, 206; in Belgium, 524, 525;
in Netherlands, 529; in Germany, 537.
French language, in Switzerland, 548.
Frenchmen, racial characteristics, 255,
257, 260, 264, 265, 266, 511-22;
thralls in Sweden, 327; immigrants to
SUBJECT INDEX
721
British Isles, 374; Alpine, ill., Plate 12,
fig. 2; ill., Plate 15, figs. 2, 3; Atlanto-
Mediterranean, ill., Plate 23, fig. 2;
Nordic blend, ill., Plate 34, /£. 4; Di-
naric, ill., Plate 36, fig. 3. &£ G/JO
France.
Frisians, origin, 206; crania compared
with Hannover, 207; placed, 332; in
Sweden, 328; in Belgium 524; racial
characteristics, 529-35.
Friterpia crania, described, 531.
Fulah, identified, 474.
Fundul Moldovii Vlachs, racial charac-
teristics, 616.
Fiinen, dolichoccphaly in, 123.
Gaelic, distribution, 372, 373.
Gaguz, in Rumania, 612.
Galatian colony, Keltic, 187.
Galicia, outpost of Kelts, 186; Jews in,
642.
Gallas, head size, 266; racial characteris-
tics, 445, 447, 448, 449-57; ill., Plate
20, fig. 4.
Galley Hill man, described, 21-22; com-
pared with Skhul, 27, with Upper
Palaeolithic, 31, with Grimaldi, 33, 34,
with Combe Cappele, 34, with Cr6-
Magnon, 36, with Afalou #28, 40, with
Gamble's Cave, 44, with Elmenteitan,
57, with al rUbaid, 87, with Kilgreany,
112; height, 32; ill., 52, fig. 4; as ances-
tor of Mediterranean group, 83; rela-
tion to S. Russian Neolithic, 104; in
racial classification, 290, chart; placed,
370.
Gamble's Cave crania, described, 44-46.
Gauls, described, 190-91; crania com-
pared with Roman, 194; in Belgium,
523. See also Kelts.
Gemeinlebarn crania, described,^ 163.
Genkingen Germans, racial characteris-
tics, 544-45.
Geography, Mesolithic, 71, and 71 map 1;
Mesolithic, 72; Egypt, 92; Norway,
308; Sweden, 326, 329; Denmark, 334;
Arabia, 401; Yemen, 402; and stature,
in France, 514-15; Belgium, 523; Neth-
erlands, 530; Switzerland, 547-48;
Poland, 563.
Georgians, language, origin, 175; distribu-
tion, 631, map; racial characteristics,
633-34.
Gepidae, speech, 205; crania, 206; con-
version to Christianity, 214; migrations,
536.
Germanics, distribution in Iron Age, 176-
77, chart; speech classified, 179; expan-
sion in Iron Age, 181 ; crania compared
to Finns, 225; in Portugal, 495; in
France, 512; language, Flemish, 524;
element in Netherlands, 529.
Germans, racial characteristics, 254, 260,
264, 265, 535-47; in Sweden, 328; in-
fluence in Baltic, 361; and Lithuani-
ans, 365; language in France, 512;
in Switzerland, 548; in pre-Munich
Czechoslovakia, 559; in Crimea, 582;
in Rumania, 612; Neo-Danubian, ill.,
Plate 31, fig. 3; Upper Palaeolithic
Nordic, ill., Plate 33, fig. 3; Alpines,
ill., Plate 11, figs. 1-4; Dinaric, ill.,
Plate 35, figs. 1, 2; Borreby type, til.,
Plate 6, figs. 1-3.
Germany, effect of early migrations, 8;
glaciation and, 1 9 ; Magdalenian crania
in, 47; Mesolithic period in, 73-74; as
route of Neolithic, 101; Corded people
in, 109; brachycephaly in Neolithic,
124; Bell Beaker in, 156; Food Vessel
prototypes, 162; Hallstatt culture in,
182, 183-84; Kelts in, 186, 188-89; Ger-
manic peoples in, 202; invasion by
Slavs, 217; Slavs in, 218-19; invasion
by Huns, 228; Jews in, 437, 642; Gyp-
sies in, 505; E., language distribution,
561, map.
Gerrhi, Land of the, described, 197.
Ghegs, identified, 595; racial characteris-
tics, 595-602; Nordic, ill., Plate 30,
fig. 3; Dinaric, ill., Plate 39, figs. 2, 4, 5.
Ghomara, invasion and origin, 463, 465;
language, 467; distribution, 480; racial
characteristics, 483.
Ghuzz: see Seljuks.
Gibraltar, as highway of Mesolithic in-
fluences, 69 ; Neolithic invasion by way
of, 82.
Glaciers, effects and extent of, 19-20, 56,
69; retreat to Scandinavia, effects of,
78.
Glasgow crania, described, 375-76.
Glasinac crania, described, 184-85, 190,
Glossary, 666-83,
Gloucester, Roman burial, 195.
Goidelic: see Q-Keltic.
Goidels, in Ireland, 371, 372.
Gold, early use of, 134; as medium of ex-
change, 166.
Gorals, identified, 571.
Goths, ousting of Sarmatians, 197; speech,
205; invasions by, 205; crania, 206;
722
SUBJECT INDEX
origin, 327; in Spain, 490; migrations,
536; in Crimea, 582; in Dacia, 613.
Gotland, Corded skull, 55, fig. 15,
Great Russians, racial study of, 572-76.
Greece, Neolithic, 82, 101; influence in
Bronze Age Spain, 148; cremation in-
troduced, 171; Keltic invasion, 187; in-
vasion by Goths, 205 ; language distribu-
tion, 561, map; Osrnanli Turks in, 617.
Greeks, study through politics and lan-
guage, 174; Iron Age language group,
175; influence on Kelts, 187; sculpture
of Kelts, 190; influence on Scythian
art, 198-99; religion compared with
Norse, 202; racial classification by, 279;
migration of Jews among, 436; in
Egypt, 458; in Corsica, 499; in France,
512; in Sicily, 554; in Crimea, 582;
racial characteristics, 604-09; in Bul-
garia, 610; Vlachs in, 614; in Turkey,
618; in Asia Minor, compared with
Turks, 619; in Cyprus, 624; Dinaric,
ill., Plate 39, fig. 6; ill , Plate 14, fig. 5.
Greenland Eskimos, crania, 30.
Greenlanders, decrease in stature, 10.
Grimaldi skeletons, described, 33—34;
compared with Afalou //28, 40, with
Gamble's Cave, 44, with Assclar man,
60; in racial classification, 290, chart.
Groningen people, described, 531.
Groterpia crania, described, 531.
Guanche, crania, compared with Cro-
Magnon, 285; identified, 462; racial
characteristics, 484-86.
Gudea, King, described, 90; ill., 89, fig.
18.
Guipuzcoa skeletons, described, 152.
Guraghes, language, 447.
Gypsies, racial characteristics, 504—07;
in Rumania, 612; in Turkestan, 635;
ill., Plate 1 9, figs. 1, 2.
Gzennaya, identified, 480.
Haddcndoa, described, 457.
Hadhramauti, head size, 266; described,
402-03; missionaries, 427; racial
characteristics, 427-30; and Judaism,
438; in Ethiopia, 447; compared with
Hamites, 452; ill., Plate 19, fig. 5;
Dinaric, ill., Plate 43, fig. 3.
Hagias Kosmas crania, described, 144.
Hagios Nikolas, people described, 142.
Hainburg-Teichtal site, placed, 163.
Hair color: see Pigmentation.
Hair form, Assyrian, 90—91; classified,
277-78; in Deniker's system, 280-83;
Lapps, 302-03; Norway, 311, 317;
Icelandics, 324; Mordvin Cheremisses,
347; Votiaks, 348; Livs, 353; Letts,
363-64, 365, 367; Livs and Kurs, 364;
Lithuanian, 366-67; Irish, 380; Great
Britain, 393; Yemenis, 404-05; Hejaz,
409; Mesopotamians, 412; Kuwaitis,
414; Afghans and Pathans, 420; Dardic
speakers, 421; Turkomans, 423; Ved-
doid and Negroid, 426; Hadhramauti,
428, 429; Baluchis and Brahui, 431;
E. African Hamites, 453-54, 456-57;
modern Egyptians, 460; Siwans and
Awjila people, 469; Arabo-Berbers,
470; Mzabites, 475; Kabyles, 478;
Rirfians, 482; Spaniards, 492; Andalu-
sians, 493; Gypsies, 506 ; Mediterraneans
as whole, 508; French, 521; Italians,
557, 558; Poles, 566-67; White Rus-
sians, 568; Great Russians, 574, 575,
576; Kirghiz, 580-81; Kalmucks, 583;
Montenegrins, 593; Albanian Ghegs,
599; Osmanli Turks, 620; Armenians,
628; Turkestan Jews, 640; Ashkenazim
Jews, 645-46.
Hallstatt culture, language, 181; de-
scribed, 182-85; compared with
"Danes' Grave," 192, with Scyths, 199,
with Visigoths, 206, with Thuringians,
212-13; in Norway, 309-10; predomi-
nance, in Sweden, 329; in Germany,
536; in Tyrol, 552; in Italy, 554.
Hamalaiset, identified, 356,
Hamburg culture, and Magdalcnian, 70.
Hamites, modern African, described, 45;
intermingling with Bushmen, 59; stat-
ure, 255; dolichocephaly among, 257;
head size, 265-66; compared with
Tuareg, 473.
Hamitic, linguistic stock, 178, 445; in
Deniker's system, 281; in N. Africa,
462.
Hannover crania, described, 207; com-
pared with Thuringians, 212, with
Iron Age Polish Slavs, 218.
Haratin, identified, 466.
Has, classified, 595; distribution, 596,
map; racial characteristics, 598.
Hasti£re crania, described, 118.
Hausa, identified, 474.
Haute Savoie crania, placed, 191.
Hazara, identified, 417.
Head measurements: see Cranial measure-
ments.
Head size, in modern Europe, discussed,
261-67; map, 262-63; relation to face
SUBJECT INDEX
723
size, 267. See also Cranial measure-
ments.
Heidelbergensis, as non-sapiens, 23; jaw, 25.
Height: see Stature.
Hejaz people, placed, 401-02; racial
characteristics, 409-10; Jews in, 438.
Hellenes, areas occupied by, in Iron Age,
176—77, chart. See also Greeks.
Hellenic speech, classified, 179.
Helvetii, identified, 189, 536.
Herzegovinians, classified, 587.
Hessians, origin, 206, 212; identified, 537.
High German, classified, 524.
Himalayas, glaciation and, 19; language
in Iron Age, 175.
Hindus, in Turkestan, 635.
Hissarlik crania, placed, 136.
Hittites, Bronze Age crania, 136; ilL9 137,
fig. 26; language blended with Na&li,
180; influence on Jewish facial charac-
teristics, 439; relation to Armenians,
625.
Hiung-Nu people, described, 227; rela-
tion to Huns, 227, 232; relation to
Turks, 228; horse culture, 238-39.
Hojeri, described, 426.
Holland, glaciation and, 19; origin of
Scots Bell Beaker, 160; route of Food
Vessel invasion, 162; Germanic expan-
sion in, 181; dolichoccphaly in, 257;
migration of Jews to, 437. See also
Netherlanders .
Homo manderthalensis: see Neanderthal
man.
Homo sapiens, Pleistocene origin, 1-3; in-
troduction to study of, 16-18; in fourth
ice age, 20; in Middle Pleistocene, 20-
23 ; Negro as, 34 ; Neanderthaloid stock
and, 38; compared with Afalou, 42; in
China and Mongolia, 49—50; evolution
of, 50-51; early, ill., 52, figs. 4, 5, 6;
Mediterranean as, 83; Neolithic, 127;
pigmentation, 273.
Hottentots, relation to Asselar man, 61.
See also Bushmen.
Howeitat, placed, 401.
Hungarians: see Magyars.
Hungary, center of Metal Age diffusion,
155; Bell Beaker in, 156; Gepidac in-
vasion, 205; movement of Magyars to,
224; Huns in, 228; Avars in, 228, 232;
head size, 265, 266; language, 338;
Ugri in, 341 ; Gypsies in, 506. See also
Magyars.
Huns, Bronze Age migrations, 135; com-
pared with Scyths, 196; destruction of
Alans, 197; absorption of Goths, 205;
Mongoloid element, 213; appearance in
Russia, 227; racial characteristics, 228,
229-33; relation to Avars, 231; in
Volga region, 341; in Spain, 490; mi-
grations, 577; in Crimea, 582.
Hunza, *//., Plate 15, fig. 6.
Huzuls, racial characteristics, 571, 572.
Hvellinge #1, ill., 54, fig. 11.
Hyksos, migrations, 135.
Hythe crania, described, 374, 375.
Iberian center, Bronze Age, 132—33,
chart.
Iberian peninsular: see Portugal, Spain.
I bero- Insular, in Dcniker's system, 281,
282; in Czekanowski's system, 288.
Ibiza cranium, placed, 153.
Iceland, decrease in stature in, 10; modi-
fication in masticatory muscles, 29; ra-
cial characteristics, 265, 273, 323-26;
Norwegian migration to, 308; Borreby
type, ill., Plate 5, fig. 4.
Igdir, racial characteristics, 424.
Ijores, language classified, 338; placed,
340; racial characteristics, 345.
Ilium, placed, 137.
Illyrians, distribution, in Iron Age, 176—
77, chart; speech, 179, 181 ; speakers dis-
cussed, 182-86; relation to Kelts, 187,
188; in Italy, 195, 554; and Slovenes,
587; in Yugoslavia, 588.
India, movement of Aryan ancestors into,
86; religion compared with Iron Age
Norse, 202; invasion by Huns, 228;
Iranians in, 238; Jews in, 438; Gypsy
origin and, 504; Assyrians in, 630.
Indie, speech classified, 179.
Indo- Afghan, in Deniker's system, 281,
282.
Indo-European speech, stock, 178; dis-
cussed, 178—82; in Caucasus, distribu-
tion, 631, map.
Indo-Iranian, relation to Keltic, 188;
Slavic language and, 216.
Ingrians, language distribution, 338;
language stock, 339, chart; racial char-
acteristics, 345.
Iranian speech, classified, 179; Scyths as
users, 196; distribution, 416, map.
Iranians, invasion into Iran, 86-87; and
Persian Empire, 180; migrations, 227,
238; racial characteristics, 415, 416,
418-19; in Turkestan, 634; Dinaric,
ill., Plate 43, fig. 5; Turkestan, ill.,
Plate 15 9 fig. 4.
724
SUBJECT INDEX
Irano-Afghans, classified, 289, 290, 292;
geographic distribution, 294-95, map;
element in Mesopotamians, 412-13;
racial characteristics, 415-22; Turko-
mans as, 423-24; Azerbaijanis as, 425;
element in Armenoids, 629; ill., Plate
IB, figs. 1-8.
Iraq, stature in, 255; racial study of
peoples in, 411-15; migration of Jews
to, 435; ill., Plate 16, j^. 6.
Ireland, effect of emigration on, 8; Upper
Palaeolithic implements, 57; Bronze
Age in, 161-62; Q-Keltic in, 187;
Kelts in, 191; Danes in, 211. See also
British Isles.
Irish, racial characteristics, 261, 264-65,
268, 273, 276, 277, 326, 371, 372, 376-
84; inDeniker's system, 283; in Iceland,
323, 324; Upper Palaeolithic survivals,
ill., Plate 9, figs. 1-7; ill., Plate 24, fig. 3.
Iron Age, discussed, 174-240; races and
language, 174-82; Kelts, 186-93; Illyr-
ians, 182-86; Romans, 193-95; Scyth-
ians, 195-201; Germanic peoples, 201-
16; Slavs, 216-20; Turks and Mongols
in, 227-36; in Norway, 308; in British
Isles, 371-72; in France, 512; in Nether-
lands, 530; in Germany, 536.
Isle of Man, Q-Keltic, 187.
Isnello crania, described, 147.
Istria crania, described, 148.
Istrian Vlachs, racial characteristics, 61 6-
17.
Italians, racial characteristics, 257, 260,
269, 272, 554-59; in France, 512; lan-
guage in Switzerland, 548; element in
Dalmatians, 591 ; N. Borreby type, ill.,
Plate 6, fig. 5; Neapolitan, ill., Plate 22,
fig. 2; Piedmontese, ill., Plate 23, fig.
1; Dinaric, ill., Plate 31, figs. 2, 3.
Italic speech, classified, 179; in Italy, 181;
relation to Keltic, 186; in British Isles,
372.
Italic!, distribution in Iron Age, 176-77,
chart; described, 193—95; arrival in
Italy, 554.
Italy, as avenue of entry for Mesolithic,
69; as route of Neolithic, 101; Bronze
Age in, 146, 147-48; appearance of
Etruscans, 153-54; Urnfields invasion,
171; Ligurian in, 180; Villanova people
in, 181 ; Hallstatt culture in, 182; Keltic
expansion into, 187; Italic! in, 193-95;
Illyrians in, 195; invasion by Cimbri
and Teutons, 202; invasion by Goths,
205; migration of Jews to, 437.
Jaeren crania, placed, 204—05.
Japanese, selection among emigrants, 8.
"Japhetic," defined, 175.
"Java man, separation from homo sapiens, 1.
Jeballis, distribution, 480; racial charac-
teristics, 483-84.
Jebel Druz, pigmentation, 272.
Jemdet Nasr culture, placed, 87.
Jerbans: see Kharejites.
Jews, history and racial study of E., 432—
44; ill., 433, figs. 33-36; ill., 434, fig. 37;
oriental, described, 438—44; Yemenite,
439-41; Mesopotamian, 442-43; Se-
phardic, 443; in Egypt, 458; in Spain,
490-91; in France, 512; in Czechoslo-
vakia, 559; in Poland, 563; in Crimea,
582; in Rumania, 612-13; in Turkey,
618; in Caucasus, 631; in Turkestan,
635; racial study in Asia and central
Europe, 638-46; ill., Plate 44, figs. 1-4,
Plate 45, figs. 1-4, Plate 46, figs. 1-7;
Berber-speaking, ill., Plate 44, fig. 4;
Morocco, ill., Plate 44, figs. 2, 3;
Yemenitic, ill., Plate 44, fig. 1.
Jmouds, identified, 365; hair form,
367.
Jutas crania, described, 232.
Jutes, described, 209-10; origin, 333; in
British Isles, 372.
Jutland, dolichocephaly in, 123.
Kabardine, distribution, 631, map; racial
characteristics, 633.
Kabyles, language, 467; distribution, 476;
racial characteristics, 477-79; com-
pared with Canarians, 488; til., Plate
21, fig. 4; Nordic, ill., Plate 30,fig. 6.
Kafirs, placed, 417; racial characteristics,
420.
Kainsulaiset: see Kvaens.
Kalmucks, appearance in Russia, 577;
racial characteristics, 583; distribution,
631, map; in Turkestan, 635.
Kammkeramik culture, people described,
351; placed, 360; in Poland, 564.
Kanam, mandible described, 22 ; in racial
classification, 290, chart.
Kanjera crania, described, 22-23; com-
pared with Gamble's Cave, 44; in
racial classification, 290, chart.
Kansu, painted pottery, 105.
Kara Kalpaks, identified, 635.
Karagas, identified, 306.
Karaite Jews, racial characteristics, 641,
642.
Karduchoi, identified, 421.
SUBJECT INDEX
725
Kashgaria, survival of Iranian language,
198; Iranians in, 227.
Kassimov Tatars, described, 582.
Kaufertsberg cranium, described, 66, 67;
tooth knocking in, 68.
Kebara skeletons, described, 62.
Keltic speech, classified, 1 79.
Kelts, distribution in Iron Age, 176-77,
chart; expansion in Iron Age, 181; dis-
cussed, 186-93; compared with Scyths,
199, with Iron Age Danes, 203, with
Anglo-Saxons, 209, with Bajuvars, 212,
with Alemanni, 212, with Franks, 214—
15, with Wends, 219; classified, 292-93;
in Iceland, 324; invasion of British
Isles, 371-72; in Ireland, 377, 383;
probable physical appearance, 384; im-
portance in Great Britian, 384, 399;
pigmentation, 389; in Spain, 490; in
Portugal, 495; in France, 512, 519; in
Belgium, 524; in Germany, 536; in
Italy, 554; and Slovenes, 587.
Kenya, stature, 255; crania described,
445.
Keuperfranken, racial characteristics,
542-43.
Kharejites, compared with Ganarians,
488.
Khargans, racial characteristics, 46—62;
ill., Plate 21, fig. 1.
Khazars, relation to Jews, 436; in Crimea,
582.
Khoi-San: see Bushmen.
Kiel Harbor crania, described, 74; placed,
123.
Kiev Government, crania, 136, 200;
breaking up of Kazars, 436; Ukrainians
in, 571.
Kilgreany cranium, placed, 112.
Kipchaks, identified, 635.
Kirghiz, origin, 239; relation tp Turko-
mans, 424; racial characteristics, 579—
82; distribution, 631, map.
Kirkuk crania, placed, 88.
Kish crania, described, 86, 88.
Kizilbashes, identified, 618.
Knossus, frescoes, 142.
Kokui cranium, described, 126.
Koreans, classified, 237.
Kremlin crania, described, 573.
Krimchaks, racial characteristics, 641.
Kumans, placed, 229; in Hungary and
Russia, 234; element in Magyars,
584.
Kupinovo cranium, placed, 190.
Kurdistan, Jews in, 641.
Kurds, racial characteristics, 255, 264,
421-22; in Iran, 416; in Rumania,
612; distribution, 631, map; UL, Plate
18, Jfe. 2.
Kurgans, Neolithic remains described,
102-03; compared with Danubian,
106.
Kurland, Letts in, 340; Baltic Finns in,
351.
Kurs, speech, 360; pigmentation, 363;
described, 365.
Kuwaitis, racial characteristics, 413-14.
Kvaens, identified, 301; element in Nor-
way, 319-20, in Sweden, 328; speech
and racial characteristics, 356, 357. '
Kymric, in Great Britain, 371; distribu-
tion, 373; crania described, 376; in
Wales, 387.
Laaland, brachycephaly in, 123.
La Chapelle aux Saints, man recon-
structed, ill., 35; cranial measurements,
37; cranium, til., 53, fig. 7.
Ladin dialect, origin, 213; distribution,
548; in Tyrol, 552.
Ladino, origin, 437.
Ladogan, crania described, 125—26, 360;
Mesolithic survivals, 226; classified,
289, 290; survivors in Europe, 291-92;
element in Poland, 564, 566, 567, in
White Russians, 568, in Ukrainians,
570; type, ill., Plate 2, figs. 1-4.
Lake Dwelling culture, movements traced,
80-81, map 2; described, 113-15.
Landnambok, described, 323, 324.
Langeland, dolichocephaly in, 123.
Language, as foundation of study of race,
174-82; Indo-European, 178-82; Kel-
tic, 186; Italic, 193; Germanic, 203,
205; Frankish, 214; of Slavs, 216;
Finno-Ugrian, 223, 337-39; Turks,
228-29; Magyars, 233; Uralic and
Altaic-speakers, 236—40; European dis-
tribution of, 338, map; Lapps, 300;
Samoyed, 306; Finnish in Sweden, 328;
Bulgarians, 341; Votiak, 347; Letts and
Lithuanians, 360-61; Scotland, 372;
Wales, 373, 387, 399; Cornwall, 373;
Aran Isles, 379; Gaelic, 387; Mediter-
raneans in Arabia, 403; Iranian and
sub-groups, 416; Kafirs, 417; Baluchis
and Brahui, 430-31; Khazars, 436;
Ladino and Yiddish, 437; Agau, 438;
Hamitic and Semitic in E. Africa, 445;
E. African Hamitic area, 446, map;
Coptic, 458; in N. Africa, 462-63, 467;
726
SUBJECT INDEX
Ghomara and Senhaja Sghir, 483;
Sassari, 500; Sardinia, 500; Basques,
501-02; Gypsy, 504-05; in France,
512; Cornish in Brittany, 514; Flemish,
524; Netherlands, 529-30; Frisian,
529-30, 533; spread of German, 537;
Switzerland, 548; Austria, 550; dis-
tribution in E. -central Europe and
Balkans, 561, map; Ruthenians, 571;
Altaic speakers in Russia, 577; Bashkirs
and Meshcheryaks, 578; Magyar, 584;
Albanian, 597; Serbs, 609; in Dacia,
613; Vlachs, 613; Assyrians, 630; Cau-
casians, 631; Karaite Jews, 641.
Langue d'Oc, in France, 512.
Lappanoid, in Czckanowski's system, 288,
289.
Lappish, classified, 292; geographic dis-
tribution, 294-95, map.
Lapps, classified, 223, 289, 290; racial
characteristics, 261, 266, 269, 298-
306; in Deniker's system, 281; in von
Eickstedt's system, 287, 289; in Czck-
anowski's system, 289; element in Nor-
way, 319-20; language distribution in
Europe, 338, map; til. , Plate \,figs. 1-6.
La Tene culture, in central Europe, 181;
compared with Hallstatt, 187; Bo-
hemia, 189; in France, 190; crania com-
pared with Roman, 1 94.
Latin language, classified, 193; in France,
214, 512; in Walloon country, 524.
Latvia, Mesolithic survivals, 226; Baltic
Finns in, 340, 351; Livs in, 352.
Latvians: see Letts.
Laugcrie Basse cranium, as Crd-Magnon,
48-49.
Lausitz culture, described, 188.
Lautsch cranium, described, 36.
Lebanese, racial characteristics, 261, 623 ~
24; Dinaric, ill., Plate 41, fig. 2.
Leg length: see Body form.
Le Moustier cranium, measurements,
37.
Lenja people, racial characteristics, 414-
15.
Le Placard cranium, as Cr6-Magnon, 49.
Lesghians, distribution, 631, map.
Letgali: see Letts.
Letts, racial characteristics, 257, 360-66;
influence on Lapps, 300; migration,
340. See also Latvia.
Levalloiso-Moustcrian, crania, ill., 53,
Jigs. 7, 8.
L'Homme Mort crania, described, 116.
Libico Berber language, classified, 445.
Libyans, ancient, described, 464; ill., 464,
fig. 38; racial characteristics, 468-71.
Ligurians, crania described, 101; distribu-
tion in Iron Age, 176—77, chart; speech
classified, 179; as Indo-European, 180;
placed, 195.
Lincoln, Roman burials in, 195.
Lithuania, language distribution, 561,
map; Jews in, 642.
Lithuanians, influence on Lapps, 300;
racial characteristics, 360—61; 365—68;
Tatars, study of, 367-68; in Poland,
563; compared with White Russians,
568; i//., Plate 7, fig. 3; Plate 2%, fig. 4.
Litorina Sea, formation of, 63; Erteb^lle
culture on, 72.
Littoral European, in Deniker's system,
281, 282; in Czekanowski's system,
288.
Livonia, Letts in, 340; Baltic Finns in,
351.
Livs, language distribution in Europe,
338, map; language stock, 339, chart;
racial characteristics, 352—53; com-
pared with Esths, 354.
Lombards, described, 213.
Long Barrow men, cranium, ill., 55, fig.
14; described, 110—13; compared with
French Neolithic, 116; relation to Dan-
ish Neolithic, 122; compared with
Bronze Age Trojans, 137, with Bell
Beaker, 158; survival in Wales, 397;
survival, ill., Plate 23, fig. 3.
Long-heads: see Dolichocephaly.
Lorraine crania, placed, 191.
Los Millares culture, in Copper Age
Spain, 148.
Low German, classified, 524.
Lower Austria, racial characteristics,
551-52.
Lozere crania, described, 116.
Luma, classified, 595; distribution, 596,
map; racial characteristics, 597.
Lur, ill., Plate 18, fig. 1.
Luristan crania, described, 86-87; pig-
mentation, 272.
Luxemburg, racial study of, 527.
Lydia, Etruscan homeland, 154; lan-
guage, placed, 175.
Lyds: see Ijores.
"Lyngby" antler axe, appearance of, 71;
culture, Maglemose derived from, 72.
MacArthur cave crania, described, 75;
compared with Iron Age Norwegians,
204; placed, 370.
SUBJECT INDEX
727
Macedonia, route of Neolithic into, 101;
Serbs in, 589; Vlachs in, 614; Osmanli
Turks in, 622.
Macedonian Vlachs, racial characteris-
tics, 616.
Magdalenians culture, described, 46-48;
crania described, 47-49; survival into
Mesolithic, 57, 65; compared with
Teviec, 65, with Lapps, 298.
Magiabra people, racial characteristics,
469-70.
Maglemose culture, derivations, 71-72;
and Erteb011e, 72; skeletal finds, 72-74;
in Scotland, 75; compared with Neo-
lithic forest dwellers, 125.
Magyars, origin, 223, 341; entry into
Hungary, 224; early, described, 233-
34; language distribution in Europe,
338, map; Bolgars and, 341 ; relationship
to Ostiaks and Voguls, 350; number
in Czechoslovakia, 559; racial charac-
teristics, 584-86; in Yugoslavia, 587;
in Rumania, 612; ill., Plate 2, fig. 1;
ill., Plate 14, fig. 1; Dinaric, ill., Plate
37,^.4.
Mahra, language, 403; Veddoids among,
425-26; racial characteristics, 427.
Maklacheievka crania, placed, 224.
Malay, influence among Yemenis, 408;
in Hadhramaut, 427.
Mallorca, Bronze Age in, 152.
Malsia e Madhe, identified, 595; dis-
tribution, 596, map; racial characteris-
tics, 597, 598, 599, 600; ill., Plate 39,
fig. 3, Plate 8, figs. 4, 6.
Malsia Jakoves, classified, 595; distribu-
tion, 596, map; racial characteristics,
597, 599, 600, 601.
Malta, Bronze Age in, 147.
Marabutic tribes, racial characteristics,
470.
Mariupol, Neolithic remains,, 103; com-
pared with Alishar, 136.
Mas d'Azil remains, described, 66.
Masai, compared with Oldoway, 45.
Mashausha, described, 464.
Masmuda: see Ghomara.
Massagetae, placed, 196.
Mati, classified, 595; distribution, 596,
map; racial characteristics, 597.
Maualy, identified, 623.
Maxyces: see Mashausha.
Measurements, cranial: see Cranial meas-
urements.
Measurements, nasal: see Facial character-
istics.
Mechta el 'Arbi crania, described, 59-60.
Mediterranean race, basic stock described,
2-3; origins, 46; in post-glacial period,
57; mixture with African Mesolithic
man, 60; Natufians basic type of, 62;
and Neolithic, 82-86, 98, 100, 104,
114, 116, 118, 127; defined, 83; char-
acteristics outlined, 84; relation to
Fayum, 94; in N. forests, 126; in Cop-
per and Bronze Age, 139, 141, 142, 144,
146-52; languages in Iron Age, 175;
distribution in Iron Age, 176-77,
chart; compared with early Finns, 225;
Finno-Ugrians as, 226 ; racial character-
istics, 254, 255, 257, 268, 278; in Deni-
ker's classification, 281, 283; in Ripley's
classification, 284; in von Eickstedt's
system, 287; classified, 289, 290, 292,
293; geographic distribution, 294-95,
map; survival in Great Britain, 384,
398, 399; element in Scotland, 388;
racial study as whole, 40O-509; sig-
nificance, 511; element in France, 521,
522; in Germany, 535, in Switzerland,
549, in Italy, 554-59, in Poland, 567,
in White Russians, 568, in Great Rus-
sians, 576, in Binaries, 601, in Bul-
garians, 611, in Osmanli Turks, 619,
621, in Syrian Bedawin, 623, in Leba-
nese, 624, in Armenoids, 629, in Assyri-
ans, 630, in Ossetes, 632, in Tajiks,
638, in Turkestan Jews, 640, in Ash-
kenazim, 645; results of Alpine blend
with, 647; expansion and survival, 650-
52; in Arabia, ill., Plate 16, figs. 1-6;
long-faced Western Asiatic Highlands,
ill, Plate 17, figs. 1-5; Irano- Afghans,
ill, Plate 18, figs. 1-8; dark-skinned,
ill., Plate 19, figs. 2, 3; N. Africa, ill.,
Plate 21, figs. 1-6; S. Europe, ill.,
Plate 22, figs. 1-4; in Great Britain, ill.,
Plate 25, figs. 1-4; Pontic, ill., Plate 26,
figs. 1-4.
Megalithic culture, movements traced,
80-81, map 2, 128; characteristics, 85;
in N. Africa, 99; as bringers of Neolithic
to British Isles, 110; in Scandinavia,
122-23; in Copper Age Sicily, 147; re-
lation to Copper Age Spanish crania,
149; among Basques, 152; in Scots
Bronze Age, 160; distribution in Iron
Age, 176-77, chart; stature survival,
254; invasions of Sweden, 327; concen-
tration in Denmark, 335; in British
Isles, 371, 377, 383, 397; pigmentation,
384; in Spain, 490; in France, 511.
728
SUBJECT INDEX
Megiddo crania, described, 137-38.
Melilla cranium, placed, 153.
Mendelism, as applied to man, 4-6.
Mendonck, racial study of people of, 528.
Menes, and dynastic tradition, 95; placed,
141.
Menghin, movements traced, 80-81,
map 2.
Merians, language stock, 339, chart;
placed, 340.
Merimdians, culture placed, 93; com-
pared with Badarians, 94; with N.
Africans, 99, with Danubians, 105, with
Windmill Hill, 110.
Merovingian Franks, described, 215.
Meshcheryaks, classified, 577; racial char-
acteristics, 578.
Mesocephaly: see Cephalic index, Cranial
measurements.
Mesolithic period, crania in, 14, til.,
52, Jig. 6, 54, fig. 11, 55, fig. 13; discussed,
56-77; geography of N. W. Europe,
71, map 6; compared with Neolithic,
127; survival in far north, 226; sur-
vivors in Europe, 291 ; in British Isles,
379-80; remains in Africa, 445, 467;
survival in France, 518.
Mesopotamia, Neolithic remains in, 87-
91; facial types, ill., 89, figs. 17-20; use
of metal, 131—32; invasion by Huns,
228; racial study of Arabic-speaking
peoples, 411-13; Jews in, 438, 442-43.
See also Sumeria.
Metalsa, identified, 480.
Michelsberg culture, identified, 535.
Microlithic tools, introduction of, 56.
Miesbachers, racial characteristics, 545.
Migrations, as selective factor, 7—9;
Bronze Age, 135, 152, 154, 170-71,
221; Iron Age, 181; Keltic, 187, 371-
72; Germanic, 202, 327, 536-37;
Frankish, 214; Slavic, 217; Finnish, 217,
224, 328 ; Danubian, 221 ; Iranians, 227,
238; Turks and Mongols, 228-29;
Magyar to Hungary, 233; Finno-
Ugrian, 236; Viking, 323; Danish, 333;
Baltic, 360; Jewish, 435-47; Berber,
463; Arab, in N. Africa, 466-67; Gyp-
sies, 504; in Balkans, 589; Vlach, 614;
Turkish nomads, 618.
Milesians, identified, 372.
Minoans, crania described, 141; in
Bronze Age Greece, 144; art compared
with Greek, 146.
Minorca crania, described, 149; Bronze
Age in, 152,
Minussinsk crania, described, 169-70;
compared with Scyths, 199, with Fin-
nish, 225, with non-Mongoloid Avars,
232; relation to Finno-Ugrians, 236.
Mirdita, classified, 595; distribution, 596,
map.
Mitwali, racial characteristics, 623.
Moabites, identified, 434.
Mohmands, identified, 417; ill., Plate 18,
fig. 4.
Moldavians, racial characteristics, 261,
612-13.
Mongoloid, derivation of, 2; as race, 5;
Neolithic, in N. forests, 126; Scythians
as, 196; and Germanic type, 213;
features, 278; in Deniker's system, 281;
classified, 290-91; geographic distribu-
tion, 294-95, map; element in Lapps,
298, 300, 305, in Samoyeds, 306-07, in
Carelians, 344, in Mordvins and Chere-
misses, 347, in Ostiaks and Voguls, 350,
in Lithuania, 361-62, in Turkomans,
424, in Hadhramaut, 427, in France,
522, in Russians, 572, 573, 575, in
Magyars, 586, in Turks, 620—21, in
Tajiks, 638; tlL, Plate 3, figs. 1-6.
Mongols, Bronze Age migrations, 135;
living habits compared with Scyths,
196-97; in Iron Age, 227; discussed,
227-36; language, 236; classified, 237;
language distribution in Europe, 338,
map; in Babylon, 435; in Russia, 572;
of European Russia, racial study of,
576-84; in Turkestan, 634.
Montardit skeletons, described, 66.
Montenegrins, classified, 587; racial char-
acteristics, 266, 279, 591-95; ill.,
Plate 8, figs. 2, 3; Dinaric, ill., Plate 38,
fig- 4.
Montenegro, Illyrians in, 185; Slavic in-
vasion, 217; Ghegs in, 598.
Moorfields crania, described, 375.
Moors, in Spain, 490—91 ; racial charac-
teristics, 494-95.
Moravia, Neolithic invasions, 82, 101;
Danubian settlers in, 104; Bronze Age
in, 162.
Mordvins, crania classified, 225; language
distribution in Europe, 338, map; lan-
guage stock, 339, chart; placed, 340;
Bolgars and, 341 ; racial characteristics,
342, 345-47; compared with Great
Russians, 575, with Chuvash, 577.
Morocco, racial study of, 480-84.
Mount of Olives crania, placed,
138.
SUBJECT INDEX
729
Mousterians, described, 26-28; culture,
39.
Muge skeletons, described, 63-64; cra-
nium, ill., 55, fig. 13; compared with
Radeyef and Tibessa, 98, with Al-
gerians, 99, with Chamblandes, 115;
element in Portugal, 498; survival in
Italy, 558.
Mullerp finds, described, 73.
Mummification, as basis of study of soft
parts, 85.
Muroma, language stock, 339, chart;
placed, 340.
Murzak Koba skeletons, described, 68-
69; compared with Zizernakaberd, 102.
Mycenae crania, described, 1 44.
Mythology, Norse, as aid to racial study,
321-22.
Mzabites, language, 467; racial character-
istics, 475.
Naqada people, described, 95-96; com-
pared with Ticuso, 100, with Minoan,
141.
Narbonne cranium, described, 149.
Nasal index: see Facial characteristics.
Nasal measurements: see Facial measure-
ments.
NaSili -speakers, in Asia Minor, 135; un-
known origin, 180.
Nasion, difficulties in locating, 243,
' 244.
Natufians, described, 61-62; compared
with Muge midden dwellers, 64; rela-
tionship with Ofnets, 68.
Neanderthal man, burials, 14; disappear-
ance of, 17; in fourth glaciation, 20;
as non-sapiens, 23—25; in modern dress,
ill., 24; hybrids, 25-28; ill., 35; com-
pared with Afalou, 42; mixture with
sapiens, 51; and derivatives, ill., 53, 54,
figs. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12; in racial classi-
fication, 290, chart.
Negritos, relation to Veddoids, 430.
Negro, as race, 5; as homo sapiens, 34;
European influence, 296; in Hadhra-
maut, 426; in Hamitic territory, 447-
48; in Egypt, 459.
Negroid characteristics, in Mediterra-
nean, 85; Badarian, 95; in Cham-
blandes, 115; element in Mesolithic
E. Africa, 445; characteristics among
E. African Hamites, 451, 452-53, 454-
55, 456-58; element in Egypt, 461, in
N. Africa, 466, among Tuareg, 471-72,
in Senhaja Sghir, 483, in Portugal, 498,
in Mediterranean races, 508-509, ilL,
Plate 20, figs. 1-5.
Nejdis, placed, 401; lack of information
of, 410; slaves, 426.
Neo-Danubians, classified, 292; .geo-
graphic distribution, 294-95, map;
E. Finns as, 345; ancestors of Baltic
Finns, 351; element in Poland, 567,
in White Russians, 568, in Ukrainians,
570, in Magyars, 585, 586, in Slovenes,
588, in Bulgars, 611, 612, in Vlachs,
617; ill., Plate 31, figs. 1-4.
Neolithic period, crania, 14; cranium ill.,
54, figs. 12-15; defined, 78; discussed,
78—130; movements and chronology,
80—81, map 2; in Swedish Bronze Age,
166; language unknown, 178; survival
in British Iron Age, 192; stature sur-
vival, 255; in British Isles, 370-71, 395;
economy origin, 444; survival in
Africa, 445, 467; in Canary Islands,
485; in Sardinia and Corsica, 501; in
France, 511, 515; in Belgium, 525; sur-
vival among Walloons, 527; in Nether-
lands, 530; in Germany, 535.
Netherlanders, in London, 375; racial
characteristics, 529-35; Upper Palaeo-
lithic Nordic, ill., Plate 33, fig. 1;
Nordic blend, ill., Plate 34, fig. 1; Di-
naric, ill., Plate 36, fig. 2. See also
Holland.
Neufchatel, Lake, Lake Dwelling culture,
113.
Nicopol, Scythian burials, 197.
Nikitsch crania, described, 213.
Nogai Tatars, distribution, 583, 631, map.
Nordics, movements traced, 80-81, map 2;
relation to Mediterraneans, 83; popular
definition, 83; type in Bronze Age Bo-
hemia, 164; distribution in Iron Age,
176-77, chart; Hallstatt people as, 183;
Reihengraber people as, 183; deriva-
tions, 183; relation to German Kelts,
189; Scythians as, 199; blend with
Armenian, 201 ; Goths as, 206; Visigoths
as, 206; Germanic peoples as 207, 208,
213, 215-16; defined, 208; Slavs as, 218,
220; and Indo-Europeans, 222; origins,
238; racial characteristics, 254, 257,
265, 276, 278, 331, 409; name coined,
280; in Deniker's system, 282, 283; in
Sergi's classification, 284; in von Eick-
stedt's system, 287, 288; in Czekanow-
ski's system, 288; classified, 292-93; geo-
graphic distribution, 294-95, map; in
Norway, 307-23; element in Lapps,
730
SUBJECT INDEX
301; Asiatic, and Samoyed, 307; in
Sweden, 329; Danes as, 335; types
among Letts, 365 ; Irish as, 378 ; element
in Great Britain, 384, 394, in Canary
Islands, 386, in Yemenis, 409, in Kafirs,
420, in Riffians, 483, in Spain, 491, in
France, 520, 521, 522, in Belgium, 525,
in Flemings, 529, in Netherlands, 532,
534, 535, in Germany, 536, 537, 538,
539, 541, 542, 544-45, 546, 547, in
Switzerland, 548, 549, 550, 551, in
Austria, 551, in Italy, 554, 556, 558,
559, in Slavs, 559, in Wends, 562, in
Poland, 564, 566, 567, in White Rus-
sians, 568, in Ukrainians, 570; in
Great Russians, 576, in Kirghiz, 580,
in Magyars, 586, in Albanians, 601, in
Bulgars, 611, 612, in Vlachs, 614, in
Armenians, 629, in Ossetes, 632; com-
pared with Shawia, 477; discussion of
N, African, 488-89; Corded type, ill.,
Plate 27, figs. 1-4; Danubians, ill.,
Plate 28, Jigs. 1-4; Hallstatts and Kelts,
ill., Plate 29, figs. 1-6; exotic, ill.,
Plate 30, figs. 1-6; Upper Palaeolithic
type, ill., Plate 32, figs. 1-4; Plate 33,
figs. 1-4; Borreby and Alpine blends,
ill., Plate 34, figs. 1-4.
Noric, classified, 293; geographic distribu-
tion, 294-95, map; element in Germany,
543, 544, 546, 547, in Austria, 551-52,
in Czechs, 562, in Ukrainians, 571, in
Great Russians, 576, in Magyars, 586,
in Albania, 601,
Normandy, racial characteristics in,
516.
Normans, in British Isles, 373; racial char-
acteristics, 519.
. North America, glaciation and, 19. See
also America.
North, races of the, fully described, 297-
369.
Northern Forest people, distribution in
Iron Age, 176-77, chart.
Northwestern race, in Czekanowski's sys-
tem, 288.
Norway, Germanic expansion in, 181,
202; Christianity adopted, 202; Iron
Age in, 204-05; Lapps in, 299, 300-
01, 302, 303, 304.
Norwegians, Iron Age crania compared
with W. Germanics, 207; racial char-
acteristics, 261, 265, 268, 273, 276,
307-23; settlers in Iceland, 324; com-
pared with Icelandics, 325; in British
Isles, 373; in France, 512, 516; Brunn
type, ill., Plate 4, fig. 3; Danubian, ill.,
Plate 28, fig. 1; Hallstatt type, ill.,
Plate 29, fig. 1; Upper Palaeolithic
Nordic, ill., Plate 32, figs. 1-3.
Nosairi: see Alawaya.
Novilara cemetery, contents described,
195.
Oases, races and, 460-62, 468-71; Ber-
bers, 474, 475; Kharejites, 475-76.
Oban man, described, 75-76.
Obercassel cranium, compared with
Afalou, 41; described, 47; compared
with Chou Kou Tien, 50, with Pritzer-
ber, 74, with Lapps, 298.
Oberrotweil crania, described, 212.
Ob-Ugrians, language stock, 339, chart.
Ofnet crania, described, 66—68; entrance
to N. Europe, 72; compared with Plan,
Domitz, Spandau, 74, with Neolithic
Alpine, 118, with Scandinavian Neo-
lithic brachycephals, 124; as origin of
Alpine brachycephals, 119; as large
brachycephals, 265; survivors in Eu-
rope, 291.
Oldoway cranium described, 44-46.
Omanis, described, 414.
Onas, resemblance to Upper Palaeolithic
man, 32; crania, 32—33.
Oranian culture, described, 39—41; in
Spain, 47; cranium, ill., 54, fig. 10.
Oriental Jews, racial study, 639-42.
Orkneys, pigmentation, 388, 389.
Oromo, identified, 447.
Oscan language, classified, 193; origin,
554.
Osmanli Turks, conquests, 229; origin,
239, 240; racial characteristics, 617-20;
distribution, 631, map.
Ossetes, origin and language, 196; Alans
survived as, 197; cranial type, 200; dis-
tribution, 631, map; racial characteris-
tics, 632; language identified, 416,
map.
Osteology, materials and techniques,
12-15.
Osterdal type, classified, 293.
Osteuropoids, in von Eickstedt's system,
288.
Ostiaks, compared with Finns, 125; classi-
fied, 223; migration, 224; origin, 234;
racial characteristics, 272, 350-51;
language stock, 339, chart; relation to
Magyars, 341; ill., Plate 2, figs. 2, 3.
Ostrobothnia crania, described, 355.
Ostrogoths, defeated by Huns, 228.
SUBJECT INDEX
731
Painted people, movements traced, 80-
81, map 2; described, 105.
Palaeasiatics, relation to Huns, 231.
Palaeolithic period, crania in, 14; man
discussed, 28-50; survivals in N. W.,
69-76; characteristics outlined, 84;
British, relation to Long Barrow, 112;
compared with Neolithic, 127; survival
in Esthonia, 168; long-heads, distribu-
tion in Iron Age, 176-77, chart; speech
unknown, 178; compared with Iron
Age Norwegians, 204; survival in racial
characteristics, 254, 261, 265, 267, 276;
survivals in Europe, 291; in Norway,
319, in Ireland, 377, 383, in Mediter-
ranean races, 509, in Netherlands, 532,
534, in Montenegrins, 592, 594, 595, in
Osmanli Turks, 621; as basis of Nordic,
Indo-Europeans, 286; in Lapp ances-
try, 305 ; probable physical appearance,
383—84; origin of Alpines, 647; sur-
vivals in Ireland, ill., Plate 9, figs. 1-7,
in Morocco, ill., Plate 10, Jigs. 1—7;
Nordic blend, ill., Plate 32, figs. 1-4.
See also Aurignacians, Magdalenians.
Palestine, Natufians of, 61-62; Bronze
Age, 137—38, 141; history and races,
432-34; Jews in modern, 439.
Pamirs, glaciation and, 19.
Papuans, hybrid origin, 602.
Parisii, placed, 192.
Patema site, people described, 142.
Pathans, identified, 417; study of racial
characteristics, 419-20.
Peia, classified, 595; distribution, 596,
map.
Peking man, separation from homo sapiens,
1.
Permiaks, language distribution in Eu-
rope, 338, map; language stock, 399,
chart; racial characteristics, 348-49.
Permian Finns, placed, 225; language
stock, 339, chart; racial characteristics,
342, 347-50.
Persepolis, Neolithic finds, 86.
Persian Empire, founding, 180-81.
Persians, mention of Slavs in writings of,
218; racial characteristics, 418; Jews
and, 435, 438; relation to Libyans,
465; in Spain, 490; in Turkestan, 635;
ill., Plate IS, figs. 3, 8. See also Iranians.
Petchenegs, placed, 229; influence on
Magyars, 233; in Hungary and Russia,
234.
Philistines, Indo-European and, 180;
described, 432-34; ill,, 433, /fc. 33.
Phoenicians, Bronze Age, 152, 153; in
Cornwall, 396; and Jews, 438; in
Spain, 490.
Phoenix Park crania, placed, 112.
Piceni, placed, 195.
Picts, language, 187; in Scotland, 372.
Pigmentation, difficulties in technical
estimate, 244-45; correlations, 250;
geographic distribution, 269-73, 270-
71, map; biology of, 273-77; blondism,
cause of, 273-74; hair color, causes of
274-75; rufosity, causes of, 274-75; of
iris, causes of, 275. Neolithic: in Egypt,
98. Bronze Age: Minoan, 141; Greeks,
145-46; Carthaginian, 153; Danish,
167; Minussinsk, 170. Iron Age: Illyri-
ans, 185-86; Keltic, 192; early Roman,
194; Scyths, Sarmatians, Alans, 198;
Norwegian, 205; W. Germanics, 207-
08; Slavs, 218; Huns, 231; Avars, 231,
232; Huing-Nu, 232. North: Lapps,
301-02; Samoyed, 307; Norway, 310-
11, 314, 316, 317, 318, 319; Iceland,
324, 325-26; Sweden, 330-31; Den-
mark, 334-35; Carelians, 342-43;
Vepses, 345; Mordvins and Cheremis-
ses, 346; Votiak, 347-48; Syryenians
and Permiaks, 349; Ostiaks and Voguls,
350; Livs, 353; Esths, 354; Runo
Swedes, 354; Finns, 358-59; Letts, 363;
Lithuanians, 366; Lithuanian Tatar,
367-68. British Isles: Irish, 380-81,
384; Aran Isles, 381; Kelts, 384; Great
Britain, 385-90; Orkneys and Shet-
lands, 388, 389; Welsh, 385, 387, 389,
390-91; Scots, 385, 387-88, 389;
British, correlation with stature and
cranial measurements, 395-98. Medi-
terranean: Yemenis, 404, 405; Hejaz,
409; Mesopotamians, 412; Kuwaitis,
413, 414; Lenja, 414-15; Persian, 418;
Afghans and Pathans, 420; Kafirs, 420;
Pushtus, 420; Dardic-speakers, 421;
Kurds, 421; Turkomans, 423; Azer-
baijanis, 425; Hadhramis, 428, 429;
Baluchis and Brahui, 431; Samaritans,
439; Yemenite Jews, 440; Mesopota-
mian Jews, 442, 443 ; E. African Hamites,
452-53, 454, 457-58; Khargan, 461;
modern Egyptians, 460; Siwans arid
Awjila people, 469; Arabo-Berbers, 470;
Tuareg, 472-73; Mzabites, 475;
Shawia, 477; Kabyles, 478; Riffians,
481-82; Shluh, 484; Guanche, 485;
Canarians, 487; Spaniards, 491,, 492,
493-94; Andalusian, 493; Spanish
732
SUBJECT INDEX
Moors, 495; Portugal, 496, 497; Corsi-
cans, 499; Sardinians, 500; Basques,
502; Gypsies, 506; Mediterranean races
as whole, 507, 508. Central ^one:
French, 518-20, 521; Belgians, 528;
Netherlands, 532; Frisian, 534; Ger-
mans, 540; Fehmarn Germans, 541;
Vogelberg Germans, 542; Keuper-
franken Germans, 543; Miesbacher
Germans, 545; Sudeten Germans, 546;
Swiss, 550; Lower and Upper Austria,
551; Tyrol, 553; Italians, 555, 557, 558;
Czechs, 562; Poles, 566, 567; White
Russians, 568; Volhyn Ukrainians, 570;
Ruthenians, 572; Great Russians, 574,
575; Chuvash, 577; Bashkirs, 579;
Meshcheryaks, 579; Kirghiz, 580; Rus-
sian Tatars, 582; Crimean Tatars, 583;
Kalmucks, 583; Slovenes, 588; Croats,
588; Serbs, 590; Bosnians, 591; Dal-
matians, 591; Montenegrins, 592—93;
Albanian Ghegs, 598-99; Greeks, 605-
06; Cretans, 608; Bulgars, 611; Vlachs,
615, 616, 617; Osmanli Turks, 620, 621,
622; Lebanese, 624; Cypriots, 625;
Armenians, 627-28; Ossetes, 632; Cau-
casic-speakers, 633; Tajiks, 637; Tur-
kestan Jews, 640; Caucasus Jews, 641;
Karaite Jews, 642; Ashkenazim Jews,
644.
Pile Dwelling race, in Czekanowski's
system, 288, 289.
Pilous system: see Hair form
Piltdown, in racial classification, 290,
chart; placed, 370.
P-Italic, described, 193.
Pithecanthropus, discussed, 23.
P-Keltic, described, 186-87.
Plau crania, described, 74; placed, 123.
Pleistocene period defined, 1; levels of,
18; climate of, 19-20; in British Isles,
370.
Podrima, classified, 595; distribution 596,
map.
Poland, as route of Neolithic, 101; Neo-
lithic remains, 102, 103; brachycephaly
in Neolithic, 124; Bell Beaker in, 156;
Bronze Age, 168; Slavs in, 216, 218;
Jews in, 437, 642.
Poles, selection among emigrants, 7-8;
racial characteristics, 261, 265, 276,
563-68; language distribution, 561,
map; ill., Plate 7, Jig. 3; Plate 26, fig. 3;
Upper Palaeolithic Nordic, ill., Plate
33,/£. 4; Dinaric, ill., Plate 35, fig. 3.
Polianki crania, placed, 224.
Pollen analysis, use of, 74.
Polon crania, placed, 225.
Pompeiian crania, described, 555.
Pontic, defined, 617.
Population, increase, 17-18, 79; defined,
31; Lapps, 299; Samoyed, 306; 16th
century Finnmark, 320; Norway, 320;
Iceland, 323—24; Sweden, 326; Finnish
in Sweden, 328; Denmark, 332; Ijores
and Vodes, 339; Carelians, 342; Mord-
vin, 345; Cheremisses, 346; Votaiks,
347; Syryenians and Permiaks, 348;
Ostiaks and Voguls, 350; Livs, 352;
Tatars in Russia, 362; Lithuanians,
365; Arabia, 401; Jews in Iraq, 435-
36; Moroccan Berbers, 480; Basques,
501; Gypsies, 505; French, different
speeches, 512-13; Belgium, 522-23;
13th century Flemish, 524; Switzer-
land, 548; pre-Munich Czechoslovakia,
559-60; Chuvash, 577; Magyars, 584;
Albania, 595; Assyrians, 630; Tajiks,
634-35.
Portugal, midden dwellers of Tagus, 63—
64; Neolithic in, 99-100.
Portuguese, racial characteristics, 257,
495-98; ill., Plate 22, fig. 4; Plate 23,
fig. 3; Nordic, ill., Plate 30, fig. 4.
Pottery, Corded, 82, 107; Fayum, 93;
Solana, 100; Neolithic Danubian de-
scribed, 105; painted, Anau, Kansu,
105; combed, 125; Near Eastern in
Almeria, 148; Guanche, 485.
Povoa de Varzin, people described, 497-
98.
Prakrit, and Gypsy language, 505.
P?edmost crania, described, 36-37; com-
pared with Chancelade, 48; ill., 53,
fig. 9; as Irish ancestor, 378.
Pritzerber crania, described, 73-74.
Prizren, Slavic nucleus in, 217.
Prussians, racial characteristics, 546; ill.,
Plate 7, figs. 1,2.
Puka cranium, placed, 185; classified,
595; distribution, 596; map.
Pushtu language, distribution, 416.
Pygmy, as race, 5.
Pyrenees, glaciation and, 19.
Qara, Veddoids among, 425-26; racial
characteristics, 427.
Q-Keltic, described, 186-87.
Queensland, increase of stature in, 9-10;
changes in English stock, 45.
Questenbergers, racial characteristics,
545-46.
SUBJECT INDEX
733
Race, theory and principles of concept of,
3-12; defined, 3, 11; and culture, 174.
Redeyef crania, placed, 98.
Reihengraber people, placed, 183.
Reindeer Lapps, identified, 299.
Religion, of Indo-European speakers, 179;
Norse Iron Age, 202; conversion of
Franks, 214; conversion of Gepidae and
Vandals, 214; Magyar conversion, 233;
Ostiaks and Voguls, 341; Syryenians,
Permiaks, Votiaks, 349; Letts and
Lithuanians, 361; racial differences
and, in Ireland, 378—79; and facial
characteristics, in Ireland, 382—83;
effect on Flemish Belgium, 525; racial
differences and, in Germany, 543;
division in Switzerland, 548; as source
of division in Yugoslavia, 587; influence
on Bosnian racial characteristics, 590;
Albanians, 595; Bulgars, 610; Syria,
623; in Caucasus, 631-32.
Remedello crania, described, 193-94.
Reproduction, rate as selective factor, 6-7;
effects of discovery of, 16.
Rhaetians, survival, 213, 547; in Tyrol,
552.
Rheinzabern crania, placed, 195.
Rhodesiensis, as non-sapiens, 23.
Riffians, language, 463, 467; racial char-
acteristics, 480-83; ill., Plate 10, Jigs.
1-7; Plate 21, fig. 6; Nordic, ill., Plate
30,Jfe. 5.
Rigsthula, as aid to racial study, 321-22.
Ringabclla crania, placed, 112.
River-bed crania, described, 110.
Romanies: see Gypsies.
Romans, Iron Age, discussed, 193—95;
in British Isles, 372, 374; migration of
Jews among, 436-37; in France, 512;
in Belgium, 523-24; in Dacia, 613.
Romansch dialect, distribution, 548.
Rome, and Kelts, 187, 190; religion com-
pared with Norse, 202; settlements
pillaged by Germanics, 208; invasion
by Huns, 228.
Rothwell crania, described, 373—74, 375.
Round-head : see Brachycephaly.
Royal Scyths, described, 198.
Rufosity: see Pigmentation.
Rumania, Jews in, 642; language dis-
tribution, 561, map; Osmanli Turks,
617.
Rumanians, racial characteristics, 265,
612-17; in Bulgaria, 610; ill., Plate 26,
fig. 2; Dinaric, ill., Plate 38, fig. 2. See
also Vlachs.
Runo Island, racial study of, 354.
Russe crania, described, 155.
Russia, Neolithic movement from, 82; as
route of Neolithic, 101 ; Bronze Age in,
168-69; origin of Indo-European, 179;
Scyths in, 196; Slavs in, 219-20; Finns
and Ugri in, 223-24; Lapps in, 299;
Finnic groups in, 345-51; influence on
Lithuanian history, 361; migration of
Jews to, 436, 437; Turks, Tatars, and
Mongols in, 576—84.
Russians, influence in Copper Age Hun-
gary, 155; Great, racial study of, 254-
55, 269, 276, 572-76; White, language
distribution, 561, map; White, racial
characteristics, 368-69; in Caucasus,
distribution, 631, map; Nordic, ill.,
Plate 30, fig. 1; Dinaric, ill., Plate 38,
.&•!•
Ruthenians, in Czechoslovakia, 559; lan-
guage distribution, 561, map; racial
characteristics, 571-72; ///., Plate 8,
Jfe. 1.
Ruwalla, placed, 401; racial characteris-
tics, 410-11; identified, 623; ill., Plate
16, fig- 4; Bedawin, ill., Plate 1 9, fig. 6.
Saaftigen crania, described, 526.
Sacrifice, horse, 179; human, 197, 198.
Sahara, Mesolithic inhabitants of, 60.
Saint-Urnel en Plomeur crania, described,
165-66.
Saka, placed, 196; as drawn by Persians,
199.
Salis Roje crania, described, 126, 351, 360.
Salzburg, racial characteristics, 552.
Samaritans, racial characteristics, 439.
Samen, identified, 299.
Samogitians: see Jmouds.
Samoyeds, described, 236; language, 236;
derivation, 296; influence on Lapps,
305; racial characteristics, 306-07;
and Ostiaks, 341, 351 ; and Voguls, 341 ;
mixture with Syryenians, 349; ill.,
Plate I, fig. 7.
Sandarna finds, 73.
Sanskrit, and Gypsy language, 505.
Sao Pedro Magodouro, people described,
497.
Saracens, in Sardinia, 500.
Sardinia, Bronze Age in, 146—47.
Sardinians, relationship with Egyptians,
95; racial characteristics, 257, 500-01.
Sarmatians, origin, 196; and Scyths, 197;
crania described, 200; element in
Ukrainians, 569.
734
SUBJECT INDEX
Sorts, origin, 239; racial characteristics,
635, 636.
Satem, described, 179, 216; Lithuanians
and Letts, as speakers of, 360.
Savakot, language classified, 339.
Savoie, Bronze Age in, 165.
Savolaiset, identified, 356.
Savoyards, racial characteristics, 521.
Saxo-Thuringia, in Bronze Age, 162. See
also Saxony, Thuringia.
Saxons, in Sweden, 328; origin, 333; in
British Isles, 372, 389; in France, 512,
519; in Netherlands, 529; distribution
in Germany, 537. See also Anglo-
Saxons.
Saxony, Corded people in, 109; amber
trading route, 134; Bronze Age in, 164;
racial characteristics, 545-46.
Sayyids, described, 426, 427.
Scandinavia, glaciation and, 19; and Old
Stone Age men, 69; tanged-point and
"Lyngsby" axe in, 70-71; Megalithic
invasion, 82; Iron Age invasion, 203-
04; stature, 254; dolichocephaly in,
257. See also Individual countries.
Schleswig-Holstein crania, described, 74.
Sclaigneux crania, placed, 1 24.
Scotland, Creswellian and Maglemose in,
75; Bronze Age in, 160-61; Q-Keltic
in, 187; Danes in, 211. See also British
Isles.
Scotsmen, in Iceland, 324; in Sweden,
328; in Faroes, 336; racial characteris-
tics, 261, 265, 371, 372, 375-76, 385-
93, 395, 399; ill., Plate 12, fig. 1; Plate
24, fig. 4; Plate 25, fig. 4; Upper Palaeo-
lithic Nordic, ill., Plate 52, fig. 4.
Scyths, Bronze Age migrations, 135;
clothing, 188; racial characteristics,
195-201; ill., 198, fig. 29; compared
with Iron Age Danes, 203, with Wends,
219, with Finns, 225, with Hiung-Nu,
227; as block to Finnish expansion, 224;
relation to non-Mongoloid Avars, 232,
to Finno-Ugrians, 236; survivals, 260;
element in Ukrainians, 569; in Crimea,
582.
Sebilian culture, placed, 92.
Sedentary Lapps, identified, 299.
Seli, placed, 360.
Seljuks, conquered by Osmanlis, 229;
origin, 239; in Asia Minor, 618.
Semites, influence in Mesopotamia, 90.
Semitic, as linguistic stock, 178; in Arabia,
403; in Africa, 445; distribution in
E. Africa, 446, map.
Senhaja Sghir, origin, 463, 465-66; and
origin of Riffians, 480; distribution,
480; racial characteristics, 483.
Sephardim Jews, described, 437, 438,
443 ;i//., Plate 45, fig. 1.
Serbia, Slavic nucleus in, 217; Gypsies in,
506.
Serbs, language, 216; language distribu-
tion, 561, map; racial characteristics,
587, 588-95; in Rumania, 612; Di-
naric, ill., Plate 39, fig. 1.
Serials, list of, and abbreviations, 684-91.
Sevan crania, described, 201 .
Sex differentiation, among Skhuls, 27; in
Upper Palaeolithic group, 31; Afalou,
41, 42; in Elmenteitan, 58; in Muge
midden dwellers, 64; Ofnet crania, 67;
in Mediterraneans, 85; in Badarians,
94; in Chamblandes, 115; in modern
Europe, 256; hairiness and, 278; in
Norway, 315, 319.
Shahara, language, 403; Veddoids among,
425; racial characteristics, 427.
Shammar, placed, 401.
Shankalla, identified, 448.
Shawia, language, 467; racial character-
istics, 476-77.
Sheshawen Moors, described, 495.
Shetland Isles, brachycephaly in, 261;
pigmentation, 388, 389.
Shluh, identified, 467; distribution, 480;
racial characteristics, 484; ///., Plate 21,
>fe. 5.
"Shoe-last celt," described, 105.
Short Cist people, described, 160.
Shoulder width: see Body form.
Shuqkah skeletons, described, 62.
Siberia, glaciation and, 19; Slavic inva-
sion, 217.
Sicilians, stature, 255; ill., Plate 24, fig. 1.
Sicily, Bronze Age in, 146, 147.
Sidamos, distribution, 446; racial char-
acteristics, 449-57.
Silesia, Danubian settlers, 104; Corded
crania, 107; Bronze Age in, 162;
Hallstatt culture in, 184; brachycephaly
in, 260.
Silures, identified, 393.
Sinanthropus, discussed, 23.
Siwans, origin, 463; language, 467; racial
characteristics, 468-69.
Skane, brachycephaly in, 123.
Skeletal measurements, criteria for, 15;
Galley Hill man, 21, Skhul, 26; Upper
Palaeolithic man, 32; Grimaldi, 33-34;
Afalou, 41; Asselar man, 60; Muge
SUBJECT INDEX
735
midden dwellers, 64; TeViec, 66;
Bronze Age Cypriots, 140; Gemeinle-
barn, 163; Lapps, 303; Norway, 310.
See also Body form.
Skhul men, described, 26-28; compared
with Upper Palaeolithic group, 31, 37,
with Grimaldi, 34, with P?edmost #3,
36, with Afalou, 42; ill., 53, fig. 8; in
racial classification, 290, chart.
Skien crania, placed, 205.
Skin color: see Pigmentation.
Skoplje, Slavic nucleus in, 217.
Slash-and-burn system, effects of, 79.
Slavic speech, classified, 179.
Slavs, distribution in Iron Age, 176-77,
chart; expansion in Iron Age, 181; in
Iron Age, 216-20; eyes, 268, 278; in
Deniker's system, 283; mixture with
Samoyeds, 307; in Spain, 490; in Ger-
many, 537; Czechs and Wends, 559-
63; in Poland, 563-68; in Russia, 563,
568-76; in Hungary, 584; Serbs,
Croats, and Slovenes, 587-95; in
Greece, 604; in Bulgaria, 609-10; in
Dacia, 613.
Sleyb: see Solubbies.
Slovaks, number in Czechoslovakia, 559;
racial characteristics, 562; Dinaric, ill.,
Plate 36, fig. 4; Plate 37, fig. 1.
Slovenes, language distribution, 561, map;
racial characteristics, 587-88.
Socotrans, language, 403.
Sogn crania, described, 205.
Solana crania, described, 100.
Soloensis, as non-sapiens, 23-24.
Solubbies, described, 411; ill., Plate 16,
Jfe.5.
Solutre #2, cranial measurement, 35, 36;
brachycephaly, 39; relation to Ofnet,
68.
Solutrean culture, compared with Mag-
dalenian, 46; cranium, ill., 53, fig. 9; as
origin of Alpine brachycephals, 119.
Somalis, compared with Oldoway, 45,
with Badarians, 95, with Tuareg, 473;
identified, 426; racial characteristics,
445, 447, 449-57; ill., Plate 20, fig. 1.
Soyots, identified, 306.
Spain, Magdalenian crania, 47; Capsian
and Oranian culture in, 47; Magdale-
nian survival in, 65; Neolithic in, 82,
99-100; Copper and Bronze Age in,
146, 148-50; Bell Beakers, 157; and
Food Vessel peoples in, 162; Kelts in,
187; invasion by Visigoths, Gepidae,
Vandals, 205; migration of Jews to,
437; Zenata in, 463; and Canary
Islands, 486-87; rule over Sardinia,
500; Basques in, 501-04; Gypsies in,
505.
Spandau crania, described, 74; placed,
123.
Spaniards, racial characteristics, 257, 269,
489-95; ill., Plate 22, fig. 3; Plate 24,
fig. 2.
Spaniols: see Sephardim.
Spartans, modern resemblance to, 146.
Sphakiots, racial characteristics, 608—
09.
Spitalsfield crania, described, 374.
Split crania, placed, 185.
Spreewald crania, described, 184.
Stangenas skeleton, described, 73; com-
pared with Pritzerber, 74, with Mac-
Arthur Cave B., 75, with Iron Age
Norwegians, 204.
Stanleys, identified, 506.
Statistics, use in physical anthropology,
245-51.
Stature, increase, as environmental re-
sponse, 9-10; as measure of genetic
affinity, 28; difficulties in technique of
measuring, 242; in modern Europe,
251-55, 252-53, map; relation to
weight, 255-56, to head size, 264,
to pigmentation, 277. Pleistocene:
Combe Capellc, 34; Cr6-Magnon,
35; Upper Palaeolithic, 37, 84; Afalou,
40-41; Gamble's Cave and Oldoway,
44; Chancelade, 48; Elmenteitan, 59;
Asselar, 60; Natufians, 62; Teviec, 66;
Murzak Koba, 68; Stangenas, 73.
Neolithic: Mediterranean, 84; Mega-
lithic, 85; Corded, 85, 104, 108, 109;
Naqada, 95; Algerians, 99; Portuguese
100; Zizernaberd, 102; Kurgan, 103;
Mariupol, 103; Poland, 103; S. Russia,
103, 104; Banded, 106; Long Barrow,
111; French, 116; Alpine, 118-19;
Scandinavian, 122, 123; Alpine and
Borreby, 124. Bronze Age: Alishar, 136;
Anatolian, 137; Cypriots, 140; Mi-
noan, 141; Mid-Helladic, 144; Sicilians,
147; Corsican, 147; Italians, 147; Span-
iards, 149; Bell Beaker, 156, 158; Short
Cist, 160; Scots Food Vessel, 160; Ge-
meinlebarn, 163; Aunjetitz, 164; Dan-
ish, 167; Esthonian, 167; S. Russian,
169. Iron Age: Hallstatt, 183; Gauls,
191; British Kelt, 192; early Roman,
194; Novilara Illyrians, 195; Scyths,
200; Danes, 203; Norwegians, 204; W.
736
SUBJECT INDEX
Germanics, 207; Anglo-Saxons, 209;
Bajuvars, 211; Franks, 215; Slavs, 218;
Huns, 230; Avars, 230; early Magyars,
233. North: Lapps, 303; Samoyeds,
307; Norwegians, 309, 310, 314, 315,
317, 318, 319, 320; Icelandics, 324,
325; Swedes, 329, 331; Danes, 333, 336;
Faroe Islanders, 336; Carelians, 343;
Ijores, 345; Evremeiset and Savakot,
345; Vepses, 345; Mordvins and
Cheremisses, 346, 347; Votiak, 347; Syr-
yenians and Permiaks, 349; Ostiaks
and Voguls, 350; Livs, 352; Esths, 353;
Runo Swedes, 354; Finns, 356-57;
Letts, 362; Lithuanians, 365-66. British
Isles: fifteenth century British, 373-74;
Irish, 377, 378, 379; Aran Islanders,
379; English, 390-91; Scotsmen, 390-
91; Welsh, 390, 391; Cornish, 390;
British, correlation with pigmentation
and cranial measurements, 395-98.
Mediterraneans: Yemenis, 403; Hejaz,
409; Ruwalla, 410; Shammar, 410;
Bedawin, 410; Mesopotamians, 411—12;
Kuwaitis, 413; Omanis, 414; Lenja,
414; Persian, 418; Afghans and Pa-
thans, 419; Kafirs, 420; Dardic-speak-
ers, 420; Burushaski, 421; Kurds, 421,
422; Turkomans, 422, 424; Hadhramis,
427; Baluchis, and Brahui, 431; Samar-
itans, 439; Palestine Jews, 439; Meso-
potamian Jews, 442, 443; N. African
Jews, 443; E. African Karaites, 449-50,
457; modern Egyptians, 459; Khargans,
461; Awjila people, 468; Magiabra
people, 469; Marabutic tribes, 470;
Arabo-Berbers, 470; Tuareg, 472;
Mzabites, 475; Kharejites, 475; Al-
gerian tribesmen, 476; Kabyles, 478;
Riffians, 480; Ghomara, 483; Shluh,
484; Guanche, 486; Canarians, 487;
Spaniards, 491; Andalusians, 493; Por-
tuguese, 496, 497; Corsicans, 499;
Sardinians, 500; Basques, 502; Gyp-
sies, 506. Central gone: French, 513-15,
521; Bretons, 514; Belgians, 526-27;
Flemings and Walloons, 526; Men-
donck Belgians, 528, 529; Netherland-
ers, 532; Frisian, 533; Germans, 539-
40; Fehmarn Germans, 540; Vogelberg
Germans, 542; Keuperfranken Ger-
mans, 542; Lake Constance Germans,
543; Genkingen Germans, 544; Mies-
bacher Germans, 545; Sudeten Ger-
mans, 546; Swiss, 549; Austria, 551,
552; Tyrol, 552; Italians, 555, 556, 558;
Czechs, 562; Wends, 562; Poles, 564,
565; White Russians, 568; Volhyn
Ukrainians, 569, 570; Ruthenians, 571,
572; Great Russians, 573; Chuvash,
577; Bashkirs, 578; Meshcheryaks, 578;
Khirgiz, 579; Crimean Tatars, 583;
Kalmucks, 583; Magyars, 585; Slo-
venes, 588; Croats, 588; Serbs, 589;
Bosnians, 590; Dalmatians, 591; Mon-
tenegrins, 591, 592; Albanian Ghegs,
597; Toscs, 602; Greeks, 605, 606, 607;
Cretans, 608; Bulgars, 610; Vlachs,
614, 615, 616; Osmanli Turks, 619;
Lebanese, 623; Cypriots, 625; Ar-
menians, 626; Assyrians, 630; Tats,
632; Ossetes, 632; Tajiks, 636; Turke-
stan Jews, 639; Caucasus Jews, 641;
Karaite Jews, 642; Ashkenazim Jews,
643.
Statzendorf crania, described, 183.
Steinkjar, Lapp burials, 301.
Stellmoor, excavations, 71.
Steppe Tatars, racial characteristics, 583.
Stillfried, crania described, 164.
Stoneyisland crania, placed, 112.
Strandloopers, compared with Wiiton-
ians, 59.
Styria, Slavs in, 219.
Subnordic, in Czekanowski's system, 288.
Sudanese, distribution in E. Africa, 446,
map.
Sudeten Germans, racial characteristics,
546.
Sumerians, compared with Englishmen,
83; study through politics and language,
174; language, 175; relation to Finno-
Ugrian, 175; burials compared with
Scythians, 197; racial influence, 239.
Suomalaiset, identified, 356.
Susa, Neolithic finds, 86.
Suyun-Djadji, racial characteristics, 424.
Svaerdborg finds, described, 73.
Swanscombe man, described, 20; in ra-
cial classification, 290, chart; placed,
370.
Sweden, effect of emigration on, 8;
Ertebjrflle culture in, 72; Neolithic
crania, 122; brachycephaly in, 123;
Bronze Age in, 166-67; Germanic ex-
pansion in, 181, 202; Iron Age in, 204;
Goths, Vandals, Gepidae from, 205;
Lapps in, 299, 301, 302, 303; geog-
raphy, 308, 334; Finnish invasion of,
340; Gypsies in, 505.
Swedes, in Iceland, 324; racial character-
istics, 265, 276, 326-32; mixture, with
SUBJECT INDEX
737
Esths, 354; Runo, 354; pigmentation
compared with Finns, 358; Briinn
type, ill., Plate 4, Jigs. 1, 2, 4; Borreby
type, ill., Plate 5, fig. 2; Corded type,
ill., Plate 21 Jig. 2.
Swiss, racial characteristics, 260, 547-50;
ill., Plate 12, /£. 3; German Nordic
blend, ill., Plate 34,^. 3.
Switzerland, Neolithic in, 1 1 3—1 5 ; Bronze
Age in, 165; Urnfields culture in, 171;
Hallstatt culture in, 184; Kelts in, 191;
Alemanni in, 206, 212; West Germanics
in, 211.
Syria, origin of Binaries, 140, 173; Gyp-
sies in, 504; racial study of, 622—25.
Syriac language, identified, 630.
Syrians, racial characteristics, 151, 261,
266, 623-25; ill., Plate IS, Jigs. 1, 2;
Plate 17, Jig. 2; Dinaric, ill., Plate 41,
figs. 1, 3.
Syryenians, language distribution in
Europe, 338; Bolgars and, 341; racial
characteristics, 348-49.
Szekelers, racial characteristics, 260, 584,
585.
Tabun female, described, 26.
T aches notres, described, 514-15.
Tagus, midden dwellers of, 63-64.
Tajiks, racial characteristics, 239, 417-18,
634-39 ; compared with French Alpines,
518; ill., Plate 3, fig. 5; Plate 15, fig. 5;
Dinaric, ill., Plate 43, fig. 6.
Takhtadshy, identified, 621.
Tanganyika crania, described, 445.
Tanged -point cultures, extent, 70—71.
Tardenoisian culture, origin, 39; appear-
ance of, 56; in France, 65; relation to
Ofnet skulls, 67.
Tasian culture, described, 93.
Tasmanians, survival of, 17.
Tatars, appearance in Europe, 229;
origin, 239; and Votiak speech, 347;
influence on Volga Finns, 349; Lithu-
anian, racial characteristics, 362, 367-
68; language distribution, 561, map;
influence on Ukrainians, 569; of Euro-
pean Russia, racial study of, 572, 576-
84; in Bulgaria, 610; in Rumania, 612,
613; in Turkestan, 635.
Tats, identified, 630; distribution, 631,
map; racial characteristics, 632.
Taurondontism, described, 25.
Tavastians: see Hamalaiset.
Tebessa crania, placed, 98.
Teeth, of Galley Hill man, 22; of Nean-
derthal man, 25; modifications in, 29;
Grimaldi, 33; Afalou, 43; Pritzerber,
73.
Tehennu, described, 464.
Tehuelche, compared with Upper Palaeo-
lithic man, 32.
Telengets, crania described, 234-35.
Terremare settlements, placed, 193.
Teutonic: see Nordic.
Teuto-Nordic, in von Eickstedt's system,
288.
Teviec crania, ill., 52, fig. 6; described,
65-66; compared with Montardit, 66,
to N. Africans, 99.
Thebans, in Bronze Age Greece, 144.
Thebes, cranial material, 91.
Thessaly, Serbs in, 589.
Thracians, areas occupied by, in Iron
Age, 176-77, chart; speech classified,
179; lack of information on, 201; in
Yugoslavia, 588; described, 609-10.
Thuringia, Corded people in, 109; amber
trading route, 134; Bronze Age, 164;
Thuringians enter, 206.
Thuringians, origin, 206; described, 212-
13; distribution, 537.
Ticuso crania, described, 100.
Tigrigna language, distribution, 446,
map.
Tin, early use of, 134.
Tirana Gypsies, described, 506.
Tiszadersz crania, classified, 232.
Tokharian, speech classified, 179.
Tokol crania, described, 156.
Tonsberg crania, placed, 204—05.
Tooth-knocking, Afalou, 43; Ofnet, 68.
Topography, and race, 11.
Toscs, identified, 595; racial characteris-
tics, 602-04; ill., Plate 14, figs. 3, 4.
Trephination, Ticuso, 100.
Tronder type, defined, 292, 319; in
British Isles, 372; ill., Plate 32, figs. 3, 4.
Troy, described, 137.
Tuareg, racial characteristics, 255, 257,
471-74; origin, 463; language, 467;
ill., Plate 21, fig. 3.
Tumtu, identified, 447.
Tungus, compared with Lake Baikal, 126;
with Huns, 231, 232; classified, 237;
European influence, 296.
Tunisia, races described, 474-79.
Turanid, defined, 635.
Turkestan, Bronze Age in, 169; survival
of Iranian in, 198; Jews in, 438, 639-
41; racial study of, 634-38; racial
types, ill., Plate 3, figs. 4-6.
738
SUBJECT INDEX
Turkomans, origin, 239, 240; racial char-
acteristics, 255, 264, 268, 422-2%;
relation to Osmanli Turks, 622; in
Turkestan, 635; ill., Plate 17, fig. 5.
Turko-Tatars, compared with Bazaiha
woman, 126.
Turkey, language distribution, 561, map.
Turks, Bronze Age migrations, 135;
Altaian, mythology, 179; compared
with Scyths, 196-97; discussed, 227,
229-36; among Magyars, 234, 584,
585; mixture with Mongols, 235; lan-
guage, 236; distribution in Europe, 338,
map; racial origin, 237; Anatolian,
brachycephaly in, 261; head size, 266;
influence on Savoyedic, 306; study of as
Mediterraneans, 422-25; in Egypt, 459;
in European Russia, 576-84; Ottoman,
in Balkans, 589, 604, 612, 613; element
in Bulgars, 611, 612; Osmanli, 617-22;
in Turkestan, 634; ill., Plate 11, fig. 1;
Dinaric, ill, Plate 40, figs. 1-3.
Tyrker, identified, 317.
Tyrol, Bolognese type in, 559.
Tyrolese, racial characteristics, 552-53.
Tyrrhenian Sea, route of Copper Age
Binaries, 148.
Tziganes: see Gypsies.
Ugrians, Magyars as, 233; migrations,
234, 341; language, 236; stock, 339,
chart; mixture with Samoyeds, 307; in
Hungary, 584; in Bulgaria, 609; til.,
Plate 2, figs. 1-4. See also Finno-
Ugrians.
Ukraine, Neolithic remains in, 102, 103,
104; Bronze Age in, 168; Urnfields cul-
ture, 172; and Slavic origin, 216;
Slavic skulls described, 219-20; lan-
guage distribution, 561, map; Jews in,
642.
Ukrainians, racial characteristics, 254,
261, 568-71; in Poland, 563; ill.,
Plate 14, fig. 2; Danubian, ill., Plate 28,
fig. 3; Neo-Danubian, ill., Plate 31,
fig. 2.
Umbrians, language classified, 193;
origin, 554.
Umm Qatafa cranium, described, 138.
Unetifce culture: see Aunjetitz culture.
Upper Austria, racial characteristics,
551-52.
Ur, Neolithic in, 86, 88.
Ural-Altaic, as linguistic stock, 178.
Uralic language, speakers of, 223-40;
languages based on, 236; Samoyedic
as, 306; European distribution, 338,
map.
Uriankhai, identified, 306.
Urnfields culture, described, 171; relation
to Illyrians, 186; settlement in Italy,
193; as Nordic, 221; in Germany, 536.
Uruk culture, placed, 87.
Uzbegs, origin, 239; racial characteris-
tics, 635-36; ill, Plate 3, fig. 4.
Vandals, and Alans, 197; speech, 205;
conversion to Christianity, 214; origin,
327; in Spain, 490; migrations, 536.
Vandancourt crania, described, 116.
Vedda, survival of, 17.
Veddoids, study of racial characteristics,
266, 425-31; mixture with Arabian
Mediterraneans, 407; element in E.
Africa, 448, in Mediterranean races,
509; ill., Plate 19, figs. 4-6.
Vend6e crania, placed, 191.
Veneti, Illyrian speech, 181; origin, 182;
placed, 195.
Vepses, language distribution in Europe,
338; language stock, 389, chart; placed,
340; racial characteristics, 345.
Viking, survival in W. Norway, 316; de-
fined, 323.
Villafratti crania, described, 147.
Villanova people, speech, 181; settle-
ments placed, 193.
Vinzen crania, described, 213.
Visigoths, invasion of Spain, 205; crania,
206.
Vistulan race, in Deniker's system, 283.
Vlachs, racial characteristics, 272, 613-
17; element in Dalmatians, 591; in
Greece, 604. See also Rumanians.
Vodes, language classified, 338; placed,
340.
Vogelbergers, racial characteristics, 542-
43.
Voguls, compared with Finns, 125; classi-
fied, 223; migration, 224; origin, 234;
language distribution in Europe, 338,
map; language stock, 339, chart; relation
to Magyars, 341; racial characteristics,
350-51; ill., Plate 2, fig. 4. '
Volga Finns, language stock, 339, chart.
Volhynians, Neolithic remains, 104; ra-
cial characteristics, 569-71; ill., Plate
14, A- 2.
Volkerwanderung, effect of, 8; placed, 202;
Swedish origin, 327; Danish, 333; effect
on Denmark, 336, 337; described, 536-
37.
SUBJECT INDEX
739
Volosovo cranium, described, 126.
Votiaks, language distribution in Europe,
338, map; language stock, 339, chart;
Bolgars and, 341 ; racial characteristics,
347-48.
Wales, possible route of Scots Bell Beak-
ers, 160; P-Keltic in, 187. See also
British Isles, Welsh.
Wallachia, racial study of, 612-13.
Walloons, racial characteristics, 272, 523,
524, 525, 526-29; in Sweden, 328; ill.,
Plate 13, fig. 4. See also Belgium.
Walser, racial characteristics, 554.
Warka cranium, described, 86, 87
Watta, identified, 447.
Waziris, identified, 417.
Weight, body, in modern Europe, 255-56;
relation to head size, 264. See also Body
form.
Welsh, language, 387; racial character-
istics, 265, 269, 277, 384, 385, 387, 389,
391, 392, 393, 395, 396-98, 399; ///.,
Plate 25, fig. 3.
Wends, survival after Slavic invasion, 217;
described, 219; survival in Germany,
• 540; racial characteristics, 559, 562-63;
language distribution, 561, map,
West Frisians, described, 261, 531.
Whitechapel crania, described, 375.
White Russians, racial study of, 568-69;
Jews and, 642, 646; ill., Plate 6, fig. 4;
Neo-Danubian, ill., Plate 31, Jig. 1.
Wiltonians, described, 59.
Windmill Hill culture, described, 110;
fsurvival in Great Britain, 397.
Wdrms crania, described, 109, 156; com-
pared with British Bell Beaker, 159.
Wtirtemburg crania, described, 183-84,
Yemenis, agriculture, 78; placed, 402;
racial study of, 403-08; Veddoids
among, 425; ill., Plate^l6, figs. 1-3;
Dinaric, ill., Plate 43, fig* 2.
Yemenite Jews, racial characteristics,
439-41.
Yiddish, origin, 437.
Yomuds, racial characteristics, 422-24.
York, Roman burials, 194.
Yugoslavia, Copper Age in, 155; Keltic
in, 190; racial study of, 587-95; Os-
manli Turks in, 617.
Yuruks, agricultural habits, 618; racial
characteristics, 621.
Zadrima, classified, 595; distribution, 596,
map; racial characteristics, 597.
Zealand, brachycephaly in, 123.
Zemgali, speech, 360.
Zenata, origin, 463; invasion, 465, 466;
and Tuareg origins, 474; and origin of
Riffians, 480.
Zizernakaberd cranium, described, 102.
Zoned Beaker culture, origin of, 156; in
British Isles, 159, 371.
Zuid Beveland crania, described, 531-32.
Zyrians, language stock, 339, chart.
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